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CSCA Theory

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4 views5 pages

CSCA Theory

Uploaded by

Ana Marija Jurić
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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CSCA Theory

1. Definition and Importance: Computer architecture involves both the functional


specification and hardware implementation of computer systems. It defines processor-
level building blocks and their interconnections, as well as the programming model
and detailed implementation at the microprocessor level.
2. Evolution:
o Zeroth Generation (1642-1945): Mechanical computers like Pascal's
calculator and Babbage's Difference Engine.
o First Generation (1945-1955): Vacuum tubes and early electronic computers
like ENIAC.
o Second Generation (1955-1965): Transistors, magnetic core memory, and
high-level programming languages.
o Third Generation (1965-1980): Integrated circuits, structured programming,
and cache memory.
o Fourth Generation (1980-?): Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), single-
chip processors, and graphical user interfaces.
o Fifth Generation (Today): Ultra large-scale integration, advanced human-
computer interfaces, and integration of smart devices and the Internet of
Things.
o

3. Current Challenges and Opportunities:


o Challenges: Energy efficiency, design complexity, security and privacy,
memory bottlenecks, and technology scaling.
o Opportunities: AI and machine learning, green computing, quantum and
neuromorphic computing, and 3D chip stacking.
The document highlights the ongoing evolution and the significant impact of computer
architecture on technology and society.
1. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662): Known for the Pascaline device, an early mechanical
calculator.
2. Charles Babbage (1791-1871): Often referred to as the "Father of the Computer," he
designed the Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine.
3. Ada Lovelace (1815-1852): Recognized as the first programmer, she worked on
Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine.
4. G. M. Amdahl, G. H. Blaauw, and F. P. Brooks: Designers of the IBM System/360,
which significantly influenced computer architecture.
5. Eckert and Mauchly: Designers of the ENIAC, the first programmable all-electronic
computer.
These individuals have made significant contributions to the field of computer architecture
and computing in general.

Transistors
 Size: Small and compact.
 Power Consumption: Low power consumption, making them energy-efficient.
 Heat Generation: Generate less heat compared to vacuum tubes.
 Reliability: Highly reliable with a longer lifespan.
 Efficiency: More efficient, suitable for battery-powered devices.
 Applications: Widely used in modern electronic devices like computers, smartphones,
and televisions.
 Cost: Generally lower cost and can be mass-produced on a single chip.

Vacuum Tubes
 Size: Large and bulky.
 Power Consumption: High power consumption, requiring heater supply.
 Heat Generation: Generate a significant amount of heat.
 Reliability: Less reliable, prone to failure due to fragile glass construction.
 Efficiency: Less efficient, requiring additional cooling mechanisms.
 Applications: Used in early electronic devices and high-power applications.
 Cost: Higher cost compared to transistors.
In summary, transistors are smaller, more efficient, and more reliable than vacuum tubes,
making them the preferred choice for modern electronics
Moore's Law is a prediction made by Gordon E. Moore, co-founder of Intel, in 1965. He
observed that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit doubles approximately every
two years, leading to exponential growth in computing power and efficiency. This trend has
driven significant advancements in technology, including increases in processing speed,
memory capacity, and overall performance of electronic devices1.
However, as we approach the physical limits of silicon-based technology, maintaining this
exponential growth has become increasingly challenging. Issues such as power consumption,
heat dissipation, and the complexity of manufacturing smaller transistors are some of the
hurdles faced by the industry.
Despite these challenges, Moore's Law has been a guiding principle for the semiconductor
industry, pushing the boundaries of what is possible in computing technology

9's Complement
1. Definition: The 9's complement of a decimal number is found by subtracting each
digit from 9.
2. Steps:

o Write down the number.

o Subtract each digit from 9.

o The result is the 9's complement of the original number.

10's Complement
1. Definition: The 10's complement of a decimal number is found by adding 1 to the 9's
complement of the number.
2. Steps:

o Find the 9's complement of the number.

o Add 1 to the result.

o The result is the 10's complement of the original number.

1's Complement
1. Definition: The 1's complement of a binary number is found by inverting all the bits
(changing 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s).
2. Steps:

o Write down the binary number.

o Invert each bit (0 becomes 1, and 1 becomes 0).

o The result is the 1's complement of the original number.

2's Complement
1. Definition: The 2's complement of a binary number is found by adding 1 to the 1's
complement of the number.
2. Steps:

o Find the 1's complement of the binary number.

o Add 1 to the result.

o The result is the 2's complement of the original number.

Truth tables for basic logic gates:


Associative Laws
1. Associative Law of Addition:

o (A+B)+C=A+(B+C)(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

o This law states that the grouping of variables does not affect the result of the
OR operation.
2. Associative Law of Multiplication:

o (A⋅B)⋅C=A⋅(B⋅C)(A \cdot B) \cdot C = A \cdot (B \cdot C)

o This law states that the grouping of variables does not affect the result of the
AND operation.

Distributive Laws
1. Distributive Law of Multiplication over Addition:

o A⋅(B+C)=(A⋅B)+(A⋅C)A \cdot (B + C) = (A \cdot B) + (A \cdot C)

o This law states that AND distributes over OR.

2. Distributive Law of Addition over Multiplication:

o A+(B⋅C)=(A+B)⋅(A+C)A + (B \cdot C) = (A + B) \cdot (A + C)

o This law states that OR distributes over AND.

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