Planning Graphs in Arti cial Intelligence (AI) A planning graph is a helpful tool used in AI for solving planning problems,

especially in classical planning. It represents the

problem's state space in a layered and organized way, making it easier and faster to nd solutions. Planning graphs are a key part of the GraphPlan algorithm, a popular
method for generating plans.

Structure of a Planning Graph

A planning graph alternates between two types of layers:

1. State Levels:

◦ Show all possible facts or conditions (called literals) that can be true at a given point in time.
◦ Represents the state of the world at that point.
2. Action Levels:

◦ Contain all actions that can be performed based on the previous state level.
◦ An action is included if its preconditions (requirements) are met by the previous state.
3. Mutex Relationships (Mutual Exclusion):

◦ Indicate con icts between actions or states that cannot happen together.
◦ For example, two actions are mutex if one undoes the effect of the other.

How a Planning Graph Grows

A planning graph starts with the initial state and expands over time. The process involves the following steps:

1. Expand Actions: Add all actions whose preconditions are satis ed in the current state level.
2. Generate New State Level: Add the effects of those actions to form a new state level.
3. Repeat: Keep adding layers of actions and states until one of these happens:
◦ The goal conditions appear in a state level without any con icts (mutexes).
◦ The graph stops changing (levels off).

Key Features of Planning Graphs

1. Compact Representation:

◦ Instead of exploring the entire state space, planning graphs focus only on relevant actions and states, saving time and space.
2. Mutex Constraints:

◦ Help identify impossible plans early by marking actions or states that cannot coexist.
3. Ef cient Construction:

◦ The graph can be built in polynomial time, making it faster than exhaustive search methods.

Applications of Planning Graphs

1. GraphPlan Algorithm:

◦ Builds the planning graph.

◦ Searches backward from the goal to create a valid action plan.
2. Heuristic Search:

◦ Planning graphs can provide relaxed planning heuristics, which estimate how far the goal is without considering mutexes. This is useful for guiding
search algorithms.
3. Feasibility Analysis:

◦ A planning graph can reveal if a problem is unsolvable by showing that the goal cannot be reached.

Example Work ow

Here’s how planning graphs are used step-by-step:

1. Input: Start with the initial state, a set of actions, and a goal.
2. Construct the Planning Graph:
◦ Begin with the initial state as the rst state level.
◦ Add actions and effects to build new levels iteratively.
3. Search for a Plan:
◦ Check if the goal conditions are satis ed in a state level without con icts.
◦ Work backward to extract the sequence of actions leading to the goal.
4. Output:
◦ The sequence of actions (a plan) that achieves the goal.
◦ If no valid plan exists, report failure.
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 Classical Planning in Arti cial Intelligence (AI)

Classical planning is a fundamental area in Arti cial Intelligence (AI) that focuses on generating a sequence of actions to achieve a speci c
goal. It operates in a well-de ned environment and uses logical reasoning to create a plan. Classical planning is widely used in automated
decision-making systems, robotics, and problem-solving tasks.

Key Features of Classical Planning

1. Fully Observable:

◦ The entire state of the environment is known at all times. There is no uncertainty about the current situation.
2. Deterministic Actions:

◦ Each action has a well-de ned effect. Performing an action always leads to a predictable outcome.
3. Static Environment:

◦ The world does not change unless an action is performed. There are no external factors or unpredictable events.
4. Discrete States and Actions:

◦ The environment can be described as a nite set of states, and actions are distinct steps that change these states.
5. Single-Agent:

◦ Classical planning typically assumes only one agent is working to achieve the goal, without interference from others.

Components of Classical Planning

1. Initial State:

◦ Describes the starting condition of the environment.

◦ Example: A robot starts at location A.
2. Goal State:

◦ Speci es the desired outcome or condition that must be achieved.

◦ Example: The robot needs to reach location B.
3. Actions:

◦ De ne what the agent can do to move from one state to another.

◦ Each action has:
▪ Preconditions: Conditions that must be true for the action to be performed.
▪ Effects: Changes that occur in the state after the action is executed.
4. State Space:

◦ A representation of all possible states that can result from applying actions.
5. Plan:

◦ A sequence of actions that transitions the system from the initial state to the goal state.

Process of Classical Planning

1. De ne the Problem:

◦ Identify the initial state, goal state, and available actions.

2. Search for a Plan:

◦ Explore the state space using a search algorithm to nd a sequence of actions that leads to the goal.
◦ Common methods include:
▪ Forward Search: Start from the initial state and move towards the goal.
▪ Backward Search: Start from the goal and work backward to the initial state.
▪ Graph-Based Planning: Use structures like planning graphs to identify feasible plans.
3. Execute the Plan: Carry out the sequence of actions to achieve the goal.
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 Multi-Agent Planning in Arti cial Intelligence (AI)

Multi-Agent Planning (MAP) is a branch of Arti cial Intelligence that focuses on creating plans for multiple agents working together (or sometimes against
each other) to achieve individual or shared goals. Unlike classical planning, which deals with a single agent, MAP accounts for interactions, dependencies, and
potential con icts between agents.

Key Features of Multi-Agent Planning

1. Multiple Agents:

◦ There are two or more agents, each capable of performing actions.

◦ Agents may have shared goals, individual goals, or con icting objectives.
2. Coordination:

◦ Agents must coordinate their actions to avoid con icts and ensure ef cient progress toward their goals.
3. Distributed Control:

◦ Unlike centralized planning, decisions may be distributed among agents, requiring communication and negotiation.
4. Dynamic Environment:

◦ The actions of one agent can change the environment, affecting other agents' plans.
5. Interaction Types:

◦ Cooperative: Agents work together to achieve a shared goal.

◦ Competitive: Agents work against each other to maximize their individual bene ts.
◦ Mixed: A combination of cooperation and competition.

Components of Multi-Agent Planning

1. Agents:

◦ Autonomous entities capable of taking actions, observing the environment, and making decisions.
2. Goals:

◦ May be shared among agents or speci c to individual agents.

3. Actions:

◦ Each agent has a set of actions it can perform, with associated preconditions and effects.
4. State Space:

◦ Represents all possible states of the environment, considering the actions of all agents.
5. Communication:

◦ Agents may exchange information to coordinate or negotiate their plans.

6. Plan:

◦ A sequence of actions for all agents that achieves the desired outcomes.

Challenges in Multi-Agent Planning

1. Coordination and Cooperation:

◦ Agents must synchronize their actions to avoid con icts or inef ciencies.
2. Con ict Resolution:

◦ Con icts arise when agents' actions interfere with each other. Resolving these con icts is critical for successful planning.
3. Scalability:

◦ The complexity of the planning problem grows exponentially with the number of agents.
4. Communication Overhead:

◦ Frequent communication between agents can slow down the planning process.
5. Uncertainty:

◦ Agents may have incomplete or uncertain knowledge about the environment or other agents' actions.
6. Diverse Objectives: Handling scenarios where agents have different or opposing goals.
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