CP1 REVISION LECTURE 3

INTRODUCTION TO
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Prof. N. Harnew
University of Oxford
TT 2017

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 OUTLINE : CP1 REVISION LECTURE 3 :
INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL MECHANICS

1. Angular velocity and angular acceleration

2. The Moment of Inertia

2.1 Example : MoI of a thin rectangular plate
2.2 Parallel axis theorem
2.3 Perpendicular axis theorem

3. Lagrangian Mechanics
3.1 The Lagrangian in various coordinate systems
3.2 Example : bead on rotating hoop

4. The Hamiltonian
4.1 Example: re-visit bead on rotating hoop

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 1. Angular velocity and angular acceleration
I Definition of angular velocity for
rotation in a circle
ṙ = ω × r
I Angular acceleration:
α = ω̇

I Definition of the Moment of Inertia of the system I of

particles or body rotating about a common axis of
symmetry (cf. p = mv for a linear system)
where I = i mi ri2
P
J = Iω
I Torque associated with the rotation
d
τ= dt J = Iα

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 2. The Moment of Inertia
Calculation of moment of inertia of rigid body

A rigid body may be considered as a collection of infinitesimal

point particles whose relative distance does not change during
motion. R
I Mass = dm, where dm = ρdV
and ρ is the volume density
P 
N 2 → V d 2 ρ dV
R
I I= i m d
i i

where d is the perpendicular

distance to the axis of rotation.

I This integral gives the moment of

inertia about the axis of rotation.

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 Rotation about a principal axis
I In general J = e
I ω , where e
I is the Moment of Inertia Tensor
    
Jx Ixx Ixy Ixz ωx
 Jy  =  Iyx Iyy Iyz   ωy 
Jz Izx Izy Izz ωz

I Whenever possible, one aligns the axes of the coordinate

system in such a way that the mass of the body evenly

distributes
 
around theaxes:

we

choose axes of symmetry.
Jx Ix 0 0 ωx
 Jy  =  0 Iy 0   ωy 
Jz 0 0 Iz ωz

The diagonal terms are called the principal

axes of the moment of inertia.
I Whenever we rotate about an axis of
symmetry, for every point A there is a point
B which cancels it, and
J → Jz ẑ = Iz ωz ẑ
and where J is parallel to ω along the z axis
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 Moment of inertia & energy of rotation
Particles rotating in circular motion about a common axis of
rotation with angular velocity ω (where vi = ω × ri ).
I Kinetic energy of mass mi :
Ti = 21 mi vi2
1
mi vi2
P

I Total KE = 2 i
I vi = ω × ri
vi = ω ri sin φi
di
sin φi = r
i P 
1 N
I Trot = 2 i mi di2 ω 2

Trot = 12 I ω 2
where I is calculated about the
axis of rotation
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 2.1 Example : MoI of a thin rectangular plate

About the x axis

R
I Ix = y 2 dm
M
dm = ρ dx dy ; ρ = ab
R 2
I I =
x y ρ dx dy
h 3 i+ b2
+a
= ρ y3 b [x]− a2
− 2
h 3 2 3i
b b
= ρ a 24 + 24
h 2i
b
= ρa b 12

Hence M b2
I Ix = 12

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 2.2 Parallel axis theorem
ICM is the moment of inertia of body mass M about an axis
passing through its centre of mass. I is the moment of inertia
about a parallel axis a distance d from the first.
R 2
I I
CM = r dm
I r0 = d + r
I r0 2 = d2 + 2 d · r + r2
I About
R the parallel axis :
0
I = r dm2
Z
= d dm + 2 d · r dm + r 2 dm
R 2 R

| {z }
=0
(definition of CM)
I Hence I = ICM + Md 2
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 2.3 Perpendicular axis theorem
Consider a rigid object that lies entirely within a plane. The
perpendicular axis theorem links Iz (MoI about an axis
perpendicular to the plane) with Ix , Iy (MoI about two
perpendicular axes lying within the plane).

I Consider perpendicular axes

x , y , z (which meet at origin O) ;
the body lies in the xy plane
Iz = d 2 dm
R
I
R 2
x + y 2 dm


=
= x 2 dm + y 2 dm
R R

→ Iz = Ix + Iy
This is the perpendicular axis
theorem.
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 Example : compound pendulum
Rectangular rod length a width b mass m swinging about axis
O, distance ` from the CM, in plane of paper
mb2 2
I Ix = 12 , Iy = m ma
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I Perpendicular axis theorem :
2 2
Iz ≡ ICM = m ( a 12
+b
)
I Parallel axis theorem :
I = ICM + m`2
I Torque about O = r × F :
τ = −m g ` sin θ k̂
I J = I ω = I θ̇ k̂
I Differentiate wrt t : τ = I θ̈ k̂
I Equate I θ̈ = −m g ` sin θ
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 Compound pendulum continued
I I θ̈ = −m g ` sin θ
2 2
where I = m ( a 12
+b
) + m `2
mg`
I Small angle approximation : θ̈ + I θ =0
q
I
I SHM with period T = 2π mg`
q
2 2 +12`2
→ T = 2π a +b12g`

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 Example : solid ball rolling down slope
[Energy of ball] = [Rotational KE in CM] + [KE of CM] + [PE]

E = 12 Iω 2 + 12 Mv 2 + Mgy
I Ball falls a distance h from
rest → at y = 0 :
M g h = 12 Iω 2 + 12 Mv 2

2
= 12 I Rv + 21 Mv 2
I Solid sphere: I = 25 M R 2
Mgh = 12 Mv 2 25 + 1


I
q
→ v = 10 7 gh
q
1 4
Compare with a solid cylinder I = 2M R2 → v= 3 gh
The ball gets to the bottom faster !
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 Example : A rod receives an impulse
A rectangular rod receives an impulse from a force distance x from its
centre of mass. Describe the subsequent motion.

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 A rod receives an impulse, continued

I Impulse (∆p = F ∆t) at point x from its

centre of mass
I Force applied to the CM : F = ma
I Moment of inertia wrt CM :
1
ICM = 12 Mb2
I Torque (couple) about O = ICM θ̈
Mb2 F
I Hence ICM θ̈ = 12 θ̈ =x× 2 × 2
12Fx
Rotational motion → θ̈ = Mb2
I Acceleration at A due to rotation
arot = − b2 θ̈
I Acceleration at A due to translation
F
atrans = m

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 3 . Lagrangian Mechanics
The Lagrangian : L = T − U
I In 1D : Kinetic energy T = 12 mẋ 2 No dependence on x
Potential energy U = U(x) No dependence on ẋ
I The Lagrangian in 1D : L = 12 mẋ 2 − U(x)
∂L ∂L
I = mẋ and = − ∂U gives force F
∂x
∂ ẋ  ∂x
d ∂L
I Differential wrt t : dt ∂ ẋ
= mẍ
I Hence we get
 the Euler - Lagrange equation for x :
d ∂L ∂L
dt ∂ ẋ = ∂x
I Now generalize : the Lagrangian becomes a function of 2n
variables (n is the dimension of the configuration space).
Variables are the positions and velocities
L(q1 , · · · , qn , q̇1 , · · · , q̇n )
 
d ∂L ∂L
dt ∂ q̇k
= ∂qk
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 Definitions
I Generalised coordinates : A set of parameters qk (t) that
specifies the system configuration. qk may be a
geometrical parameter, x, y, z, a set of angles · · · etc
I Degrees of Freedom : The number of independent
coordinates that is sufficient to describe the configuration
of the system uniquely.
I Constraints : These are imposed when its components are
not permitted to move freely in 3-D.
∂L
I Conjugate (generalized) momentum : pk = ∂ q̇k
∂L
Following on : E-L equation then reads ṗk = ∂qk
I Cyclic (or ignorable) coordinate qk : If the Lagrangian L
does not explicitly depend on qk − then in this case
∂L ∂L
∂qk = 0 and pk = ∂ q̇k
= constant
The momentum conjugate to a cyclic coordinate is
a constant of motion
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 Example : simple pendulum

Evaluate simple pendulum using Euler-Lagrange equation

I Single variable qk → θ
I v = ` θ̇
I T = 12 m`2 θ̇2
I U = −mg` cos θ
I L = 21 m`2 θ̇2 + mg` cos θ
 
∂L
m` 2 θ̇ → d ∂L 2
= dt ∂ θ̇ = m` θ̈
I
∂ θ̇
∂L
I
∂θ = −mg` sin θ
I E-L → m`2 θ̈ + mg` sin θ = 0
g
θ̈ + ` sin θ = 0

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 Pendulum on a trolley
I Pendulum’s pivot can now
move freely in x direction
I Pivot coordinates : (x, 0)
I Pendulum coordinates :
(x + ` sin θ, −` cos θ)
 2
1
T = m ẋ 2
2 1
+ 21 m2 d
dt
(x + ` sin θ) +
 2
+ 12 m2 d
dt
(−` cos θ)

U = −m2 g` cos θ
1
L= 2
(m1 + m2 )ẋ 2 + 21 m2 `2 θ̇2 +

+ m2 `ẋ cos θθ̇ + m2 g` cos θ

 
d ∂L ∂L
I
dt ∂ θ̇
= ∂θ → ẍ cos θ + θ̈` + g sin θ = 0
 
d ∂L ∂L
I
dt ∂ ẋ
= ∂x → ẍ(m1 + m2 ) − m2 `θ̇2 sin θ + θ̈m2 ` cos θ = 0
(m1 +m2 ) g
I Small angle approx and solve → θ̈ + m1 `θ =0
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 3.1 The Lagrangian in various coordinate systems

I Cartesian coordinates
L = 12 m(ẋ 2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 ) − U(x, y , z)

I Cylindrical coordinates
L = 21 m(ṙ 2 + r 2 φ̇2 + ż 2 ) − U(r , φ, z)

I Spherical coordinates
L = 12 m(ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 + (r sin θ)2 φ̇2 ) − U(r , θ, φ)

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 3.2 Example : bead on rotating hoop

A vertical circular hoop of radius R rotates about a vertical axis at a

constant angular velocity ω. A bead of mass m can slide on the hoop
without friction. Describe the motion of the bead.

I Use spherical coordinates :

 
T = 12 m Ṙ 2 + R 2 θ̇2 + (R sin θ)2 φ̇2
I But Ṙ = 0 , φ̇ = ω = constant
T = 12 m(R 2 θ̇2 + (R sin θ)2 ω 2 )
I U = −mgR cos θ
I L=T −U
L = 12 m(R 2 θ̇2 + (R sin θ)2 ω 2 ) + mgR cos θ
One single generalized coordinate : θ

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 Bead on rotating hoop, continued

L = 12 m(R 2 θ̇2 + R 2 sin2 θ ω 2 ) + mgR cos θ

 
d ∂L
I E-L equation: dt ∂ θ̇
= ∂L
∂θ
   
d ∂L d 2 2
dt ∂ θ̇ = dt m R θ̇ = m R θ̈
I

∂L
∂θ = m R 2 sin θ cos θ ω 2 − mgR sin θ
→ θ̈ = sin θ cos θ ω 2 − Rg sin θ
→ θ̈ + ω02 − ω 2 cos θ sin θ = 0


g
where ω02 = R

I If ω = 0, θ̈ + ω02 sin θ = 0 → SHM, back to pendulum formula

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 4. The Hamiltonian

I Conjugate momentum : pk = ∂∂L

q̇k
, from E-L ṗk = ∂L
∂qk
P
I Define Hamiltonian H = k pk q̇k − L
dH
I Can show (see HT lectures) dt = − ∂L
∂t
I If L does not depend explicitly on time, H is a constant of motion
Take kinetic energy T = 21 m ẋ 2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2


I

L = 12 m ẋ 2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 − U(x, y, z)


I

P
I H = k pk q̇k − L = m (ẋ.ẋ + ẏ.ẏ + ż.ż) − (T − U)
= 2T − (T − U) = T + U = E → total energy
dH
I If L does not depend explicitly on time dt =0
→ energy is a constant of the motion
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 4.1 Example: re-visit bead on rotating hoop
First take the case of a free (undriven) system

I L = 12 m (R 2 θ̇2 + R 2 sin2 θ φ̇2 ) + mgR cos θ

P ∂L
I H= k pk q̇k − L ; pk = ∂ q̇k
I pθ = ∂L
∂ θ̇
= m R 2 θ̇ ; pφ = mR 2 sin2 θ φ̇
I H = m R 2 θ̇2 + mR 2 sin2 θ φ̇2 − L
 
= 12 m R 2 θ̇2 + R 2 sin2 θ φ̇2 −mgR cos θ
→ H =T +U =E
L does not depend explicitly on t ,
H, E conserved → Hamiltonian gives the total energy
∂L
I Note: ∂ φ̇
= m(R sin θ)2 θ̇ : which is angular momentum
∂L
about O. φ is CYCLIC → ∂φ = 0 → A.M conserved.
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 Example continued
The system is now DRIVEN - hoop
rotating at constant angular speed ω

I L = 12 m (R 2 θ̇2 + R 2 ω 2 sin2 θ) + mgR cos θ

P ∂L
I H= k pk q̇k − L ; pk = ∂ q̇k
∂L
I pθ = ∂ θ̇
= m R 2 θ̇ ; a single coordinate θ
I H = m R 2 θ̇2 − L (Note pφ = ∂∂Lφ̇ = 0)
 
= 21 m R 2 θ̇2 − R 2 ω 2 sin2 θ −mgR cos θ
I dH = − ∂L
dt ∂t
1 2 2
I E= 2 m (R θ̇2 + R 2 ω 2 sin θ) − mgR cos θ IH is a constant
Hence E = H + m(R 2 ω 2 sin2 θ) of the motion,
E is not const.
→ E = T + U 6= H
In this case the hoop has been forced to rotate at an angular
velocity ω. External energy is being supplied to the system.
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