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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background
A matrix is a mathematical representation of a number, symbol, or expression
in the form of a square or rectangle arranged in rows and columns. Matrices are often
used to facilitate the solution of various problems in science, technology, and
everyday life. The use of matrices extends to various fields, such as physics,
economics, computers, and statistics, so understanding the concept, types, and
operations of matrices is very relevant for students.
However, the complexity and abstract nature of matrices often pose a
challenge in learning. Many students have difficulty understanding the basic concepts,
notations, operations, and applications of matrices in various contexts. This requires
an effective learning approach so that students can understand and master the matrix
material well. Therefore, the discussion in this document includes the definition,
types, operations, and applications of matrices to provide students with a
comprehensive understanding.
In addition, this paper also discusses various difficulties students face in
learning matrices, such as difficulties in understanding concepts, implementing
operations, and identifying the use of matrices in problem solving. The proposed
strategy to overcome these difficulties involves an innovative learning approach and
the development of relevant teaching materials. With this approach, it is hoped that
students can more easily understand the material and apply matrix knowledge
effectively.

B. Formulation of the problem

Based on the background described above, the problems that will be studied in
this paper are as follows:
1. What is meant by matrix notation and order?
2. What are the types of matrices?
3. What is meant by matrix transpose and similarity of two matrices?
4. How to operate on matrices and their properties
5. What is meant by matrix determinant?
6. What is meant by inverse matrix?
7. What are some examples of matrix applications?
8. What is the difficulty?students on matrix material and how to overcome it

C. Objective
The objectives to be achieved in this paper are as follows:
1. To know the notation and order of matrices
2. To know the types of matrices
3. To find out the transpose of a matrix and the similarity of two matrices
4. To learn about operations on matrices and their properties
5. To find out the determinant of a matrix
6. To find the inverse of a matrix
7. To find out examples of matrix applications
8. To find out students' difficulties with matrix material and
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

A. Understanding Matrix Notation and Order.

A matrix is a collection of numbers, symbols, or expressions, in the form of a
square or rectangle arranged in rows and columns. The writing of matrix symbols
(notation) uses capital letters. The arrangement of numbers horizontally in a matrix is
called a row, while the arrangement of numbers vertically in a matrix is called a
column. In general, a matrix is written as:

[ ]
a11 … a1 n
A m × n= … … …
am 1 … a mn

Note that the elements in matrix A have double indexes, for example it shows

index, that means matrix A in the th row a 11 , amn𝑚and the column to-𝑛. For more
matrix A in the 1st row and 1st column. Likewise, the element of matrix A has an

details, consider the following general form of the matrix:

[ ]
a11 a1 j … a1 n
a21 a2 j … a2 n
Amn =[ aij ] m ×n
a i1 a ij … a¿
a m 1 a mj … amn

m = row
n = column
i =1 , 2, … , m
j =1 , 2, … , i

Matrix orderis the number of rows and columns that determine the size of the matrix.
Example :

[ ]
2 3 1
A=
[ 2 1 0
4 −2 7 ] B= −8 3 0
9 1 2
 Column element/entry Line

Matrix element A in the 2nd row, 3rd column = a 23=7

Matrix element B in the 3rd row, 2nd column =a 32=1

B. Types of Matrix
1. Types of matrices based on the number of orders:
a. Row Matrix
A matrix that has only one row is called a row matrix.
Example :
P12=[ 2 6 ] Q13=[ 3 2 4 ]
b. Column Matrix

A matrix that has only one column is called a column matrix.

Example :

[]
4
R21=
[]
1
3
S31= 5
2
c. Rectangular Matrix
Rectangular matrices are divided into 2, namely vertical matrices and flat
matrices.
(1) Vertical Matrix
Vertical matrixnamely a matrix that has an order of (a matrix with a
greater number of rows than columns).m ×n m>n
Example :

[ ]
1 2
H 3 ×2 = 6 8
7 3

The H matrix has an order of three rows and two columns, so the H
matrix looks upright.3 ×2

(2) Flat Matrix

In contrast to vertical matrices, flat matrices have an order of (matrices
with fewer rows than columns).m ×n m<n
Example :

[
Q2 ×3 =
7 3 4
2 9 1 ]
matrix2 ×3𝑄is a flat matrix.
Matrix𝑄ordered, namely having two rows and three columns, so that the

d. Square Matrix
 Square matrixnamely a matrix that has the same number of rows and
columns. For example, the order matrix , the order matrix , and so on.
2 ×23 ×3
A square matrix has a main diagonal and a secondary diagonal. The result of
the summation on the main diagonal is called Trace. For more details, see the
following example.
Example :
Order matrix2 x 2

A 2 × 2=
[ 21 35 ]
Secondary Diagonal Primary Diagonal

3x3 order matrix

[ ]
1 8 5
B3 ×3= 3 7 9
2 3 6

Secondary Diagonal Primary Diagonal

In the example of matrix A, the main diagonals are 2 and 5, namely the
elements located from the top left to the bottom right. Conversely, the
secondary diagonals are the elements located from the top right to the bottom
left, namely 3 and 1. Likewise with matrix B which has the order , the main
diagonals of matrix B are 1, 7, and 6. While the secondary diagonals are 5, 7,
and 2.3 ×3
2. Types of matrices based on the pattern of their constituent elements
a. Zero Matrix (0)
A matrix whose elements are all zero (0) is called a zero matrix.
Example :

[ ]
0 0
O3 ×2= 0 0
0 0

b. Diagonal Matrix (D)

Diagonal matrixis a square matrix in which not all elements located on the
main diagonal are zero, the other elements are zero.
Example :

[ ] [ ]
2 0 0 7 0 0
D= 0 4 0 D= 0 0 0
0 0 8 0 0 0
c. Identity Matrix (I)
Identity matrixis a square matrix in which all elements on the main diagonal
have a value of one, the other elements have a value of zero.
Example :

[ ]
1 0 0
I=
[ ]
1 0
0 1
B3 ×3= 0 1 0
0 0 1

d. Triangular Matrix
A triangular matrix is a square matrix with elements below or above the main
diagonal all being zero.
Triangular matrices are divided into two, namely:
(1) Upper Triangular Matrix (U)
An upper triangular matrix is a matrix in which the elements below the
main diagonal are zero.
Example :

[ ]
4 7 2
U= 0 1 8
0 0 5

(2) Lower Triangular Matrix (L)

A lower triangular matrix is a matrix in which the elements above the
main diagonal are zero.
Example :

[ ]
4 0 0
L= 2 1 0
3 5 5

Example :
Look at the following table.

Name Mark
Studen Mathematics Language Languag Biology
t English e
Indonesia
Adi 80 80 75 75
Arsel 75 75 80 80
Excel 75 80 80 85
Daffy 80 75 75 85
Amesha 70 80 75 80

a) Create a matrix from the data.

 b) Determine the number of orders of the matrix.
c) Based on the number of orders, what type of matrix does the matrix you
have created belong to?
d) Determine the valuea 21 , a13 , dan a34 .

Solution:
a) From the data provided by the table, we can form a matrix, namely:

[ ]
80 80 75 75
75 75 80 80
A5 × 4= 75 80 80 85
80 75 75 85
70 80 75 80
b) Matrix A has 5 rows and 4 columns, this means that matrix A has order .
5×4
c) Based on the number of orders, matrix A is included in the rectangular
matrix type (vertical matrix)
d) a 21is an element that is in the 2nd row and 1st column = 75
a 13is the element that is in the 1st row and 3rd column = 75
a 34is the element that is in the 3rd row and 4th column = 85

C. Matrix Transpose and Similarity of Two Matrices

1. Matrix Transpose
The transpose of a matrix can be obtained by swapping the rows and columns of a
matrix, namely by changing the rows of the matrix into columns, and the columns
of the matrix into rows. For example, given the matrix , then the transpose of the
matrix B is denoted by . B BT
Example :

[ ]
5 6
B2 ×3=
[
5 3 2
6 2 4 ]
T
, so B = 3 2
2 4

The transpose of a matrix that has an order is a matrix that also has an order.
Suppose matrix B has a transpose of matrix . If , then matrix B is called a
symmetric matrix.n × n n× n B T B=B T

2. Matrix Similarity
Two or more matrices are said to be the same if they have the same order and the
elements located there are also of the same value.

Suppose the matrix is known as follows.

 [ ] [ ] [ ]
3
1 8 1 2 1 3
A= , B= ,C=
6 −1 3 ×2 −1 2 1

Pay attention to the matrix𝐴and matrix𝐵. If the elements contained in the

matrix𝐵we operate it then we will get a matrix𝐵which has the same value
elements as the matrix𝐴.
So that : A=B , A ≠ C , dan B ≠ C .

Problems example
1. Determine the transpose of the following matrix.
A=
[
5 4 4
6 2 7 ]
Solution:

[ ]
5 6
A= [ 5 4
6 2
4
7] T
→A = 4
4
2
4

(rows become columns, and columns become rows)

2. There are two matrices as follows.

[ ] [ ]
17 3 c 12
17 21 12
18
A= 15 b 3 14 And B= 15 64
a
20 25 16
20 15 16
If matrices A and B are the same, determine the value𝑎,𝑏,𝑑𝑎𝑛 𝑐.
Solution:
Matrix A and B are the same matrix, therefore all elements that are located
(on the same row and column) have the same value. So we get:

Determining the value of a

28
=14
a
28=14 a
28
=a
14
a=2

Determining the value of b

3
b =64
√3 64
b=4
 Determining the value of c
3 c=21
21
c=
3
c=7

D. Operations on Matrices and Their Properties

1. Matrix addition
Matrix addition can only be done if both have the same order. Matrix addition can
be done by adding the elements that are located next to each other.
Example :

Given a matrix A= [ 42 −13 ]and Determine A=[ 23 87] . A +B !

Solution:

It is known and A= [ 42 −13 ] A=[23 87]

A+ B=
[ 42 −13 ]+[ 23 78]
¿
[ 4+2
2+3 −1+7 ]
3+8

A+ B=
[ 65 116 ]
Properties of matrix addition:
a. Commutative property: A+ B=B+ A
b. Associative Properties: A+(B +C)=(A + B)+C
c. There is an identity element for matrix addition, namely the matrix𝑂(a
matrix whose elements are all zero) such that if a matrix (for example a

matrix𝐴itself. So it applies: A+O=O+ A=¿ 𝐴

matrix𝐴) added to the matrix𝑂, then the result is the same as the

d. For each matrix𝐴there is a matrix opponent𝐴namely the matrix –𝐴(a

matrix whose elements all have the same value as the matrix𝐴but have
different signs/negative values) so if a matrix𝐴added to the matrix −𝐴, then
the result is a matrix𝑂(a matrix whose elements are all zero). So it
applies:𝐴+ (−𝐴) = (−𝐴) +𝐴=𝑂. Matrix –𝐴also often referred to as the
additive inverse or additive inverse of a matrix𝐴.
Example :
 [ ]
3 −2 4
If A= 7 3 −6 ,then the additive inverse of matrix A is because .
−4 5 −2

[ ]
−3 2 −4
− A= −7 −3 6 A +(− A)=(− A)+ A=0
4 −5 2
e. The transpose of the sum of two matrices is equal to the sum of the transposes
of the two matrices, namely( A+ B )T = AT + BT .
Example :

Matrix A= [
6 11
5 6 ]
and the matrix . Prove that B= [ ]
2 1
5 4
( A+ B )T = AT + BT .

([ ] [ ]) =[ 116 56 ]+[21 54 ]
T
6 11 2 1
+
5 6 5 4

[( 6+2
5+5 6 +4 ) ] [ 11+1 6 +4 ]
T
11+1 6+2 5+5
=

[ 108 1210] =[ 128 1110]

T

[ 128 1110]=[ 128 1011 ]

2. Matrix Subtraction
As with addition, two or more matrices can be subtracted if and only if they have
the same order. Subtraction can be done by subtracting the elements that are
located.

Example: Given a matrix𝐴= and matrix . Determine [ ] [

8 4
3 1
B=
−6 5
−9 6 ] A−B !

Solution:

[ ] [
It is known𝐴= and
8 4
3 1
B=
−6 5
−9 6 ]
A−B=
[83 41 ]−[−6
−9 6 ]
5

[
¿ 8−(−6) 4−5
3−(−9) 1−6 ]
¿
[1412 −1
−5 ]
3. Scalar Multiplication by Matrix Scalar multiplication by matrix is the
multiplication of a number by a matrix. Scalar numbers are usually denoted by the

elements . For the matrixk a ij𝐴And𝐵which have the same order, and and are
letter𝑘. The result of multiplying a matrix by a scalar number is a matrix with

members of the real numbers, then the following properties apply:k 1 k 2

a. Distributive properties:(k 1+ k 2) A=k 1 A +k 2 A
b. Distributive properties:k 1 ( A+ B )=k 1 A+ k 1 B
 c. Associative properties:k 1 ( k 2 A ) =k 1 k 2 A

Example :

[ ]
−5 6
If specified! A= 4 −2 3 A
4 7

Solution:

[ ]
−5 6
3 A=3 4 −2
4 7

[ ]
3 (−5) 3(6)
¿ 3( 4) 3(−2)
3( 4) 3(7)

[ ]
−15 18
¿ 12 −6
12 21

4. Multiplication of Two Matrices Two matrices can be multiplied if and only if the
number of columns in the first matrix is equal to the number of rows in the second
matrix. Suppose the given matrices and matrices . Matrix multiplication Amxn Bnxp
𝐴And𝐵will produce a new matrix of order𝑚×𝑝. So it is written

Amxp × B nxp=( AB )mxp

Example :

[ ]
3 4
If the matrix and . Determine ! A= 2 0 B=
1 2
1 3 −2
4 2 5
A×B [ ]
[ ][
3 4
A × B= 2 0 ×
1 2
1 3 −2
4 2 5 ]
[ ]
3 ( 1 ) + 4(4) 3 ( 3 ) + 4(2) 3 ( 2 )+ 4 (5)
¿ 2 ( 1 ) + 0(4 ) 2 (3 )+ 0(2) 2 ( 2 )+ 0(5)
1 (1 )+ 2(4) 1 ( 3 ) +2(2) 1 ( 2 ) +2(5)

[ ]
3+16 9+8 6+20
¿ 2+ 0 6+0 4+ 0
1+8 3+ 4 2+10

[ ]
19 17 26
A × B= 2 6 4
19 7 12
 Suppose all products and additions are defined for matrices𝐴And𝐵and for𝑘is a
member of a real number, then the following properties apply to matrix
operations:
a. Non-commutative property: AB≠ BA
b. Associative properties: A(BC)=( AB)C
c. Left distributive property: A(B+C )= AB+ AC A (B−C)= AB−BC
d. Right distributive property: (B+C) A=BA+CA (B−C) A=BA−CA
e. Associative property : )k (AB)= A ¿
f. In a square matrix there is an identity matrix𝐼(a square matrix in which all
elements on the main diagonal are 1 and the other elements are 0) such that it
applies IA= AI =A
g. If not certain or AB=0 A=0 B=0

i. If and are respectively the transpose of the matrix AT BT 𝐴and matrix𝐵, then
h. If not sure AB= AC B=C

applies: .( AB )T =BT A T

5. Matrix exponentiation
Exponentiation of a matrix is only done if the matrix is a square matrix (a matrix
with the same number of rows as columns). Suppose matrix A is a square
matrix.𝑚×𝑚, so :
2
A = AA
3 2
A =A A
4 3
A =A A

On the matrix𝐴square also applies and A0 =1𝐴𝑛=𝐴𝑛− 1, with𝑛> 0. If𝑟And𝑠is

etc.

an integer, then the following applies:

r s
A A = A And( A ) =A
r s r+ s rs

E. Matrix Determinant
Properties of matrix determinants:

a) For example𝐴is a square matrix of order with determinant andn × n| A|𝐵is a square
matrix of order𝑛×𝑛with a determinant and a constant.|B|k

 ¿ AT ∨¿∨A∨¿ , ( is the transpose of the matrix AT 𝐴)

 ¿ AB∨¿∨A∨¿ B∨¿

 ¿ kA∨¿ k n∨ A∨¿, with𝑛= matrix order𝐴

, ( is the inverse of the matrix A−1𝐴)
1
 | A |=
−1
ad−bc
b) If all the elements in the matrix𝐴is equal to 0, then¿ A∨¿ 0
c) If all the elements in one row or column of the matrix𝐴the same as the elements in
another row or column, then ¿ A∨¿ 0
d) If all the elements in one row or column of the matrix𝐴is a multiple of an element in
another row or column, then .¿ A∨¿ 0
1) Archery technique
 Matrix2 ×2

For example, the matrix , the determinant of the matrix is A= [ ac bd ] A

det ( A )= |ac bd|=ad−bc
Example :

Matrix, determine the determinant of the matrix! A= [ 21 34] A

Solution:
det ( A )=2 × 4−3 ×1=5

 Matrix3 ×3

[ ]
a b c
Suppose the matrix is known A= d e f , the determinant of the matrix is: A
g h i

| |
a b ca b
det ( A )= d e f d e
g h i g h

det ( A )=( a∙ e ∙ i+b ∙ f ∙ g+ c ∙ d ∙h )−( c ∙e ∙ g+ a∙ f ∙ h+b ∙ d ∙i )

Example :

[ ]
1 2 3
Determine the determinant of the matrix A= −4 5 6
7 −8 9

Solution:

| || |
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
−4 5 6 = −4 5 6 −4 5
7 −8 9 7 −8 9 7 −8

¿ ( 45+ 84+ 96 )− (105−48−72 )=240

Warning!
 It is important to remember that is a number, while is a matrix.det ( A) A
 The arrow technique is only useful for determinants of matrices and2 ×23 ×3 .

2) Minor-Cofactor Method
Definition 6.1

determinant of the submatrix which is the remainder after the th row. a ij M ij𝑖and the
If𝐴square matrix, then the minor of an entry is denoted by and is defined as the

column to-𝑗removed from . The numbers are denoted by and are called cofactors of
i+ j
the entry A (−1 ) M ij C ij aij
 | |
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
minor of the entry isa 11

| ||
a11 a12 a13
a a
|
M 11= a21 a22 a23 = 22 23 =a22 a 33−a23 a32
a31 a32 a33
a32 a33

Cofactors area 11
1 +1
C 11=(−1 ) M 11=M 11
Cofactors area 12
1+2
C 12=(−1 ) M 12=−M 12
Cofactors area 13
1+3
C 13=(−1 ) M 13=M 13

Notes :Note that the minors and corresponding cofactors are equal or negative to each
other and that the associated signs are or correspond to the pattern in the following
i+ j
arrangement: M ij C ij (−1 ) +1−1
¿

If𝐴is a matrix, then regardless of which row or column is selected from n × n𝐴, the
Theorem 6.1

sum obtained by multiplying the entries in that row or column by the appropriate
cofactors and adding the resulting products, will always be the same.

These results allow us to make the following definition.

Definition 6.2

columns ofn × n𝐴with appropriate cofactors and adding the resulting product is called
If𝐴is a matrix, then the sum is obtained by multiplying the entries in the rows or

a determinant.𝐴, and the quantities in the determinant𝐴called cofactor expansion

of𝐴. That is:
det ( A )=a1 j C1 j + a2 j C2 j+⋯+ anj C nj
[cofactor expansion along the −th column] j
And
det ( A)=ai 1 C i 1+ ai 2 C i 2+⋯+ a¿ C ¿
[cofactor expansion along the −th row𝒊]

 Matrix cofactor expansion2 ×2

Arrangement pattern for matrix𝐴 = [] is2 ×2 aij
¿
So that
 C 11=M 11 =a22 C 12=−M 12=−a21
C 21=−M 21=−a12 C 22=M 22=a11
det ⁡( A)can be expressed in cofactor form with the following four steps:

| a a
det ( A )= 11 12
a21 a 22 |
¿ a 11 C 11 + a12 C 12
¿ a 21 C21 +a 22 C22
¿ a 11 C 11 + a21 C 21
¿ a 12 C12 +a22 C22

 Matrix cofactor expansion3 ×3

Example: Cofactor Expansion Along the First Row
Find the determinant of the matrix: by cofactor expansion along the first row!

[ ]
3 1 0
A= −2 −4 3
5 4 −2
Solution:

| |
3 1 0
det ( A ) −2 −4 3 =3
5 4 −2
−4 3
4 −2
−1|−2 3
5 −2 | |
+0
−2 −4
5 4 | | |
=3 (−4 )− ( 1 )(−11 )+ 0=−1

Example: Cofactor Expansion Along the First Column

Find the determinant of the matrix: by cofactor expansion along the first column!

[ ]
3 1 0
A= −2 −4 3
5 4 −2
Solution:

| |
3 1 0
det ( A ) −2 −4 3 =3
5 4 −2
−4 3
4 −2 |
−(−2)
1 0
|
4 −2
+5 |
1
−4 | | 0
3|=3 (−4 ) −(−2 ) (−2 )+ 5(3)=−1

 Determinant of an upper triangular matrix

If𝐴triangular matrix (top, bottom, diagonal), thenn × n𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) is the product of

Theorem 6.2

the main diagonal entries of𝐴, that is:

det ( A)=a11 a22 a33 … ann

The following calculations show that the determinant of an upper triangular

matrix is the product of its diagonal entries. Each part of the calculation uses
cofactor expansion along the first row.
 | | | |
a11 0 0 0
a22 0 0
a21 a 22 0 0
=a 11 a32 a33 0
a31 a 32 a33 0
a42 a43 a44
a41 a 42 a 43 a 44

|
¿ a 11 a22
a33 0
a43 a44 |
¿ a 11 a22 a 33|a44|=a11 a 22 a33 a44

F. Inverse Matrix
Definition 5.1
If is a square matrix, and if a matrix of the same size can be such that , then A is said to be
invertible (or nonsingular) and is called the inverse . If no such matrix can be found, then
A is said to be singular. AB AB=BA=I ABAB

Notes:The relationship is not changed by swapping the places of A and B, so if is

invertible and is the inverse of , then it is also true that is invertible, and is the inverse of .
So, when: AB=BA=I A BAB AB
AB=BA=I

we say that A and B are the opposites of each other.

Theorem 5.1
If and are both inverses of the matrices , then . BC AB=C
Proof :
Since B is the inverse of , we have . Multiplying both sides on the right hand side by gives
(. But it is also true that , so . ABA=ICBA ¿ C=IC=C ( BA ) C=B ( AC )=BI=BC =B

As a consequence of this important result, we can now speak of the "inverse" of an

invertible matrix. If it is invertible, then its inverse will be denoted by the symbol . Thus,
−1
AA
−1 −1
A A =I And A A=I

Theorem 5.2
Matrix

A=
[ ac bd ]
is invertible if and only if , in which case the inverse is given by the formulaad −bc ≠ 0

−1
A =
1 d −b
ad−bc −c a [ ]
Example: calculating the inverse of a matrix2 ×2

A=
[ ]
6 1
5 2

The determinant of is , where the result is not zero. So, it is invertible, and the inverse is:
Adet ( A )= ( 6 ) ( 2 )−( 1 ) ( 5 )=7 A

[ ]
2 −1
−1 1
A =
2 −1
7 −5 6 [=
7
−5 ] 7
6
7 7

Example: Solution of Linear System with Inverse Matrix

A problem that arises in many applications is solving a pair of equations of the form:
u=ax +by
v=cx +dy

for and in the form and . By replacing the two equations with a single matrix equation:
xyuv

[ uv]=[ axcx++bydy ]
Which can be written as:

[ uv]=[ ac bd ][ xy ]
If we assume that the matrix is invertible (i.e., ), then we can multiply on the left by the
inverse and rewrite the equation as:2 ×2 ad−bc ≠ 0

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ac bd ][ xy ]
−1 −1
a b u a b
=
c d v c d

Which is simplified to:

[ ] [ uv]=[ xy ]
−1
a b
c d

Using Theorem 5.2, we can rewrite this equation as:

 1 d −b u
ad−bc −c a v[=
x
y ][ ] [ ]
So we get:
du−by av −cu
x= , y=
ad−bc ad−bc

The next theorem deals with the inverse of a matrix product.

Theorem 5.3
If and are invertible matrices of the same size, then they are invertible and
−1 −1 −1
AB AB ( AB ) =B A

Proof:
We can establish invertibility and obtain the stated formula at the same time by showing
that
−1 −1 −1 −1
( AB)( B A )=(B A )( AB)=I

but
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1
( AB)( B A )= A ( BB−1 ) A =AI A = A A =I

And also similar, .( B−1 A−1 )( AB)=I

Example: inverse of product

Consider the following matrices:

A=
[ 11 23 ] , B=[ 32 22]
So that

[ ]
4 −3
[ ]
AB= 7 6 , ( AB )−1= −9 7
9 8
2 2

And also that

[ ]
1 −1
−1
A = [ 3 −2 −1
−1 1
,B =
−1] 3
2
 [ ][ [ ]
1 −1 4 −3
−1
B A =
−1
−1
3
2
3 −2
−1 1
= −9 7
2 2
]
Thus, as guaranteed by Theorem 5.3.( AB )−1=B−1 A−1

Theorem 5.4
If it is invertible and n is a positive integer, then: A
−1
a) A−1can be reversed and( A−1 ) = A
−1 n
b) An can be reversed and ( A n ) = A−n=( A−1 )
c) kA invertible for any non-zero scalar andk ( kA )−1 =k −1 A −1

Example :

Suppose and A= [ 11 23 ] A =[−13 −21 ]

−1

So

A =( A ) =
−3 −1 3
[−13 −21 ][−13 −21 ] [−13 −21 ]=[−15
41 −30
11 ]
Also,

3
A=
[ 11 23] [ 11 23] [11 23]=[ 1115 3041]
So, by Theorem 5.4(b),
−1
( A3 ) = 1
[ 41 −30
( 11) ( 41 )− (30 )( 15 ) −15 11
=
][
41 −30
−15 11
−1 3
=( A )
]
Theorem 5.5
−1 T
If the matrix is invertible, then it is also invertible and A AT ( A T ) =( A −1 )

Proof:
We can establish the reciprocal and obtain the formula at the same time by showing that:
−1 T −1 T
A ( A ) =( A ) A =I
T T

But the fact that , we have: I T =I

−1 T T
A ( A ) =( A A ) =I =I
T −1 T
 T T
( A−1 ) A T =( A A −1 ) =I T =I
Complete evidence.

Example: Inverse of Transpose

Consider a 2 × 2 matrix in general and its transpose:

A=
[ ac bd ]And A =[ ab cd]
T

Since is invertible, that is, its determinant is nonzero. But the determinant of is also , so it
is also invertible. It follows from Theorem 2 that: A ad−bc AT ad−bc A T

[ ]
d −c
( AT ) = ad−bc ad−bc
−1

−b a
ad−bc ad−bc

which is the same matrix that results when transposed. So A−1

−1 T
( AT ) =( A−1 )
as guaranteed by Theorem 5.5.

 Inverse of order matrix3 ×3

 Adjoin Method

[ ]
a 11 a12 a 13
Suppose the matrix is a matrix of order . A= a 21 a22 a 23 3 ×3
a 31 a32 a 33
Adjoint matrix𝐴denoted by:
T
adj ( A )= ( kof ( A ) )
Inverse matrix𝐴can be obtained by:
−1 1 1
A = adj ( A )= Adj ( A )
ad−bc det ( A )
Example:

[ ]
1 2 1
Determine the inverse of the matrix A= 2 8 5
3 7 6
Solution:
1 −1
A = adj ( A )
det ( A )
According to the formula given previously, we need the determinant and adjoint of
the matrix.𝐴.
Step I: Let's find the determinant of the matrix𝐴first use one of the methods
explained in the previous discussion. For example, we use the Sarrus method to obtain
the determinant of the matrix𝐴, so that :

| | | | | |
det ( A )=1
8 5
7 6
−2
2 5
3 6
+1
2 8
3 7
¿ ( 48−35 ) −2 ( 12−15 ) + ( 14−24 )
¿9
Step II: Determine the adjoint of the matrix𝐴namely by looking for the cofactor of
the matrix𝐴.
i+ j
kof ( A )=Cij = (−1 ) M ij

[ ]
M 11 M 12 M 13
kof ( A )= M 21 M 22 M 23
M 31 M 32 M 33

[ ]
|78 56| −|23 56| |23 87|
¿ −|
7 6| |3 6|
−|
3 7|
2 1 1 1 1 2

|28 15| −|12 15| |12 28|

[ ]
13 3 −10
¿ −5 3 −1
2 −3 4
Therefore,

[ ]
T
13 −5 2
adj ( A )= ( kof ( A ) ) = 3 3 −3
−10 −1 4
So,
−1 1
A = adj ( A )
det ( A )

[ ]
13 −5 2
1
¿ 3 3 −3
9
−10 −1 4

[ ]
13 −5 2
9 9 9
3 3 −3
¿
9 9 9
−10 −1 4
9 9 9
 [ ]
13 −5 2
9 9 9
1 1 −1
¿
3 3 3
−10 −1 4
9 9 9

 Elementary row transformation methods

To be able to determine the inverse of a matrix using the elementary row

a) The matrix form (), where is the identity matrix of order An ∨I n I n𝑛.
transformation method, you can pay attention to the following steps:

b) Transform the matrix (), into the form () using row transformation. Row
transformation of elements can be done by: An ∨I n I n∨Bn
 Swaps a row with another row
 Add or subtract one row from another row
 Add or subtract a row with𝑘another line time
 Multiply or divide a row by a scalar number where .k k ≠ 0
c) Based on the results in step b, the inverse matrix obtained is . An Bn
Note: There are several notations that are often used in elementary row
transformations, including:
 Bi ↔ B j = swaps elements of the th row𝑖with the elements of the row𝑗and

 𝑘 Bi= elements of the th row𝑖with scalar .k (k ≠ 0)

vice versa.

 Bi +k B j = add or subtract the elements of the th row𝑖with𝑘times the

elements of the th row𝑗
To make it clearer, please pay attention to the following example.
Example :

[ ]
1 2 1
Determine the inverse of the matrix A= 2 8 5
3 7 6

Solution:

Step I: Let's form a matrix𝐴into matrix () An ∨I n

( | )
1 2 11 0 0
2 8 50 1 0
3 7 60 0 1

Step II: Transform the matrix ( ) into a matrix ( ). We can use several methods as
explained in point ac previously. An ∨I n I 3∨A 3
 ( | )
1 2 11 0 0
2 8 5 0 1 0 B 2−2 B1
3 7 60 0 1

( | )
1 2 1 1 0 0
0 4 3 −2 1 0 B2 ↔ B3
3 7 6 0 0 1

( | )
1 2 1 1 0 0
3 7 6 0 0 1 B2−3 B1
0 4 3 −2 1 0

( | )
1 2 1 1 0 0
0 1 3 −3 0 1 B3−4 B2
0 4 3 −2 1 0

( | )
1 2 1 1 0 0
1
0 1 3 −3 0 1 − B 3
9
0 0 −9 10 1 −4

( | )
1 0 0
1 2 1
−3 0 1
0 1 3 B −3 B 3
−10 −1 4 2
0 0 1
9 9 9

( | )
1 0 0
1 2 1 3 1 −1
0 1 0 9 3 3 B1−B3
0 0 1 −10 −1 4
9 9 9

( | )
19 1 −4
9 9 9
1 2 0
3 1 −1
0 1 0 B1−2 B2
9 3 3
0 0 1
−10 −1 4
9 9 9

( | )
13 −5 2
9 9 9
1 0 0
3 1 −1
0 1 0
9 3 3
0 0 1
−10 −1 4
9 9 9

So,
 [ ]
13 −5 2
9 9 9
3 1 −1
A−1=
9 3 3
−10 −1 4
9 9 9

G. Examples of Matrix Applications

1. Pay attention to the following table!
Table 1. Number of Goods

Buyer Apple Orange

Sumbul 2 kg 1 kg
Aunt 2 kg 2 kg
Table 2. Price of Goods

Goods Orange
Apple Rp. 35,000
Orange Rp. 20,000
How much do Sumbul and Ciki have to pay?
Solution:
From the table above we can form two matrices:

Number of items matrix: A= [ ]

2 1
2 2

Item price matrix: B=[

20.000 ]
35.000

To find out the amount of money that Sumbul and Ciki must pay to pay for the fruit
they have bought, this can be done by multiplying the matrices and . AB
A ∙ B=
[ ][
2 1 35.000
2 2 20.000 ]
¿
[ 2 ( 35.000 ) +1(20.000)
2 ( 35.000 ) +2(20.000) ]
¿
[110.000
90 .000
]
So, the total money spent by Alvan is Rp. 90,000 and Roni is Rp. 110,000. Thus, the
total amount of money that must be paid by Sumbul and Ciki is Rp. 90,000 + Rp.
110,000 = Rp. 200,000.

2. Mrs. Yanti bought 5 kg of eggs, 2 kg of meat, and 1 kg of shrimp for Rp305,000.00.

Mrs. Eka bought 3 kg of eggs and 1 kg of meat for Rp131,000.00. Mrs. Putu bought 3
kg of meat and 2 kg of shrimp for Rp360,000.00. If Mrs. Aniza bought 3 kg of eggs, 1
kg of meat, and 2 kg of shrimp, how much should she pay?
 Solution:
 Change the problem into a mathematical sentence
For example:
Price of 1 kg of eggs: x
Price of 1 kg of meat: y
Price of 1 kg of shrimp: z
Mrs. Yanti → 5 kg eggs + 2 kg meat + 1 kg shrimp = 305,000 or
5 x+ 2 y +1 z=305.000

Mrs. Eka → 3 kg eggs + 1 kg meat + 0 kg shrimp = 131,000 or

3 x+ 1 y +0 z=131.000

Mrs. Putu → 0 kg eggs + 3 kg meat + 2 kg shrimp = 360,000 or

0 x +3 y+ 2 z=360.000

 Convert the equation into matrix form

[ ][ ] [ ]
5 2 1 x 305.000
3 1 0 y = 131.000
0 3 2 z 369.000
 Calculate the value of each variable using the equation

[][ ][ ]
−1
x 5 2 1 305.000
y = 3 1 0 131.000
z 0 3 2 369.000

[ ]
2 −1 −1
7 7 7

[] [ ]
x 305.000
−6 10 3
y= 131.000
7 7 7
z 369.000
9 −15 −1
7 7 7

[][ ]
x 17.000
y = 80.000
z 60.000
 Calculate the price of 3 kg of eggs, 1 kg of meat, and 2 kg of shrimp.
Total=3 ¿
¿ 51.000+80.000+ 120.000
¿ 251.000
 Conclusion
So, Mrs. Aniza had to pay IDR 251,000
H. Students' Difficulties in Matrix Material and How to Overcome Them
 Students' Difficulties in Matrix Material
Based on the results of the literature study by Zannurrain et al., (2023), there were
several student difficulties with matrix material, including:
 1. Difficulty in Understanding Concepts
Difficulty in understanding the concept of matrices can arise due to their
abstract and complex mathematical nature. Some students may have difficulty
understanding the definition of a matrix, matrix notation, matrix size, matrix
operations, and the relationship between matrices and other mathematical
concepts. They may have difficulty generalizing the concept of matrices to address
a variety of problems or situations.
2. Difficulty in Operation
Matrix operations involve various operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division of matrices. Students may have difficulty in mastering
the rules of these operations and applying them correctly. They may miscalculate
the results of matrix operations or have difficulty in understanding the steps to be
followed in each operation.
3. Difficulty In Principle
Difficulties in matrix principles relate to understanding how matrices are used
in problem solving or practical applications. Students may have difficulty
identifying situations in which matrices can be used or recognizing the usefulness
of matrices in areas such as physics, economics, and computing. They may need
further guidance to develop intuition and conceptual understanding of matrix
principles.
4. Difficulty in Knowledge or Application of Facts
Difficulty in knowledge or application of facts relates to the basic
understanding of matrices and related facts. Students may have difficulty
memorizing definitions, formulas, or properties of matrices, and this difficulty
may affect their ability to solve problems or apply matrix knowledge in different
contexts. They may need to strengthen their basic knowledge and engage in more
practice to improve their ability to apply facts.
Based on the research results of Sitepu et al., (2022), there are several student
difficulties in matrix material, including:
1. students' difficulties in understanding the questions are that students are unable to
write down what is known and what is asked. Students have difficulty interpreting
mathematical symbols in matrix material and cannot solve problems,
2. difficulty in transforming questions, namely students have difficulty in
determining the matrix formula that will be used to solve the problem, and
3. difficulties in the problem solving process, namely students have difficulty in
doing calculations to solve the problems given and are not careful in solving the
problems.

 How to overcome it
1. Mathematics teachers must always be aware of students' difficulties when learning
matrices, especially students who have difficulty understanding concepts.
Teachers must be patient and responsive in helping students overcome their
difficulties and provide appropriate solutions (Zannurrain et al., 2023).
2. Implementing a learning design, for example a didactic design with the Student
Teams Achievement Division (STAD) strategy which is in line with research by
Putri et al., (2020) shows that the didactic design provided can overcome student
learning barriers by reducing the percentage of students who experience
difficulties in matrix material.
3. Developing teaching materials that are compiled based on the difficulties
experienced by students in matrix material, for example mathematics teaching
materials based on the realistic mathematics learning approach (PMR) (Apiati,
2017).
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Asih, ME, Putra, YWR, & Andriani, S. (2023). Matrix for Senior High School/Vocational
High School/Islamic Vocational High School.
Bandar Lampung: Uin Raden Intan Lampung.
Soebagyo, J., Maarif. S., & Purwanto, ES(2020). Linear Algebra Engineering Mathematics &
Matrix.
Anton, H. & Rorres, C. (1973). Elementary Linear Algebra (11th edition). United States of
America : Wiley.
Zannurrain, MF, Herdiyanti, A., & Hasibuan, MU (2023). Literature Study: Analysis
High School Students' Learning Difficulties in Matrix Material. Ar-Riyadhiyyat:
Journal of
Mathematics Education, 4(1), 32-40.
Sitepu, E., Vega, RR, Mardiati, M., Sitepu, DR, & Afni, K. (2022). Analysis of Difficulty
Student Learning in Mathematics Learning on the Topic of Student Matrix
Class XI Bintang Langkat Private Vocational School. Serunai Mathematics Journal,
14(2), 133-141.
Putri, DP, Manfaat, B., & Haqq, AA (2020). Didactic design of mathematics learning
to overcome learning barriers in matrix material. Jurnal Analisa, 6(1), 56-68.
Apiati, V. (2017). Development of Mathematics Teaching Materials Based on Learning
Approaches
Realistic Mathematics (RM) To Improve Problem Solving Skills
and Students' Mathematical Disposition. Siliwangi Journal: Education Series, 3(2).