GRAMMAR Parts of Speech

NOUNS Name People, places, things - Concepts, ideas, qualities (length, width, loyalty) Functions 1) Act as the subject of a verb Stephanie liked the song 2) Act as the object of a verb He bought some potatoes 3) Act as the object of the preposition He went to Paris 4) Act at the complement of a subject Mary is a teacher Main categories - Common nouns: name people, things, etc -> non specifically o ball, girl, tree, dolphin - Proper nouns: name people, things -> specifically, always with a capital letter o Jessica, Australia, Christmas - Collective nouns: when we refer to a group of people/things as a single unit o class, family, herd, group, team - Compound nouns: two nouns together to name one things o Body part, flu shot, hair brush - Abstract nouns: intangible things o Happiness, joy, intelligence Countable nouns: things/people that we can count. Have a singular and plural form. - a book, 2 books. A pen, 10 pens. A child, 2 children. A person, 3 people. Uncountable nouns: things that are considered inseparable. These have only one form which is neither singular nor plural. - money, news, snow, peace, happiness PRONOUNS Take the place of or refer to nouns that precede or follow them in sentences. They do not NAME anything they only refer to or imply. Functions 1) Subject -> it was beautiful, she drank coffee, I sent the package 2) Object of a verb -> she spilled it, we punched him 3) Object of a preposition -> we drove around it, they sat on her 4) Complement-> its me, it was her, that was her (not as common since pronouns dont name anything) Categories - Possessive: show possession and replace a possessive noun or adjective + noun

o Mine, yours, his, ours, yours, theirs Reflexive: reflect back on the subject o Myself, yourself, ourselves, themselves Demonstrative: literally point to/indicate the noun they replace o This, that, these, those Are ARTICLES when followed by a noun and PRONOUNS when not. Indefinite: refer to unspecified people, things or quantity o Some, something, anyone, any, many, a lot

ADJECTIVES Describe or provide information about something named by a noun or clause A lovely day. An interesting book. Its strange that weve never met before. -ed adjectives: only describe people/animals because they describe an emotional state -ing adjectives: describe things, situations, peopledescribe characteristics/qualities ADVERBS 1) Modify/describe a verb a. They ran quickly 2) Modify/describe adjectives a. She was the most beautiful girl 3) Modify/describe other adverbs a. It was much more useful We usually add ly to an adjective to form an adverb. Categories - Manner: describe how/the way the action was done. - Frequency: describes how often the action happens - Time: describe when the action happens - Place: describe where the action takes place - Relative time: describe when the action takes place in relation to another point in time - Degree: describe the level or feeling, making it stronger or weaker - Quantity: describe how much the action is done - Focusing: only shows restriction. Also shows addition. Especially singles out information. - Attitude markers: refer to a whole clause or longer stretch of speech PREPOSITIONS Show the relationship between their object and another word or group of words. A word is only a preposition if its followed by its object and modifiers to form a prepositional phrase: The car is in the garage. Categories - Prepositions of place In, beneath, behind, outside, next to, out of, near

Prepositions of movement Into, past, around, behind, to, on top of - Prepositions of time At, before, after, for, during Can also show contrast or possession. CONJUNCTIONS 1) Subordinating conjunctions: Introduce a subordinate clause and show its relationship to the independent clause.

2) Coordinating conjunctions: Link words, phrases and clauses of the same class. a. ADDITION Bob likes football and basketball b. CONTRAST Mary plays basketball but she never watches it. c. OPTION/CHOICE Ill have tea or coffee d. NEGATIVE CHOICE The money isnt in the safe nor on the desk GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES Gerunds: A verbal created with the stem form of a verb + ing. They are a noun naming an activity and have the same functions as nouns. Running is fun. I love swimming. Despite failing, she was happy. Infinitives: created with the word to + the stem form of a verb. Can act as a subject and object of a verb. She plays to win. He didnt have the strength to succeed. ARTICLES Definite article: used when we have already mentioned what we are talking about. When there is only one o something. Used with of or particular adjectives. Used before defining relative clauses. Used with leisure activities/ forms of entertainment / forms of travel. Used with proper nouns when naming the following: 1. Rivers 6. Hotels 10. Countries whose 2. Mountain ranges 7. Cinemas names include 3. Oceans & seas 8. Political bodies political terms/are 4. Deserts 9. Newspapers plural in form. 5. Groups of islands THE -> Was the film a comedy? Indefinite article: introduces new information. Used after have/have got. Used when naming things and with occupations. Used with the meaning of every in time and quantity expressions. A / AN -> I saw a great film last night.

Zero article: to make generalizations. Used to show that someone is part of an institution. Used to name meals, time expressions, verbs of movements with nouns work/home/bed, used with the preposition by followed by a mode of transport. I like films about art.

Auxiliary, Modal and Phrasal verbs

AUXILIARY Do Construct negative and interrogative sentences in Present and Past simple. Combines with a Main Verb in its base form. Be Constructs all Continuous Tenses. Combines with a Main Verb in its present participle form. Used in all Passive Constructions, with a Main Verb in its past participle form. Have Constructs all Perfect Tenses. MODALS Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Shall, Should, Will, Would Semi-modal: Ought To, Had Better, Have (got) To, Be Able To, Need, Dare, Used To Similar to auxiliary verbs cannot be used alone. Must combine with a main verb. Used to make assessments, judgments or interpretations of what we are speaking/writing about. Form the negative by adding not Form the interrogative by inverting the modal verb and the subject There arent tenses with modal verbs (exception: will) Functions 1. Ability 2. Possibility 3. Impossibility 4. Necessity 5. Obligation 6. Suggestion 7. Certainty PHRASAL Combination of a verb plus an adverb, preposition or both. The individual meanings of the words in the phrasal verb dont indicate the combined meaning. Transitive - Inseparable: Need a direct object. The verb and particle cannot be separated. I always look after her children =/= I always look her children after. - Separable: Need a direct object. The verb and particle can be separated. Can also put the object after the particle. If the object is a pronoun, it must go between the verb and the particle. Bob gave up smoking. 8. Logical Deduction 9. Asking for/granting permission 10. Advice 11. Requests 12. Offers 13. Repeated past action 14. Preference

Bob gave smoking up. Bob gave it up. Intransitive The verb doesnt take an object.

Conditionals, Relative Clauses, Reported Speech

CONDITIONALS Consist of two clauses: if clause and an independent result clause. One possible situation needs to happen before another can. First Conditional REAL present or future possibilities things that really could happen.

Second Conditional HYPOTHETICAL present or future situations things that cant/are unlikely to happen.

Third Conditional HYPOTHETICAL PAST situations things that didnt happen.

Zero Conditional UNIVERSAL or PERSONAl facts. Only conditional where we use WHEN instead of IF.

RELATIVE CLAUSES Defining relative clause -> specifies/defines the noun that it refers to. ESSENTIAL to the meaning. Teachers who grade unfairly arent popular. Non defining relative clause -> gives additional information about the noun it refers to. NOT essential to the meaning. Lisa, who loves cupcakes, is your teacher. REPORTED SPEECH Direct speech: When we repeat exactly what someone has said, quoting them. Reported speech: When we report what someone has said, not necessarily using their exact words.

Reported questions: 1. Yes/No questions: Mary asked me Do you like coffee? Mary asked me if I liked coffee Intro verb that shows it was originally a question + IF + Appropriate Past Tense in the positive/negative but not interrogative.

2. Wh- questions: Mary asked me, what are you doing tonight? Mary asked me what I was doing that night. Intro verb + Same question word + Appropriate Past Tense in the positive/negative but not interrogative.

Passive and Active Voice

ACTIVE The subject of the verb DOES the action. Bob punched Mary. Subject Bob: he is the agent/doer of the action. Object Mary: recipient/directly affected by the action. PASSIVE The subject of the verb DOESNT do the action. Mary was punched by Bob. Subject Mary is the subject (topic/focus of the sentence) but she is NOT the agent of the action. Preposition + Object Bob is the agent/doer of the action so he cannot be the object of the verb, only of the preposition. Auxiliary verb to be in whatever form required + Main Verb in Past Participle form.

Bob has punched Mary Mary has been punched Bob is punching Mary Mary is being punched

Tenses and Functions

PRESENT TENSES Present Simple I love playing football - For permanent states, repeated actions and daily routines. - For general truths/laws - Timetables and programmes - To give instructions or directions - For sports commentaries/reviews, narration. Present Continuous You are studying - For actions taking place at the moment of speaking - For temporary actions, not occurring at the moment of speaking - With adverbs to express annoyance/anger - For changing/developing situations - For actions arranged for the near future PAST TENSES Past Simple I went away - For an action which happened in the past. - For sequential actions that happened one after the other - For past habits or states which are now finished Past Continuous You were waiting - For an action that was in progress at a stated time in the past. Do not know when it started or finished. - For an action in progress when another interrupted it. Past simple used for the interrupting action - For two or more simultaneous past actions in progress. Present Perfect Simple I have done For an action that started in the past and continues up to the present An action that has recently finished and shows its results in the present An action that happened in the past. The result is whats important. For an action that happened in a time period that has not finished yet Present Perfect Continuous I have been playing To emphasize the duration of an action that started in the past and continues in the present. For an action that started in the past an lasted some time may be finished or still going on. To express anger, annoyance, irritation. Past Perfect Simple I had killed it For actions that happened before another past action or before a stated time. For an action that finished in the past with a result visible in the past. Past Perfect Continuous I had been drinking To emphasize the duration of the action that started and finished in the past before another action or stated time. For an action that lasted for some time in the past with visible results in the past.

- To describe atmosphere and setting FUTURE TENSES Future Simple I will come - Predictions about the future with verbs think, believe, expect etc - For on-the-spot decisions - For promises, threats, warnings, requests, hopes, offers. - For actions, events, situations which will definitely happen and we cannot control Future Continuous They will be starting - For an action which will be in progress at a stated future time. - For an action which will definitely happen in the future as a result of routine or arrangement. - To ask politely about someones plans for the near future. Also To be going to For plans, intentions or ambitions For actions we have decided to do For predictions with evidence Present continuous For actions we have planned and arranged to do in the near future Present simple - To refer to programmes, timetables, etc. Future Perfect Simple Ill have been For an action which will be finished before a stated future time.

Future Perfect Continuous Ill have been working To emphasize the duration of an action up to a certain time in the future.