ABU DHABI GAS LIQUEFACTION COMPANY Ltd.

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Module - 3

THE POWER SYSTEM

AND
ITS OPERATION

ADGAS PERSONNEL & TRAINING DIVISION

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

CONTENTS

Page No.

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….. 9

2. TERMINOLOGY……………………………………………………... 10

3. MAJOR ITEMS OF PLANT ………………………………………… 13

3.1 The Generator……………………………………………………. 13

3.2 The Transformer………………………………….……………… 13
3.3 Reactors……………………………………………………….…. 14
3.4 Substations and switchgear………………………………………. 14
3.5 Interconnectors and feeders……………………………….……... 14
3.6 Earthing systems…………………………………………………. 14
3.7 Load shedding……………………………………………………. 15

4. THE GENERATOR…………………………………………………... 16

4.1 Generator drivers………………………………………………… 17

4.2 Generator protection……………………………………………... 22
4.3 Generator control desk…………………………………………… 30
4.4 TDC 3000 operator interface…………………………………….. 34

5. THE TRANSFORMER……………………………………………….. 36

5.1 Basic principles of a transformer………………………………… 36

5.2 Transformer construction………………………………………... 40
5.3 Transformer protection…………………………………………... 45

6. THE REACTOR………………………………………………………. 50

7. 11KV SUBSTATIONS AND SWITCHGEAR………………………. 52

7.1 Fault levels……………………………………………………….. 55

7.2 Substation protection…………………………………………….. 55
7.3 Switchgear……………………………………………………….. 57

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 2 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

CONTENTS (Continued)
Page No.

8. INTER-CONNECTORS……………………………………………… 65

8.1 The reactor……………………………………………………….. 66

8.2 The Is-limiter…………………………………………………….. 66
8.3 Interconnector protection…….…………………………………... 69

9. THE NEUTRAL EARTHING SYSTEM……………………………. 71

9.1 Earthing resistances……………………………………………… 73

9.2 Liquid earthing resistances………………………………………. 73
9.3 Metal earthing resistances……………………………………….. 74
9.4 Operating practice………………………………………………... 74

10. LOAD SHEDDING……………………………………………………. 77

10.1 Automatic load shedding……………………………………….... 78

10.2 Power calculations……………………………………………….. 82
10.3 Loads to be shed…………………………………………………. 83
10.4 Load shedding stages…………………………………………….. 83

11. VOLTAGE CONTROL………………………………………………. 87

11.1 The power triangle……………………………………………….. 87

11.2 System losses…………………………………………………….. 89
11.3 System voltage………………………………………………….... 90

12. EMERGENCY AND BACK-UP SYSTEMS………………………... 93

12.1 Emergency systems……………………………………………… 93

12.2 Back up power supply systems…………………………………... 96
12.3 110V AC uninterrupted power supplies (UPS)………………….. 96
12.4 120V DC no break power supplies (NBS)………………………. 100

13. THE POWER SYSTEM……………………………………………… 104

13.1 Power system control parameters………………………………... 105

13.2 Plant and feeder loads……………………………………………. 107
13.3 Operating guidelines……………………………………………... 109
13.4 Recovery from emergencies……………………………………... 111

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 3 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page No.

Fig. 1 A modern generator and exciter………………………………………. 16

Fig. 2 Generator load and passout steam.………………………………….... 18
Fig. 3 Gas turbine showing the compressor at the front and the power
turbine at the back………………………………………...…………... 19
Fig. 4 Gas turbine fuel gas consumption.……………………………………. 20
Fig. 5 Typical circuit protection relays………………………..…………….. 27
Fig. 6 Steam turbine generator tripping circuit logic diagram……..………... 28
Fig. 7 Gas turbine generator tripping circuit logic diagram…………………. 29
Fig. 8 Generator control desks...…………………………………………….. 30
Fig. 9 An example of a TDC graphic display……………………………….. 34
Fig. 10 Typical layout of control desks of a 110MW power system.………… 35
Fig. 11 A simple transformer circuit....……………………………………….. 36
Fig. 12 A three-phase transformer laminated core limbs.…………………….. 40
Fig. 13 A three-phase transformer core with windings during assembly…..… 41
Fig. 14 A typical oil filled transformer……………………………………….. 43
Fig. 15 Fan assisted cooling………….……………………………………….. 44
Fig. 16 A Buchholz gas relay……………………………………………….… 47
Fig. 17 Typical tripping circuit logic diagram for transformer feeders………. 49
Fig. 18 A typical reactor ……………………………………………………… 51
Fig. 19 A bus bar arrangement………………………………………………... 53
Fig. 20 Substation switchgear……..………………………………………….. 54
Fig. 21 11KV Substation Bus Zone protection tripping diagram…………….. 56
Fig. 22 11KV oil filled circuit breaker truck………………………………….. 57
Fig. 23 Oil filled circuit breakers in the running position…………………….. 58
Fig. 24 Circuit breakers in position…………………………………………… 59
Fig. 25 Cross-section of a typical oil circuit breaker unit…………………….. 60
Fig. 26 SF6 gas containers …………………………………………………… 61
Fig. 27 SF6 single bus bar circuit breaker…………………………………….. 62
Fig. 28 An SF6 circuit breaker cubicle……………………………………….. 63
Fig. 29 Connecting control circuits for testing………………………………... 63
Fig. 30 A set of SF6 circuit breakers with one racked out……………………. 64

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 4 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Page No.

Fig. 31 Das island interconnection……………………………………………. 65

Fig. 32 The Is limiter current paths…………………………………………… 67
Fig. 33 The Is limiter………………………………………………………….. 68
Fig. 34 Typical tripping circuit logic diagram for inter-connectors…………... 70
Fig. 35 Generator neutral earthing system……………………………………. 72
Fig. 36 Liquid earthing resistance…………………………………………….. 73
Fig. 37 Tripping circuit logic diagram for Adgas neutral earth protection…… 76
Fig. 38 Load shedding function block diagram………………………………. 81
Fig. 39 The power triangle……………………………………………………. 87
Fig. 40 A simple tap change circuit…………………………………………... 91
Fig. 41 Emergency power supplies…………………………………………… 94
Fig. 42 110V AC Uninterrupted power supply circuit………………………... 97
Fig. 43 UPS units in the central control building……………………………... 99
Fig. 44 UPS static and manual switches……………………………………… 99
Fig. 45 120V DC no break supply circuit…………………………………….. 101
Fig. 46 120V DC no break supply unit……………………………………….. 102
Fig. 47 Basic 11KV system diagram………………………………………….. 112

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 5 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

ATTACHMENTS

Page No.

PRE TEST AND POST TEST GUIDE………………………………………... 114

PRE TEST……………………………………………………………………... 115

POST TEST……………………………………………………………………. 120

PRE TEST ANSWERS………………………………………………………... 125

POST TEST ANSWERS………………………………………………………. 127

ASSESSMENT………………………………………………………………… 130

LESSON PLAN………………………………………………………………... 131

INSTRUCTOR GUIDE………………………………………………………... 132

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 6 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION COURSE

PRE-REQUISITE: Senior Operator competency and the ability to carry out
mathematical calculations and completion of module 2.

COURSE
OBJECTIVES: POWER SYSTEM OPERATION
On completion of the course, the attendee will have the
knowledge and understanding of the principles and control
of electrical generation, as required by the Das Island Power
System.

MODULE 3
OBJECTIVES: THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION
On completion of this module, the attendee will be able to
demonstrate knowledge of, the theory of, and the practical
operation, of all component parts of the Das Island power
system.
He will be able to:
• Define and explain the practical operating
parameters for turbo-generators on Das Island.
• List the generator protection relays and state their
function.
• Describe and explain the function of individual items
of equipment that make up the power system.
1. Substations. 3. Reactors.
2. Transformers. 4. Feeders.
• Explain the relationships within the power triangle.
• Describe the function of the load shedding system
and why it is required.
• Define the meaning of true, apparent, and reactive
power and the relationship between them.
• List the main operating parameters of the power
system.
• Explain power failure, blackouts and recovery
procedures.
• List the back up systems and explain their operation.
1. UPS equipment.
2. NBS equipment.
3. Emergency Generators.

METHODOLOGY: The above will be achieved through the following:

1. Pre-test. 5. Tasks & exercises
2. Post test. using interactive
3. Classroom instruction. cd/roms.
4. Site visits. 6. Audio visual support.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 7 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

THE POWER SYSTEM

AND
ITS OPERATION

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 8 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

1. INTRODUCTION
In modules 1 & 2 the theory and development of an alternating current was explained.
The way, in which a modern generator made an alternating current and developed
power, and was coupled to isolated and infinite power systems, was explained and
demonstrated.

Module 3 will follow on from modules 1 & 2, to describe the major parts of an
electrical power system and their construction. It will explain their role in the
production of electrical power.

The types of generators in use on a typical system, such as Das Island, will be
explained and discussed.

Transformer construction; why they are used and what they do will be explained.

Substations, reactors, interconnectors and earthing systems will be discussed and

explained.

Electrical load shedding; what it does and why it is needed will be described and
explained.

The need for emergency back up systems, types of systems in use and when they are
used, will be explained.

Finally, the way that all the parts of a power system fit together and are controlled will
be explained. Power failures, Blackouts and emergency situations will be discussed.
Possible causes and recovery from such situations will be discussed and explained.

It would help all participants to bring their course notes of modules 1 and 2 with them,
to be used as references.

Throughout the text, reference will be made to computer software and videotapes. They
will be used during the actual training session, and will also be available for participants
to refresh themselves of what they have been shown.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 9 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

2. TERMINOLOGY

• Alternator – Another name for a generator that produces alternating current (a.c.).

• Bus Bar – A solid conductor to which electrical circuit breakers can be connected.

• BZP – Bus Zone Protection.

• CCB – Central control building.

• Circuit Breaker – A switch that operates automatically to break a circuit.

• Compressor – The part of a gas turbine that provides combustion air and blade
cooling air.

• Earth – The main body of the ground that is at zero potential.

• Electrolyte – A solution that conducts electricity.

• Fault Level – The maximum current at which electrical equipment can operate
safely.

• Governor – An automatic regulator controlling the speed of an engine.

• Inert – Will not support combustion.

• Insulation – Material that will not conduct electricity.

• Inter-connector – A conductor that joins two bus bars of equal voltage.

• Inverter – A unit that changes DC to AC.

• KV – Kilo volt. One thousand volts.

• Laminations – Thin insulated steel sheets fixed together to form a transformer core.

• LHS – Left hand side.

• Load shedding – The act of reducing the load demand.

• Millisecond – One thousand part of a second (time).

• MW – Megawatt. One million watts.

• NBS – No break power supply – 120V DC, 24V DC.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 10 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

• NSI – New seawater intake.

• OCB – An oil circuit breaker. The contacts are submerged in oil.

• Passout – Steam that is taken from the steam turbine to supply other consumers.

• PLC – Programmable logic controller.

• Power Blackout – Total loss of power supplies to the whole of the power system.

• Power demand – The power the consumers need or require.

• Power failure – Loss of power supplies to part of a power system.

• Protection device – A piece of equipment that protects electrical equipment from

damage.

• Rack in – To connect a circuit breaker to a live bus bar.

• Rack out – To disconnect a circuit breaker from the live bus bar.

• Reactor – A current limiting device.

• Rectifier – A unit that changes AC to DC.

• Redundant – When an item has back - up and its loss would not affect production.

• RHS – Right hand side.

• SF6 – Sulphur Hexafluoride gas. An inert gas that is five times heavier than air.

• SF6 CB – A circuit breaker that has its contacts surrounded by SF6 gas.

• Spinning spare – Generation held in reserve for back - up.

• Step-down – The input voltage is higher than the output voltage.

• Step-up – The output voltage is higher than the input voltage.

• Substation – A place where switchgear is housed.

• Switchgear – Collective name for a group of circuit breakers.

• Tap changer -.A mechanism used on transformers to alter the winding ratio.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 11 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

• Transformer – A static electrical device that increase or reduces voltage.

• Transformer core – The laminations that form the magnet path.

• UPS – Uninterrupted power supply – 110V AC, 240V AC.

• VCB – A vacuum circuit breaker. The contacts are housed in a vacuum.

• Windage – When turbine blades spin in a confined space and create heat.

• Winding – Many insulated copper coils joined together and placed on a core.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 12 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

3. MAJOR ITEMS OF PLANT

In modules 1 & 2, we dealt with the theory that is applied to most of the electrical plant
of a power system.

The individual items of plant will now be introduced and their role in the production of
electrical power explained.

3.1 The Generator

The explanation must start with the generator (or alternator), as this is the end
result of all the effort in a power station.

The generator driven by a steam or gas turbine, changes the energy of the fuel,
into electrical energy.

In module 2, the construction and synchronizing of a large generator was

described, explained and practiced. In section 4.0 the generator, the protection
devices used, and a typical control desk layout, will be described and explained.

The generator is connected to a power system, or distribution network, to enable

the electrical energy generated at a power station to be sent to the part of the
country, or island, where it is needed.

3.2 The Transformer

Transformers are used to step up (increase) the voltage or step down (decrease)
the voltage.

On large power systems, the generator voltage is increased by using a step up

transformer. This makes it more economical to move (transmit) large amounts of
electrical energy.

Transformers that step down the voltage, are used to feed smaller items of
electrical equipment that do not require a high voltage to operate. For example,
plant auxiliaries such as oil pumps, fans and jacket water pumps.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 13 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

3.3 Reactors

A reactor is very much like a transformer, except it has only one winding (windings
will be explained in section 5.0).

The main purpose of a reactor is to limit the current flow (amps) in a line or feeder
during a fault condition and is usually considered as a piece of protection
equipment.

3.4 Substations and Switchgear

Electrical equipment is connected to a power system using switches known as

circuit breakers and isolators.

The circuit breakers and isolators are housed in an area known as a substation,
located near to the generating equipment. Smaller substations are also located as
near as possible to the electrical equipment that they are meant to supply.

A more detailed explanation will be given in section 7.0.

3.5 Interconnectors and Feeders

Inter connectors are cable lines which join together high voltage substations that
normally have generators (alternators) connected to them.

Feeders are cables which are used to supply electrical power to a substation that
does not have its own generation.

3.6 Earthing Systems

All electrical equipment is connected to an earth system. The term earth is

explained in section 9.0.

The reasons why electrical systems are connected to earth will be explained.
Earth is a very important part of the electrical system protection. Without this,
electrical power systems would not work.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 14 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

3.7 Load Shedding

Load shedding is a form of power system protection. It is not there to protect

production plant connected to a system; it is there to protect the system from
damage under fault or overload conditions. Automatic load shedding systems are
designed to reduce system load to maintain essential supplies and system stability.
A typical load shedding system will be described and explained in section 10.0.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 15 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

4. THE GENERATOR
The basic parts of a modern generator (alternator) were discussed and explained in
Module 1, Section 5.

To refresh your memories, the major parts are:

• The stator and windings
• The rotor and its windings
• The exciter

The theory and operation of a generator was explained, demonstrated and practiced in
Module 2.

This section of module 3 will deal with the operation and protection of generators in use
on a typical power system, the Das Island Power System.

Fig. 1 A Modern Generator and Exciter

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 16 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

4.1 Generator Drivers.

Before we discuss the operation of a generator, we must look at the way that it is driven
and know about the limitations for the driver. Fig. 1 shows a large modern generator
and its exciter. It does not show what is driving the generator.

On a typical system (e.g. Das Island) the generators are smaller, but the same rules
apply.

Two types of driver are used on Das Island:

1. Steam turbine.
2. Gas turbine.

Both have similar restrictions but for different reasons. Let us consider each in turn.

4.1.1 The Steam Turbine

The steam turbine requires an extra piece of equipment to supply the power to
drive the turbine. That is a boiler.

It also requires a cooling system in the form of a condenser, to be able to take

the maximum heat energy from the steam.

Cooling water in large amounts and as cold as possible is needed.

On the plus side, steam can be taken away from the turbine, before the
condenser stage, and used to drive smaller turbines in other areas of the plant.
This is the case of an LNG site, making it more efficient. This steam is called
passout steam.

On the minus side, when the passout steam is not in service, the turbine can only
provide drive for 12.5MW. This is because the condenser is only big enough to
take this amount of steam (i.e. a steam rate of 60 tonnes per hour). See Fig. 2.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 17 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

With the passout steam in service, more steam is going through the first part of the turbine
before leaving as passout. The turbine can then provide the drive for 17.5MW (using a
steam consumption of 100 tonnes per hour).

200

122 T/Hr
110 T/Hr

100 T/Hr
150
STEAM CONSUMPTION T/Hr

100

50 NO
PASSOUT

0
5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20

GENERATOR LOAD MW

Fig. 2 Generator Load and Passout Steam

Note that 100t/hr is a more efficient steam rate for this turbine, as at 122 T/hr, the Power
Output (MW) is only slightly higher.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 18 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

4.1.2 The Gas Turbine

The gas turbine uses gas as a fuel, and in some cases oil, to provide the power to turn
the shaft, and creates the mechanical energy to drive the generator that turns it into
electrical energy.

The gas turbine also needs another piece of equipment to supply the power at the
shaft; a compressor. The compressor is on the same shaft as the power turbine and
has 16 stages. The power turbine only has 4 stages. See Fig. 3.

This means that the power turbine uses about 65% of its power output to drive the
compressor. The other 35% provides the mechanical energy for the generator.

POWER TURBINE

COMPRESSOR

Fig. 3
Gas Turbine showing the Compressor at the Front and the
Power Turbine at the Back.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 19 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

If we take a look at the relationship between the fuel gas used and the load produced, as in
Fig.4, we can clearly see the amount of gas needed just to turn the shaft without generating
any power (full speed no load). See Fig 4.

FUEL GAS CONSUMPTION VS. OUTPUT

24
22
20
18
OUTPUT MW

16
14
12 OUTPUT MW
Note: Curve good for
10
conditons of 15
8
Degrees C and 760 mm
6
Hg.
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FUEL GAS CONSUMPTION NM3/Hr X 1000

Fig. 4 Gas Turbine Fuel Gas Consumption

The amount of fuel at no load is nearly 37% of the fuel required to generate 18.0MW
i.e. 22,000 Nm3/hr at no load : 58,000 Nm3/hr at 18.0 MW.

To make the best use of the fuel gas the generator must be run at high loads to make sure the
best use is being made of the fuel (i.e. more fuel-efficient).

4.1.3 Considerations

From the above, it can be seen that when operating a generator, we must consider the
restrictions of the driver when making changes in electrical output.

To recap:

1. Steam Drivers

They require large amounts of steam and cooling water, but also provide
additional steam for other plant auxiliaries.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 20 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

2. Gas Turbine Drivers

Gas turbines require a clean dry fuel and a minimum amount of cooling water. To be
economical they must run at a reasonably high load.

When operating a power system under normal conditions or abnormal conditions, the
above conditions must be taken into account. Decisions about which machine can be
loaded, unloaded or brought into service is dependent on what is available at the time.
Such factors and others are important, when deciding on the most suitable machine
to chose, when placing the machine into service, or running it loaded or unloaded.

We will now move on to the power generation equipment section. This will also give
more information to help you plan what is needed to meet normal/abnormal operating
conditions.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 21 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

4.2 Generator Protection

Before we look at the electrical protection schemes, the turbine mechanical control and
protection should be discussed.

The governing system controls the fuel supply to the turbine and therefore controls the
speed and Electrical True Power Output (MW) of the generator. The response of this
system can affect the electrical protection choice.

4.2.1 Types of Governor

1. Mechanical

This system uses a system of centrifugal weights operating a fuel control

lever.

2. Hydraulic

Uses a mechanical system, but also has an Oil Servo in circuit, to give a
more accurate and steady control.

3. Electronic

This type is used for gas turbine control and is very accurate. A high
frequency signal from a speed sensor mounted near the shaft of the machine,
is sent to an amplifier that controls the fuel to the turbine via a speed ratio
valve. The response is fast and its characteristics can be changed to match
other types of governor as required.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 22 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

4.2.2 Mechanical Protection

The mechanical protection of a turbo-generator will depend on what type of driver is

used. Protection is generally used for the following:

1. Overspeed

2. Oil pressure

3. Oil temperature

4. Vibration

Items 2, 3 & 4 are usually caused by unsatisfactory operating conditions and have an
alarm before the trip shuts down the machine.

The shut down of the driver normally occurs after a signal has been given to open the
generator main circuit breaker, to prevent the spurious operation of the generator
electrical protection.

4.2.3 Electrical Protection

The generator requires protection against certain unplanned events.

1. Those that need fast disconnection from the power system. In simple terms, they
are usually caused by insulation failure.

2. Others may be allowed to continue for some time, and are generally caused by
unsatisfactory operating conditions.

Of all the pieces of equipment that make up a power system, the generator is unique,
in that it is usually placed in an attended area and is under constant observation.

This means the operator could deal with some unsatisfactory operating conditions.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 23 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Event 2, happens when the generator is being run outside the Generator Operating Limits.
Section 7.0 of Module 2 describes these limits and what would happen when they are
exceeded.

At this point a refresher of exercises 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 from the CD Rom.

‘The AC generator’ will help you to remember these subjects.

4.2.4 Protection Devices

It is not intended in this course, to explain the detailed operation of protection circuits.

The types of protection devices used for generators will now be listed, and a simple
explanation given of what they protect against.

a) Overcurrent
b) Negative Phase Sequence
c) Biased Differential
d) Under Voltage
e) Over Voltage
f) Loss of Excitation
g) Reverse Power
h) Stator Temperature
i) Buchholz Relay

a) Overcurrent

When an electrical fault occurs in a generator, or equipment connected to it, very

high currents (amps) will flow.

High current flows can damage the stator insulation due to overheating.

b) Negative Phase Sequence

Negative phase sequence currents are produced by unbalanced loading of the

generator stator phases.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 24 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

These currents have a phase rotation (Module 2 section 3.2) in the opposite direction to
the normal phase rotation.

They induce currents in the generator rotor at twice the system frequency.

The result is heating of the rotor that would cause damage if allowed to continue.

c) Biased Differential

This protection responds when the generator has an internal fault.

The differential protection measures the current flowing in and compares it with the
current going out. If the current in equals the current out the fault is external, if it does
not the fault is internal.

The currents at both ends of the generator stator windings are measured and compared.

A generator internal fault would need the generator OCB and turbine to be tripped.

d) Under Voltage

The effects of under voltage can cause overheating and/or generator instability.

e) Over Voltage

Voltage is usually controlled by a high-speed voltage regulator, over voltages should not
happen.

Over voltage could result in damage to electrical parts of the generator. This protection
is not usually provided for continuously supervised machines.

f) Loss of Excitation

Loss of excitation (or loss of field) results in the rotor speed increasing above the speed
(frequency) of the system.

The generator will continue to generate power, as an induction generator, and the power
to support the field (Reactive power) is taken from the system.

This condition can be allowed for a short time but an increase in rotor heating will
happen.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 25 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

g) Reverse Power

If the generator driver fails the generator will run as a motor.

This can be serious for turbine units, particularly passout sets, as windage in the turbine
causes overheating.

h) Stator Temperature

High temperatures in the stator windings should be avoided, as insulation damage could
result.

i) Buchholz Relay

This item of protection is used on transformers and reactors connected to generators.

It will be explained in section 5.0, dealing with these items of electrical plant.

Protection devices are usually part of schemes that are designed to meet the needs of
generator capacities and duties.

Figures 6 and 7 show protective devices, grouped together to form a scheme, for typical
steam and gas turbine driven generators.

Some of the devices shown have not been explained, for example ‘Zone 1 trip relay’.
This is related to bus bar protection and will be explained in section 7.0.

If we look at the Tripping Circuit Logic Diagrams (figs. 6 & 7) it can be seen which
devices trip the generator, and which trip the turbine.

The turbine trips will also trip the 11 KV circuit breaker preventing generator
‘motoring’.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 26 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Study and follow the diagrams through the sequences to help you understand what happens
when different types of protection operate and what could be the reason for it.

Discuss what may happen if protection fails to operate and what to do if it does.

Fig. 5 Typical Circuit Protection Relays

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 27 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

11 KV OCB CLOSED

AND
UNDERVOLTAGE
TRIP RELAY
NEUTRAL
PROTECTION OVERCURRENT
TRIP RELAY
OR
LOAD
SHEDDING REVERSE
OPERATED POWER TRIP

* ZONE 2 TRIP RELAY

EMERGENCY When OCB on front bar
STOP OR OCB TRIP
RELAY
*ZONE 3 TRIP RELAY
When OCB on rear bar
OVERVOLTAGE
TRIP RELAY SHUNT TRIP
COIL IN
DIFFERENTIAL SWITCHGEAR
11 KV OCB CLOSED
TRIP RELAY
OR
LOSS OF FIELD
ACTIVE LOW
TRIP RELAY OPEN-11 KV
POWER RELAY
CIRCUIT
OR
BREAKER
AVR’s VT FAIL REACTIVE
TRIP RELAY LOW POWER

PILOT EXCITER
FAILED

DIODE FAILURE
RELAY OR

REACTOR STEAM VALVE CLOSE STEAM

BUCHHOLZ TRIP RELAY STOP VALVE
TRIP RELAY

11 KV OCB
CLOSED RELAYS REQUIRED TO BE RESET IN
METERING RELAY PANEL BEFORE M/C
AND

IS PUT BACK IN SERVICE

NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE
OR LG 1 IN ZONE 2 AND ZONE 3
TRIP RELAY * LG 2 IN ZONE 1 AND ZONE 4

TURBINE
FAULT TRIP

Fig. 6 Steam Turbine Generators Tripping Circuit Logic Diagrams

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 28 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

11 KV OCB
CLOSED
AND
UNDERVOLTAGE
TRIP RELAY

OVERCURREN
T TRIP RELAY

REVERSE
POWER TRIP

OR
11 KV OCB CLOSED

OCB TRIP
AND
NEGATIVE PHASE RELAY
SEQUENCE
TRIP RELAY

ZONE 1-TRIP RELAY

When OCB on front
OR
NEUTRAL OCB
CLOSED ZONE 4-TRIP RELAY
When OCB on rear
AND OR

RESISTOR No.1
TRIP RELAY

TURBINE
RESISTOR No.2
CONTROL PANEL
TRIP RELAY OR

OVERVOLTAGE
TRIP RELAY

DIFFERENTIAL SHUNT TRIP

TRIP RELAY COIL IN
SWITCHGEAR
OR

LOSS OF FIELD
TRIP RELAY
OPEN-11 KV
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
EMERGENCY
STOP PUSH
BUTTON

GAS VALVE CLOSE GAS

TURBINE
TRIP RELAY VALVE
FAULT TRIP

K.O. DRUM HI
HI LEVEL TRIP

TURBINE FUEL RELAYS REQUIRED TO BE RESET IN

GAS TRIP METERING RELAY PANEL BEFORE
M/C IS PUT BACK IN SERVICE

Fig. 7 Gas Turbine Generators Tripping Circuit Logic Diagram

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 29 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

4.3 Generator Control Desk

The generator control desks are located in the main control room. They are usually
grouped with other desks, for circuits that have manual synchronizing schemes.

Fig. 7 shows a typical gas turbine generator electrical control desk. The layout is very
similar for most generators; the equipment used is the same.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Fig. 8 Generator Control Desks

On the desk, a number of controls can be seen. These are all hard-wired. Hard-wired
means that the switches are connected to the equipment they control, by wires, and not
by computer software.

The controls themselves will now be explained and with what happens to the generator
as they are used.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 30 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

To explain the desk control switches and their function, Fig. 8 will be used, and the switches
explained in this order. Starting at the top left and moving across from left to right, repeating
this on the next row down, and so on, until the bottom row is completed.

1. Voltmeter selector switch

This switch allows the supervisor to look at the individual phase voltage of the generator;
red, yellow and blue. This is an important check which the supervisor should carry out
regularly, to ensure that all voltages are equal and therefore in balance.

2. Emergency stop push button

The emergency stop push button is used by the supervisor to shut down the machine;
should he observe a major problem with the generator. It has a cover fitted, to make sure
that it cannot be pressed accidentally.

3. Ammeter selector switch

Again, this is the same as item 1. It reads the current in each generator phase to check for
any imbalance between them.

4. Exciter transfer switch

This control enables the supervisor to bring the standby automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) into service. It is not often used, as there is an automatic changeover, should the
main AVR fail.

5. Main circuit breaker indication

Indicates when the main circuit breaker is open (green), closed (red) and if the control
circuits are healthy (white). This indication should always be watched when opening or
closing a circuit breaker. It gives immediate confirmation of what the circuit breaker
position is.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 31 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

6. Voltage hand control

When the AVR is out of service, voltage is controlled by hand.

This control allows the supervisor to increase or decrease the machine voltage when the
generator is off load.

When the generator is on load, operation of this control will change the system voltage,
and hence the reactive (MVAr) output of the machine.

Voltage regulators are normally operated in an automatic mode. Manual operation of a

voltage regulator is possible but operator response is slower than automatic mode.

7. Excitation auto/hand selector switch

This control enables the supervisor to take the AVR out of service and put it back into
service.

The importance of the Automatic Voltage Regulator must be explained.

When a number of generators are running together on the same system, the AVR ensures
that the reactive circulating current is kept to a minimum, provided that all AVRs have
the same characteristics.

When a major fault happens on a system, the system voltage is forced down (depressed).

If the volts are depressed, the AVR boosts the generator reactive output to recover the
voltage and assist the speedy operation of the protection, which is unstable at low
voltages.

The AVR not only controls the generator voltage, but also the system voltage and
stability.

8. Circuit breaker control switch

Used by the supervisor to close or open the generator main circuit breaker when
synchronizing or taking the generator off load. It also has a locking facility to prevent
accidental operation of this switch.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 32 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

9. Governor motor control switch

Controls the steam or fuel into the turbine to raise or lower the generation of true power
(MW).

10. AVR control switch

This switch raises or lowers the set point at which the AVR controls:

a) The generator voltage (off load and for isolated power system operation).

b) The reactive power (on load and infinite bus bar system operation).

The AVR automatically increases or decreases the excitation to meet the voltage set by
the supervisor.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 33 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

4.4 TDC 3000 Operator Interface

The TDC 3000 used with the electrical supervisors other panels, provides an additional
source of information, and limited control facilities.

Fig. 9 An Example of a TDC Graphic Display

The graphic display provides information to the electrical supervisor.

It provides an alarm status, historical events log and an overview of the whole system.

Opening and closing of high voltage circuit breakers, via the graphic displays, can only
be done when they do not need synchronizing.

It must be remembered that when changing the conditions of a running plant, analogue
instrumentation must be observed, to give a real time view of adjustment effects.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 34 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

An electrical circuit breaker opens or closes in 80 to 120 milliseconds.

The supervisor must see immediately what his actions have done, so that he can make any
necessary corrections.

The TDC displays are too slow to show fast electrical changes.

The TDC displays should be used for observing the overall plant areas, alarms and trends.

Fig. 10 Typical Layout of Control Desks of a 110MW Power System

A site visit to the main control room would show what the Supervisor has to observe.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 35 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

5. THE TRANSFORMER
The Transformer is a static piece of electrical equipment.

It is used to step up (increase) the voltage in order to make it more economical to

transmit large amounts of power.

It is also used to step down (reduce) the voltage, to supply auxiliaries and smaller
consumers.

5.1 Basic Principles of a Transformer

Fig. 11 shows a general arrangement of a single-phase transformer.

Laminated Magnetic
Core field

Primary Secondary

Vp Vs Load

Ip Is

Fig. 11 A Simple Transformer Circuit

The laminated core is made from thin sheets of steel called ‘laminations’ (these
will be explained in the section 5.2; the construction of a transformer).

Two coils, a primary and a secondary are wound on the vertical section of the
core.

The secondary winding is connected to the load.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 36 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

When an alternating voltage (Vp) is applied across the primary winding, an alternating
current circulates and makes an alternating magnetic field (magnetic flux) in the laminated
core; the path of which is shown by the dotted line (Fig. 11).

When the alternating magnetic flux cuts the secondary coils, an e.m.f. is induced in them as
with a generator (module 1).

This e.m.f causes a current to flow in the secondary winding.

Each turn in the primary winding makes an equal part of the magnetic flux in the core.

In the secondary winding, each turn has an equal part of the e.m.f induced in it by the same
magnetic flux.

This means that the voltages in the primary and secondary windings are proportional to the
number of turns of each.

Then it can be said:

Voltage in the secondary Vs Number of turns in the secondary Ns

=
Voltage in the primary Vp Number of turns in the primary Np

It is also true:

Power in the primary = power in the secondary

Ip x Vp = Is x Vs

Therefore Ip / Is = Vs / Vp

It has already been shown that Vs / Vp = Ns / Np

Therefore Ip / Is = Vs / Vp = Ns / Np

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 37 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Working example:

A transformer has 1000 turns in the primary winding and 500 turns in the secondary winding.
If the primary voltage is 500V, what would be the secondary voltage?
What would the primary current be if the transformer is rated at 5000VA?

Ns/Np = Vs / Vp
500/1000 = Vs/500
0.5 x 500 = Vs
Vs = 250V

Power = Vp x Ip
5000 = 250 x Ip
5000/250 = Ip = 20Amps.

We can now put into words what this means:

a) The voltages of the primary and secondary windings are directly

proportional to the number of winding turns in the primary and secondary
coils.

b) The currents in the primary and secondary windings are oppositely

(inversely) proportional to the number of windings in the primary and
secondary coils.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 38 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

If load is applied to the secondary winding of a transformer, the current increases to provide
this load. This extra current can only be provided by an increase in the magnetic flux in the
transformer core, which is made by an increase in the current in the primary winding.

To meet large system requirements, three-phase transformers are needed.

Three single-phase transformers connected together can be the answer, or a transformer with
three windings on a common laminated core.

The next section, 5.2 will describe the construction of three-phase transformers.

Segment 4 from the videotape No 4 of ’AC/DC Theory’ will show the above points.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 39 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

5.2 Transformer Construction

A three-phase transformer normally uses three windings on a common laminated core.

Fig. 12 shows the three laminated core limbs before the windings are added.

The laminated
core limbs

Fig. 12 A Three Phase Transformer Laminated Core Limbs

The core is made up of thin steel sheets called ‘laminations’.

Each lamination is separated from the other by a layer of insulating material. This
reduces the circulating currents in the core and the heat generated by them. The
magnetic field fluctuates at 50 cycles per second and is the source of heat production.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 40 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Fig. 13 shows the windings slotted onto the laminated core limbs. The top portion of the
core (called the ‘yoke’) is not shown in position.

Limbs

Windings

Yoke

Workshop
support
blocks

Fig. 13 A Three-Phase Transformer Core with Windings during Assembly

When the laminated core and windings have been assembled, they are placed inside an oil-
filled tank. Other connections are fitted with the auxiliary systems, to ensure the satisfactory
operation of the transformer.

Small transformers do not need to be immersed in oil because the heat production is very
small. An example of this type, with the casing removed, should be available in the training
workshop. The construction can be clearly seen.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 41 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Transformers are nearly 100% efficient.

The losses include:

1. Voltage Regulation

This is the same as with the generators ‘Synchronous Reactance’ (Module 2, section 3.7).
When the load (current) of a transformer increases, the voltage drop across the resistance
and reactance (impedance) of the core and windings also increases, leaving a lower
voltage available to the secondary circuit (or load).

2. Heat losses

Heat is generated in the laminated core due to circulating currents (or eddy currents).
They are kept to a minimum by the laminated construction.

To remove this heat, the oil is used as a cooling medium, as well as for insulation. It is
pumped or naturally circulated round the tank, and then cooled by radiators that are again
cooled by fans or natural air circulation.

The total of the above energy losses is only about 5.0%, which is very small.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 42 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Fig. 14 shows a transformer with the tank, radiators and cable box. An oil reservoir (or
conservator) is also shown. This ensures that the tank is always full of oil.

Oil Conservator Tank Cable Box Radiators

Fig. 14 A Typical Oil Filled Transformer

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 43 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Fan assisted cooling is shown in Fig. 15. The fan, radiator and cable box can be clearly seen.
The conservator bottom can just be seen at the very top of the picture.

Fig. 15 Fan Assisted Cooling

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 44 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The position of the conservator is important, not only to form a head tank, but to enable part
of the protection system to be fitted. This will be discussed in section 5.3.

5.3 Transformer Protection

The static transformer is one of the most reliable pieces of electrical equipment. Faults
do occur from time to time, but the number of faults compared to the number of
transformers in service is very low.

Failures that do occur are listed below, although the different kinds react with one
another:

a) Failure in the magnetic circuit

The failure of the insulation around bolts that run through the core and yokes to
clamp the laminations is the main reason for magnetic circuit faults.
An increase in local eddy currents, as a result of lamination damage, generates heat
that can affect the coil insulation.

b) Failures in the windings

Short circuits between coils are the most likely winding fault.
This can be caused by moisture in the oil, or coil movement when switching in the
transformer.
Coil movement can be due to loose clamping arrangements.
When a transformer is switched in, ‘magnetic inrush’ creates large forces that act
upon the coils and could move them if they are not properly fixed.

c) Failures in the insulation

Moisture in the oil is a common cause of insulation failure.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 45 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Loss of insulating properties of the oil could also be due to prolonged overloading of the
transformer.

Overloading of the transformer creates heat that quickens the formation of sludge, water and
acids.
Loss of oil level creates heat, due to the restriction in oil circulation and hence cooling.

Transformer protection covers the following items.

1. Overheating
2. Overcurrent
3. Earth Faults
4. Gas Detection
5. Differential (used for large transformers and generator schemes)

1. Overheating
Is covered by temperature-sensing device with an alarm and trip setting.

2. Overcurrent
Is covered by an over current relay with an alarm and trip setting.

3. Earth Fault
Is covered by a relay that senses any flow of current to earth.

4. Gas detection
Every type of fault that happens under the oil in a transformer generates gas, which
may be a slow process or a violent one (one of the gases is acetylene that can be
detected using a simple chemical test).

A Buchholz relay is used to detect this type of fault.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 46 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The Buchholz Relay:

Fig. 15 shows a diagram of this type of relay.

This relay is simple and very effective.

It makes use of the fact that, under fault conditions, gas can be generated either slowly or
violently.

Fig. 16 A Buchholz Gas Relay

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 47 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The Buchholz relay is made up of two hinged floats in a small chamber, which is placed in
the pipe between the transformer tank and the conservator.

A slow generation of gas caused by a small fault makes a stream of bubbles that pass
upwards and towards the conservator.
They are trapped in the chamber, resulting in a slow fall of the oil level and thus lowering of
the upper float. This float has a set of alarm contacts. Fig.16 shows this upper (blue) float in
the operated position.

When a large fault occurs, a violent release of gas displaces the oil and causes a heavy oil
surge to move along the pipe towards the conservator. This moves the lower (red) float that
has a set of trip contacts.

Oil leaking from the tank could also cause the oil level to fall and operate the alarm. If action
is not taken, the oil level could fall further and trip the transformer.

Differential Protection

In section 4.2.4(c) this type of protection was discussed for use with generators. The same
applies when used for transformers:

‘It can tell the difference between internal and external faults’.

To close the section on transformer protection, Fig. 17 shows a tripping circuit logic diagram
for transformer feeders.

Study it and trace what would happen when a relay operates.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 48 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

RELAY PROTECTION USED

*ZONE 1 & 2-TRIP ONLY FOR SUBSTATIONS ‘2’
RELAY ‘T1’ & ‘T2’
When OCB on front bars
RELAY PROTECTION USED
OR
ONLY FOR CCB & NSI
*ZONE 3 & 4-TRIP
RELAY
When OCB on rear bars RELAY PROTECTION USED
ONLY FOR NSI

EARTH FAULT
TRIP RELAY

OVERCURRENT
TRIP RELAY SHUNT TRIP
OCB TRIP
COIL IN
RELAY
SWITCHGEAR
BUCHHOLZ TRIP
RELAY
OR

LOAD SHEDDING
OPEN-11 KV
TRIP SIGNAL
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
OIL TEMP.
TRIP RELAY

OIL LEVEL
TRIP RELAY

PRESS. RELIEF
TRIP RELAY

11 KV OCB AND
CLOSED
TRIP SIGNAL
OR
11 KV OCB TO
OPEN SUBSTATION

AND
TRIP SIGNAL
OCB ON FRONT FROM
BAR SUBSTATION
OR

OCB ON REAR
BAR

Fig. 17 Typical Tripping Circuit Logic Diagram for Transformer Feeders

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 49 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

6. THE REACTOR
A reactor is a piece of equipment very much like a transformer, except that it has only
one winding.

In power stations, the reactor is connected in series with a line or feeder, to limit the
size of fault current.

Series reactors look like transformers and are made up of a copper coils that form the
single winding, and is placed in an oil-filled tank.

The coils of copper are wound round an insulating material. There is no iron in the
circuit.

The insulated core has ducts passing through it, to provide a cooling path.

The reactor is only there to protect. It limits the amount of current (amps) that can flow
in a circuit, to prevent damage to other items of plant.

Protection of a reactor is similar to that of a transformer:

1. Buchholz Gas
2. Overheating
3. Oil level
4. Earth fault

Failure of reactors is rare and would be restricted to problems with the oil circuit.

Fig.18 shows a typical oil immersed reactor with radiators and fan assisted cooling.

Note that there are signs of oil leakage on the tank. This is where problems start.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 50 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

?
Fig. 18 A Typical Reactor

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 51 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

7. 11KV SUBSTATIONS AND SWITCHGEAR

What are substations and why do we need them?

When we have more than one generator, we need some way of connecting them to
consumers who want power.

The best way of doing this is to have all the generators connected together, so that they
can share the power needed.

To connect each generator to each consumer would create problems with cables and
back up, if the generator failed.

The answer is to join all the generators together and connect all the users to a common
supply. This means that the cable connecting the generators would have to be large
enough to allow the power of all the generators to flow and be distributed to the
consumers.

The connections are made using switches, and they make it possible to connect and
disconnect generators or consumers as required. This is done in one place.

This place is called a Substation

Substations have large copper conductors that can take the power of all the generators at
full load.

This conductor is made of copper laminations, joined together to form one solid bar of
copper.

This is called a Bus Bar

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 52 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

To make sure that supplies of power are reliable, more than one bus bar is used. In the case
of power plants, it is usual to have two bus bars, each divided into two halves, or sections.
This increases the cost, but makes sure that consumers can be supplied should one section of
the bus bar fail.

Fig. 19 Shows a simple Bus Bar arrangement.

A2
Rear Bus Bar
X
SECTION 1 B1 X X B2 SECTION 2

Front Bus Bar X

A1

X = Circuit Breaker
Fig. 19 A Double Bus Bar Arrangement

The diagram above shows two bus bars, front and rear, both split into two. Switches (called
circuit breakers) can be opened or closed to isolate or connect sections of bus bar.

If we open circuit breakers A2 and B1, the rear bus bar section 1 will be isolated from the
other three sections.

When circuit breakers B1 and B2 (only) are opened, the front and rear bus bars are isolated
from each other.

It can be seen that by using different groups of circuit breakers, the bus bar arrangement can
be changed.

By grouping loads and generators on different sections, the security of supplies can be
improved.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 53 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The circuit breakers are given names to let you know where they are:

A1 and A2 are called Bus Section switches because they connect or disconnect
sections of bus bar.

B1 and B2 are called Bus coupler switches because they join, or couple, bus bars
together.

These circuit breakers play an important part in the protection of substations and isolation of
bus bar sections, for maintenance work to be carried out safely.

Each consumer and generator is connected to the bus bar by its own circuit breaker. Each
one has its own connections to the bus bar and has its own control circuit connections.

Fig. 20 shows circuit breakers in a substation connected to one section of a bus bar. Together
they are called Switchgear.

Fig. 20 Substation Switchgear

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 54 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

7.1 Fault Levels

We have discussed that the bus bar must be big enough to carry all the load that the
(connected) generators can produce.

When a fault happens, in or close to a substation, very high currents will flow. This
current comes from generators or incoming feeders.

Design engineers calculate the amount of current that could flow when faults happen.
The bus bars and cables etc. are then made to carry this current without being damaged.

This value of current is called their Fault level.

Fault levels are higher than the normal current carrying capacity of the equipment and
in most cases, spare capacity is left for future extension of the power system.

7.2 Substation Protection

The bus bars in a substation are protected by a system called Bus Zone Protection.

This form of protection gets its name because it divides the bus bars into separate pieces
called zones.

The zones used are the same as the sections of bus bar discussed earlier.

Each zone is watched by a differential protection relay. It has been explained that:

Differential protection can tell the difference between internal and external faults.

When a fault happens in a zone, the differential protection will open the bus section and
bus coupler circuit breakers, to isolate that section, or zone. This was discussed using
Fig. 19.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 55 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Fig. 21 shows a typical 11KV Substation Bus Zone Protection tripping diagram.

Rear Bus Section

ZONE - 4 ZONE - 3

L.H.S. Bus Coupler R.H.S. Bus Coupler

ZONE - 1 ZONE -2

Front Bus Section

BZP SYSTEM OPEN CB FOR FRONT

IN SERVICE BUS SECTION
BZP ZONE-1
IN SERVICE ZONE – 1
AND TRIP OPEN CB FOR L.H.S.
EARTH AND
RELAYS BUS COUPLER
LEAKAGE ZONE – 1 BUS
TRIP DIFFERENTIAL AND OPEN CB’s connected to
RELAY TRIP RELAY L.H.S. FRONT BUS BAR

OPEN CB FOR FRONT

BUS SECTION
BZP ZONE-2
IN SERVICE ZONE – 2
AND OPEN CB FOR R.H.S
TRIP BUS COUPLER
ZONE – 2 BUS RELAYS
DIFFERENTIAL OPEN CB’ s connected to
TRIP RELAY RHS FRONT BUS BAR

OPEN CB FOR REAR

BUS SECTION
BZP ZONE-3
IN SERVICE ZONE –3
AND OPEN CB FOR R.H.S.
TRIP
RELAYS BUS COUPLER
ZONE – 3 BUS
DIFFERENTIAL OPEN CB’s connected to
TRIP RELAY R.H.S REAR BUS BAR

OPEN CB FOR REAR

BZP ZONE-4 BUS SECTION
IN SERVICE ZONE –4
AND TRIP OPEN CB FOR L.H.S.
RELAYS BUS COUPLER
ZONE – 4 BUS
DIFFERENTIA OPEN CB’s connected to
L TRIP RELAY L.H.S. REAR BUS BAR

RELAYS REQUIRED TO BE RESET IN MAIN

RELAY PANEL BEFORE PUTTING IN SERVICE

Fig. 21 11 KV Substation Bus Zone Protection Tripping Diagram

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 56 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

7.3 Switchgear

There are many different types of switchgear used on power systems. We will discuss
two types used in 11KV indoor substations.

7.3.1 Oil Filled Circuit Breakers

This type of circuit breaker uses insulating oil in a container or tank. The
contacts of the circuit breaker are placed inside the oil-filled tank to prevent the
electrical arc that forms when the circuit breaker is opened or closed. It is called
an OCB for short.

Insulating oil allows heavy currents to be switched without breaking down.

Fig. 22 shows a complete circuit breaker with the tank, external switch spouts
with contacts, and the smaller set of contacts for the control circuits.

Control Circuit Spouts And

Contacts Contacts Oil Tank

Fig. 22 11KV Oil Circuit Breaker Truck

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 57 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The complete unit is on wheels and is called a truck. The truck is pushed into the cubicle
that contains the female contacts mounted in the top and connected to the bus bar.

The bus bar connections are covered with doors called shutters, which move away when the
circuit breaker is lifted up to connect with the bus bar.

The shutters are there to stop any person from being able to touch the live bus bar.

They can also be locked in the closed position when the circuit breaker truck has been
withdrawn.

Bus Bar Shutters are a safety device

Fig.23 shows oil filled circuit breakers in their cubicles and connected to the bus bar.

Fig. 23 Oil Filled Circuit Breakers in the Running Position

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 58 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

If we look closely at the bottom of the picture, shown in Fig. 24, it can be seen that one
circuit breaker is not in line with the other one. Why?

Rack in
Mechanism

Rear
Bus Bar

Front
Bus Bar

Fig. 24 Circuit Breakers in Position

The white arrow on the tank shows which bus bar the circuit breaker is connected.

The one on the left is connected to the front bus bar, the one on the right to the rear bus bar.

When a circuit breaker is in the correct position, it is lifted up to connect with the bus bar.

This is done by putting a handle on the rack-in mechanism and turning it to rack in or out the
circuit breaker.

‘Racking in’ lifts the circuit breaker up and plugs it into the bus bar and control circuit
contacts.

‘Racking out’ lowers the circuit breaker away from all contacts, to isolate it from all supplies.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 59 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The truck can then be withdrawn to allow maintenance to be carried out.

Rear
Bus Bars

Front
Bus Bars

J Oil Tank

Truck

Fig. 25 Cross-Section of a Typical Oil Circuit Breaker Unit

Oil filled circuit breakers have been used for many years.

The main disadvantage with this type of circuit breaker is the oil.

Oil is a fire risk and it can also fail if it is not checked and replaced regularly. This can be
expensive.

The circuit breakers are large and bulky.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 60 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

7.3.2 Gas Filled Circuit Breakers

This type of circuit breaker uses an inert gas instead of oil.

Use of a gas makes the circuit breaker smaller, reduces maintenance and the risk of
fire.

The gas is called ‘Sulphur Hexafluoride’; SF6 for short.

SF6 is five times heavier than air and has twice the electric strength.

When this gas is broken down under electrical stress, it will very quickly return to its
normal state.

The construction of an SF6 circuit breaker is nearly the same as oil circuit breakers. It
has a truck, a cubicle and the oil tank is replaced with three sealed gas containers; one
for each phase.

The circuit breaker contacts are contained inside the gas containers. See Fig. 26.

Fig. 26 SF6 Gas Containers

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 61 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

It can be seen that the main contacts are at the front of the circuit breaker and not on the top.

Fig. 27 shows the complete circuit breaker mounted on its truck.

Fig. 27 SF6 Single Bus Bar Circuit Breaker

The example shown is for use in a single bus bar substation. They are made for use in double
bus bar substations.

When this circuit breaker is racked in or out, it moves forwards or backwards.

The cubicle still has bus bar shutters that are at the back instead of in the top (Fig. 28).

The control contacts are on a telescopic arm and are connected when the breaker is racked
in (Fig. 29).

To complete this section about switchgear, Fig. 30 shows a set of SF6 circuit breakers located
in substation 7 Das Island.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 62 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Fig. 28 An SF6 Circuit Breaker Cubicle

Fig. 29 Connecting Control Circuits for Testing

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 63 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Fig. 30 A Set of SF6 Circuit Breakers with one Racked Out

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 64 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

8. INTERCONNECTORS
What are Inter-connectors and why are they used?

An Inter-connector is length of cable, or conductor, that connects together two sets of

bus bars of equal voltage.

They are used to transfer power between substations that may also have their own
generators connected.

The power system we are looking at, the Das Island 11KV system, has three inter-
connectors joining two power stations together. See Fig. 31.

Each of the two power stations has three generators, five of which are needed to meet
the present maximum demand for power.

The standby generator can be at either power station because the inter-connecter
transmits the power to make up for its loss (i.e. at ADGAS or ADMA Power Station).

Reactor

Is Limiter

Fig. 31 Das Island Interconnection

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 65 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The existing inter-connecters are limited by their current carrying capacity and will be shortly
replaced by ones of a larger size.

It can be clearly seen (Fig. 31) that the inter-connectors have other pieces of equipment in
their circuits.

Let us look at each of them:

8.1 The Reactor

This is a current limiting device that was discussed in section 6.0 and limits the fault
current.

8.2 The Is-Limiter

The Is-limiter is a high performance current breaking device with a very short operating
time.

Tripping circuits are not just looking at the size (or magnitude) of a fault current but
also the speed at which it increases.

A high rate of increase in the magnitude of the current shows that a heavy fault or short
circuit is there.

The maximum value of fault current, at which the limiter will operate, is set so that the
safe fault level is not exceeded. Circuit breakers will operate at lower fault levels.

The commonly asked question is what does Is mean?

Is = Maximum instantaneous short-circuit current.

For our purposes we will not go any further into the technicalities; just accept this fact.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 66 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

8.2.1 Why are Is limiters used?

When the load on a power system is increased by the addition of more consumers, the
fault levels of the system increase.

This can have the result that the existing plant can no longer handle the heavier fault
currents.

To avoid an expensive upgrading of the existing equipment, Is-limiters placed within

the system can protect plant at a lower cost.

The time taken for an Is-limiter to clear a fault is less than one millisecond.

8.2.2 What does an Is-Limiter look like?

Like a big fuse but the Is-limiter can carry much heavier currents.

The Is-limiter has two separate current paths (Fig. 32). The main path is through the
Is-limiter, the second goes through a fuse connected across it.

Main current path Fuse current path

Normal operation Is-limiter operated Operation completed

Fig. 32 The Is-limiter Current Paths

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 67 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The Is-limiter breaks the main fault current and the fuse ends the action and prevents a
voltage surge.

8.2.3 How does an Is-Limiter work?

A fault current cannot be broken (interrupted) in one millisecond or less by

mechanical means.

Circuit Breakers use mechanical linkages to operate.

The Is-Limiter has an explosive charge inside it with a detonator connected.

An electronic tripping circuit sees the fast increase in current, sends a signal to fire the
explosive charge and breaks the main circuit.

The current then goes through the fuse that blows and completes the operation.

Control Cabinet
with Electronic
Tripping Circuits

Fuses for each

Phase

Main Current
Breaker for
each Phase

Fig. 33 The Is-Limiter

The Is-Limiter is not only used on inter-connectors, it is used on generator and transformer
circuits.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 68 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

8.3 Interconnector Protection

The above pieces of equipment are part of the power system protection.

A typical inter-connector tripping logic diagram is shown in Fig. 34.

You will see one item we have not mentioned before, the Solkor differential protection.

Solkor is a manufacturer’s name for differential feeder protection, that works in the
same way as the differential protection we have discussed earlier.

Neutral Protection is also shown. This will be discussed and explained in section 9.0.

Study Fig. 34 and trace what happens when the different types of protection operate.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 69 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

NEUTRAL
PROTECTION

*ZONE 1-TRIP RELAY

When OCB on front bars

OR
*ZONE 4-TRIP RELAY
When OCB on rear bars

EARTH FAULT TRIP OCB TRIP SHUNT TRIP

RELAY RELAY COIL IN
SWITCHGEAR

OVERCURRENT TRIP
RELAY

OPEN-11 KV
REACTOR BUCHHOLZ
CIRCUIT
TRIP RELAY
BREAKER

SOLKOR
DIFFERENTIAL TRIP
RELAY

11 KV OCB CLOSED

AND
TRIP SIGNAL
RECEIVED FROM
ADMA INTER-TRIP
SIGNAL TO
ADMA

INTER-TRIP
SIGNSL FROM
ADMA

RELAYS REQUIRED TO BE RESET

IN METERING RELAY PANEL ADMA 1 – ZONE 1 & ZONE 4
BEFORE FEEDER IS PUT BACK IN * ADMA 2 & 3 – ZONE 2 & ZONE 3
SERVICE

Fig. 34 Typical Tripping Circuit Logic Diagram for Interconnectors

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 70 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

9. THE NEUTRAL EARTHING SYSTEM

Statement:

No point of any power system should operate with the neutral point unearthed.

A neutral point is the place that is neutral when the all phases are balanced. No current
flows and the voltage (potential) is zero.

What is earth?

Earth is the general mass of the ground or the planet.

In electrical terms, it is at zero potential, the base line above which most voltages (or
potentials) are measured.

Power stations have a large earth grid to which all equipment earths are connected.

The grid is connected to the earth. In remote areas, an earth pit is made and is kept wet
to increase its conductivity.

If a neutral point is connected to earth, there should be no current flowing because they
are both at the same potential (or voltage).

If a fault happens, the system becomes unbalanced and the potential rises as the neutral
rises.

From ‘Ohm’s Law, Module 1. Section 3.1, an increase in potential will cause a current
to flow.

This fact is the basis of Neutral Earth Protection systems.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 71 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

When a generator terminal voltage is the same as the bus bar voltage, a direct connection
from the neutral point to earth is used.

Direct connection generators are subject to full system voltage surges and lightening stress.

To limit the size (magnitude) of the surges, the generator neutral is normally earthed via a
resistance. This limits the current to a value that is less than the generator,s full load.

When we look at our typical power system (Das Island) Fig. 35, a section of an actual TDC
3000 graphic shows the way in which the generator neutrals are earthed.

Resistance Resistance Resistance

Fig. 35 Generator Neutral Earthing System

The diagram shows the neutral earthing resistances at the bottom of the picture (Fig. 35).

= OCB Closed.
= OCB Open.
= Generator on load.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 72 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

9.1 Earthing Resistances

Earthing resistances are usually connected to the neutral points of electrical systems;
their functions being to limit the earth fault current.

There are two types of earthing resistances:

1. Liquid resistances.
2. Metal resistances.

Liquid earthing resistances are usually found connected to generator neutral points,
while metal resistances are sometimes used on electrical auxiliary systems.

9.2 Liquid Earthing Resistances

A Liquid earthing resistance is usually made up of a metal tank filled with a liquid of
known resistance (electrolyte).

The electrolyte is usually a weak solution of sodium carbonate, that is an alkaline

solution, and thus helps stop tank corrosion.

An electrode passes through the top of the tank via an insulated bush, into the liquid.
The tank is connected to earth.

From Generator Neutral

Insulate Bush
Tank

Electrode

Electrolyte
Earth

Fig. 36 Liquid Earthing Resistance

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 73 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The electrode is connected to the generator neutral point.

The fault current path is to the electrode through the electrolyte to the tank, and finally
to earth.

9.3 Metal Earthing Resistances

Metal earthing resistances are made of a continuous metal strip.

The metal resistance is placed inside metal screens, from which it is insulated and
connections pass through insulated bushes.

The neutral is connected to one end of the resistance, the other is connected to earth.

9.4 Operating Practice

At no time should a generator be run fully excited, without being connected to the
neutral earthing system.

Individual power stations should always have one on-load generator connected to the
neutral earthing system.

In smaller systems (Das Island), where two power stations operate connected together,
it needs only one power station to have one of its generator neutrals connected, via the
resistance, to the main earth. (See Fig. 35)

Should the two stations become separated, they must each have a neutral earth
connection.

The reason for only one station having its neutral connected to the main earth, is that
circulating currents can flow between two neutral earth connections and cause faulty
operation of protection systems.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 74 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The following operating procedures should be followed when operating generators on an

interconnected system.

1. The neutral earth circuit breaker must be closed before a generator is run up or when
it is taken off load.

2. When the generator is connected (synchronized) to the system, the neutral earth
circuit breaker should by opened.

3. If the on-load generator is being used for the neutral earth connection, trips or is shut
down, the neutral earth circuit breaker on another on-load generator must be closed.

4. When the two power stations become electrically disconnected, the neutral earth
connections of both power stations should be closed to the main earth, and one
opened when the system is back to normal.

If a generator is running on load without having its neutral connected, the protection loses its
reference and does not function.

On our typical system (Das Island), if the current in the neutral is greater than 400 amps, the
protection will trip all running generators and open all inter-connectors between the two
power stations.

This avoids damage to running machines and keeps those on load at the unaffected station.

Fig. 37 shows the tripping circuit logic diagram for the ADGAS plant.

The ADMA power station has the same type of system that would shut down its own on load
generators and disconnect from ADGAS. Currents flowing in the neutral earth connections
can have serious results for power generation. Supervisors of electrical generating plant
should always be aware of them. Study Fig. 37.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 75 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

RESISTOR No 2 IDMT RESISTOR No 1 IDMT

EARTH FAULT RELAY EARTH FAULT RELAY
RELAYS REQUIRED TO BE RESET IN
METERING RELAY PANEL BEFORE
FEEDER IS PUT BACK IN SERVICE.
RESISTOR No 2 RESISTOR No 1
TRIPPING RELAY TRIPPING RELAY

‘LG 1’ NEUTRAL OCB

CLOSE
AND

OR ‘LG1’ 11 KV OCB
TRIPPING RELAY

‘LG 2’ NEUTRAL OCB

CLOSE
AND

OR ‘LG2’ 11 KV OCB
TRIPPING RELAY

‘LG 5’ NEUTRAL OCB

CLOSE
AND

OR ‘LG5’ 11 KV OCB
TRIPPING RELAY

‘ADMA 1’ NEUTRAL OCB

CLOSE
AND

OR ‘ADMA 1’ 11 KV
OCB TRIPPING

‘ADMA 2’ NEUTRAL OCB

CLOSE
AND

OR ‘ADMA 2’ 11 KV
OCB TRIPPING

‘ADMA 3’ NEUTRAL OCB

CLOSE
AND

OR ‘ADMA 3’ 11 KV
OCB TRIPPING

Fig. 37 Tripping Circuit Logic Diagram for ADGAS Neutral Earth Protection.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 76 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

10. LOAD SHEDDING

Before we discuss the load shedding system let us look at what shedding means.

The English dictionary states:

• SHEDDING – To discard; lose (a load) accidentally.

The first part of this definition ‘to discard’ is the term that applies to our situation. This
means to get rid of.

We can now say that load shedding means to get rid of load we do not want.

Why would we want to get rid of load?

When the amount of power wanted by the consumers is greater than the amount of
power the generators can make the power system becomes overloaded and may become
unstable.

There are different signs of this happening that the operator can see:

1. The generator temperatures rise because it is operating near to its ‘operating

limits’ (Module 2 section 7.0). The generator could trip if the supervisor does
not take action.

2. The frequency of the power system could start to fall.

3. The voltage of the power system could start to fall.

If the above things happen slowly the reason could be that there are not enough
generators to supply the power needed.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 77 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The supervisor must be aware of how much generation is available to meet the power
demand and take action before any of the above signs appear.

Under fault conditions, the loss of a generator or a system surge, things happen very quickly.

An OCB opens in less than 100 milliseconds.

The supervisor may not be quick enough to get rid of the overload and prevent a major power
failure.

To help him an Automatic Load Shedding System is used that is fast and can also see
danger levels coming.

It is said to anticipate (see in advance) a generation shortage, warn the supervisor by an alarm
and take action if the problem is not dealt with.

10.1 Automatic Load Shedding

The typical power system (Das Island) we are looking at is 110MW of generation with
two power stations of nearly the same capacity. Each has three generators.

This power system is small enough to be an isolated power system but also behave
like an infinite power system.

Review Module 2 section 6.0 pages 31 to 33. You will find it useful to repeat
exercises 5, 6, 7, 12, 13 and 14 on the CD Rom ‘The AC Generator’.

This review will refresh your memory to help you know when you are nearing an
operating limit and enable you to take action before a major problem occurs.

After looking at what we should do to prevent a power failure let us look at what the
automatic load shedding could do, under a fault conditions, to stabilize the power
system.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 78 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The automatic load shedding on our typical system is controlled by a PLC.

A PLC is a Programmable Logic Controller:

The PLC has computer software to control its actions. This software can be programmed to
meet a lot of different conditions, gather information and work out the best course of action
to solve the problem.

The system we are looking at has a redundant PLC layout.

That means one PLC is on duty and watching the power system, the other is on standby
should it fail.

If the duty PLC fails the back up PLC will take over to control the load shedding.

The supervisor will get an alarm to warn him that the first unit has failed he must take action
to have it checked and made available once more.

If both PLCs fail the system will ‘freeze’ and auto load shedding will be lost.

The above information will be detailed in your local operating procedures that you should
read, understand and follow.

How does the PLC know when and what to shed?

1. The PLC gets signals (information) that tell it which generators are on load, how
much power they can provide.

2. Information about how much power the system is using (load) is also given to the
PLC. (This is an instantaneous value of the total power generation).

3. The system frequency and voltage are also monitored.

4. The supervisor can also make manual input to tell the PLC which loads should be
shed and which should not.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 79 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Items 1 & 2 total available power and total instant power being generated are looked at and
checked to see if there is enough power available to meet the power needed.

If available power is less than instant power load shedding will start.

What loads are to be shed has been programmed into the PLC as software. Manual inputs
(item 4) change this to suit system conditions.

System frequency and voltage (item 3) are checked. If the frequency falls to 49.0 Hz for
1 second or the system voltage falls below 50% for 1 second load shedding will start.

If the system frequency and voltage stay below the above values load shedding will continue,
even if the available power against instant power is ok.

We will now discuss the steps and stages of load shedding for our typical system on Das
Island.

Look at Fig. 38 the load shedding function block diagram and follow what the automatic load
shedding does.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 80 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Fig. 38 Load Shedding Function Block Diagram

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 81 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

10.2 Power Calculations

The section of the diagram to the left of the red dotted line is where the power
calculations are done.

At the top these question are asked:

1. Is the generator in service?

2. Are the interconectors open? (in the cases of GT’s 1, 2 & 3).
3. Is the passout in service for LG’s 1 & 2?

When all three questions have been answered the maximum power available can be
calculated.

Example: Generators GT1, GT3, LG5, LG1 (in condensing mode) and LG2 on full
passout, are in service. All interconectors closed. What is the maximum
available power for the PLC to use?

Answer (18+18+17+12+17) MW = 82MW

What available power would the PLC use if the interconectors were
open?

Answer 46MW this is because the PLC does not use the power available at Adma
Power Station.

If the power system is running as two separate halves the PLC will only look after the
Adgas loads and the Adma load shedding system will look after its own area.

When the power system is fully connected together the PLC will protect it all with the
Adma system as back up. This is because the PLC is faster than a hard-wired relay
based system.

Next the available power is compared to the total instant power (load) to find out if the
generators can meet the power needed. This is being done all the time by the PLC.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 82 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

If the power available is not enough, to meet demand, load shedding will start.

The size of the load shed will depend upon the size of the shortfall in available power.

The PLC also looks at the system voltage and frequency to make sure that they are
within the set limits. If not it will start to load shed (as discussed earlier).

10.3 Loads to be Shed

The next part of the diagram, between the red dotted line and the blue dotted line,
selects which loads are to be shed.

To do this the PLC asks more questions:

1. Is the load selected ‘not on shed’ (NS)?

2. Are the interconectors open (I/C)?
3. Has the load already been shed (OP)?

If the answer to any of the above questions is yes this level of load shed will go to the
next level and repeat the questions until the correct amount of load has been shed.

10.4 Load Shedding Stages

In any power system what and when loads are shed must be clearly defined.

The items of plant that are selected for load shedding is decided by power system
managers.

The priority (the order in which they are shed) is also decided.

To make these decisions the amount of load needed for each step (level) and the
importance of each plant item is looked at.

In our typical Power System the decisions were made and are listed below.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 83 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

10.4.1 1st Stage Load Shedding

The levels, or steps, of load shedding are as follows:

Look at Fig. 38 at the right of the blue dotted line. Numbers in brackets below are
the amount of load the PLC wants to shed.

Level ‘A’ Sahil Ring 1 (1-4MW) not shed if interconnectors are open.

Level ‘B’ Level ‘A’ + Sahil Ring 2 (4-6MW) not shed if interconnectors are
open.

Level ‘C’ Level ‘B’ + Camp Al-Jimi + 1 CW pump + SW2 chlorinators + 11KV
drivers L.
Auto-start inhibit (6-11MW).

Level ‘D’ Level ‘C’ + Sharq/industrial (11-15MW) not shed if interconnectors

are open.

Level ‘E’ Level ‘D’ + Substation 2 + LNG 3 Sulphur Plant Blowers (15-19MW).

Level ‘F’ Level ‘E’ + Substation 6 (19-26MW)

Level ‘G’ Level ‘F’ + 2nd CW pump (or two CW pumps if the 1st pump has not
been shed + No.1 or 2 process train (26-30MW)

The sequence of Stage 1 operation:

If the 11KV system voltage falls to below 50% for 1 second, or the frequency to
49 Hz for 1 second, then level ‘A’ will be shed.

After level ‘A’ has been shed the power availability against instant power may
require more load to be shed, then level ‘B’ will be shed after one second.

This continues every second until the system is stable.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 84 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

If the system voltage and frequency are still below 50% and 49 Hz after 2, 3 & 4
seconds more levels will be shed, even if the available power against instant power is
satisfactory.

If all interconnectors are open or the fibre-optic link (the information cable) is
not working all Adma-Opco generation is ignored and levels A, B & D of shed
will not be operated.

10.4.2 2nd Stage Load Shedding

If the instant power is 30MW > (greater than) the available power, stage 2 load
shedding will take place.

Should the 11KV system frequency fall to 48Hz for 2 seconds, or to 46Hz instantly
the following auto-load shedding will operate:

1. Trip Sahil Rings 1 & 2.

2. Trip Sharq/Industrial.
3. Trip Camp Al-Jimi.
4 Trip SW2 chlorinators.
5. Inhibit 11KV drivers auto-start.
6 Trip substation 2 & Sulphur plant blowers.
7 Trip substation 6.
8 Trip All CW pumps.
9 Trip Both process trains.
10 Trip selected steam/turbo generator (the one selected).
11 Open PV 112 supplementary cooling to steam/turbo generators
12 Open PV 305 &306 supplementary cooling to LGs 1 & 2.
13 Open PV 113 supplementary cooling to Utilities aux. Plant.
14 Start Diesel firewater Pumps.

Refer to Fig. 38 Load Shedding Function Block Diagram.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 85 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

When Stage 2 load shedding has operated the plant is running with only essential
services ready for a restart of major plant items.

The Auto-Load Shedding system is important but supervisors should understand what it does
and be prepared to carry out its function manually if it fails or is not in service.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 86 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

11. VOLTAGE CONTROL

Before we go on to voltage control we must again look at the definitions of generator
power output. Refer to Module 2 section 5.0 ‘Generator Power Output Definitions’.

The three units of power are:

1. True power (MW)

2. Reactive power (Mvar)
3. Apparent power (MVA)

The relationship between these three units, shown in Module 2, is important and is
known as the ‘Power Triangle’. (Repeated below Fig. 39).

11.1 The Power Triangle

S = MVA

Q = Mvar

P = MW

Fig. 39 The Power Triangle

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 87 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The relationship can be expressed using Pythagoras’ theorem.

• S = √ (P2 + Q2)
• MVA = √ (MW2 + Mvar2)

As we have discussed before:

• In a purely resistive circuit the voltage and current are always in phase. As a result
true power is being delivered to the resistor.

• In a purely inductive circuit the current lags the voltage by 90º. This power is not
used by the inductor but returned to back to the generator. It circulates and makes
things like transformers work. This called reactive power.

• In a purely capacitive circuit the current leads the voltage by 90º. As with the
inductor the power circulates and is again called reactive power.

Inductive Mvar supply the magnetic fields of motors, transformers and transmission
lines. These inductive loads of a system are considered “sinks” of Mvar. Without
this Mvar, magnetic equipment would not work.

Capacitive loads are considered “sources” of Mvar. Capacitive Mvar flow toward the
generator.

If we now look at the power triangle again (Fig. 39) the relationship between MVA
and MW can be expressed as:

MW = MVA x cos φ

Where cos φ is equal to the power factor of the system.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 88 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

A power factor (pf) of 0.8 means that only 80% of the apparent power is true power. A
generator operating at 100MVA will only be delivering 80MW.

When the power factor is 1.0, or unity pf, all of the power is true power.

We have stated that unity power factor happens in a purely resistive circuit. Unity power
factor also exists when the inductive Mvar is equal to the capacitive Mvar and cancel each
other out (one lags by 90º the other leads by 90º).

The video understanding VARs should now be shown (30 mins).

Now that you understand the above we can move on to look at power system losses.

11.2 System Losses

There are two losses that we will consider, our typical power system.

1. Resistive losses (I²R) are called heat losses and are supplied by the generators.
Resistance within transformers and other equipment make up some of these
losses.

2. Reactive (Mvar) is considered as a loss because they are needed by equipment

but are not used by the load.

Item 1 Heat losses, I²R, increase as the current, or load, increases.

A simple way to remember these losses was given to me by my lecturer and is:

If you look at a high voltage overhead line you will notice that birds seem to perch on
them in large groups.

I²R losses in the form of heat are “Warming the birds feet”. This is the only useful
function that this loss performs.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 89 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Item 2 Reactive (MVar) losses. As we have discussed before the system needs Vars
to make the magnetic (inductive) circuits work.

We cannot reduce the Var needs of a system but we can reduce the current in
interconnectors between substations with generators connected to them.

Depending on system conditions the excitation of the generators can be adjusted so

that they supply the reactive power needed by their own connected system.

This means that the maximum true power is transmitted with a minimum of reactive
power.

In theory this sounds to be an easy option but it is not always possible to do this.
Generator operating limits have to be considered.

11.3 System Voltage

On the small system of Das Island, voltage is controlled by the generation of reactive
power.

Power systems usually have a target operating voltage with a + or- 2% deviation.

Das Island 11KV system has a target operating voltage of 11.1KV with + or -1%.

By raising or lowering the excitation of the on load generators the supervisor can
obtain the target voltage.

When a large piece of inductive equipment is being brought into service (large motor
or a transformer) the supervisor must make sure that the system voltage is set up to
absorb the voltage dip when the equipment is switched in.

If the voltage is allowed to drop too low during this operation the system could go
unstable and/or other items of electrical plant trip.

The voltage to consumers can be controlled by another method that we have not
discussed.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 90 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Transformer tap changers.

In section 5.0 it was stated that the secondary voltage of a transformer depends on the number
of coils in the secondary winding compared with those in the primary.

If the number of coils in one of the windings can be changed it follows that the transformer
output voltage would be changed.

Connecting to, tapping into, points on the winding and fitting contacts do this.

To simplify the explanation we will consider tapping into the secondary winding.

Fig. 40 is a simple circuit to show the principle of tap changing.

Vp A
Vs

Fig. 40 A Simple Tap Change Circuit

The red section represents the transformer primary winding the blue the secondary.

If a constant voltage Vp is applied to the primary winding it will induce, via the magnetic
flux, a voltage Vs in the secondary winding depending on the number of coils in it (discussed
in section 5.0).

After fitting connections (tapings) to the secondary windings if the connection A is moved up
or down the number of coils in circuit will be more or less.

From our previous discussions the secondary voltage will change.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 91 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

When this principle is used on power system transformers it means that the consumer voltage
can be controlled without moving the system voltage.

On large power systems the tap changing can be done with the transformer on load.

On our typical system tap changing is available on some transformers but can only be done
with the transformer out of service. In this case the taps are only changed when the inductive
load is high (in summer) or low (in winter). Air conditioning units are the main reason for
the load change.

To end this section:

Voltage control of the Das Island power system is done by the use of the generator AVR
circuits.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 92 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

12. EMERGENCY AND BACK-UP SYSTEMS

What is an Emergency System and what is a Back-Up System?

We will look at, explain and discuss, what they are, how they work and what our typical
system has.

12.1 Emergency Systems

The emergency systems are systems that are used when the primary systems have
failed.

Power systems use emergency generators that are designed to cut in when they
see a no voltage situation.

Emergency generators are usually connected to a switchboard that supplies

essential loads, to enable the shut down plant to be made safe and then restarted.

Fig. 41 shows one scheme that is used on an LNG plant and shows a typical
layout of a system that uses two different types of generator-driver.

The gas turbine driven generator is a package unit that is designed to operate in
remote areas.

The steam turbine driven generators are dependant on other systems to be able to
run and therefore need emergency auxiliaries to protect them until the fuel supply
can be restored.

The emergency power supplies shown by Fig. 41 are typical of the Das LNG
plant.

We shall now discuss this system and apply it to the Das plant.

The green lines in the diagram represent the normal 415V power supplies that are
fed from the ‘UB’ 415V switchboard.

Red lines show the emergency power supplies feed the ‘UC’ emergency 415V
switchboard when the normal supplies fail.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 93 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

If you look at the operating procedure for your plant it will list the circuits that take power
from the ‘UC’ 415V switchboard.

In Fig. 41 there are two feeds from the ‘UB’ to the ‘UC’ switchboard, each connected to one
side of it.

A third supply goes to the gas turbine 415V auxiliary switchboard.

The ‘UC’ switchboard can be supplied from two emergency diesel generators, one on each
side of the board.

(UB) NORMAL 415V SUPPLY SWITCHBOARD

STEAM TURBINE DC
L.O.PUMPS AND
TURNING GEAR

EMERGENCY EMERGENCY
DIESEL DIESEL B
GENERATOR GENERATOR
No. 2 No. 1
BC

(UC) EMERGENCY 415V

SWITCHBOARD

EMERGENCY EMERGENCY
LIGHTING LIGHTING

BLACK START DIESEL AIR CIRCUIT

BREAKER C CONTACTOR
GENERATOR
C C C
BATTERY
BC B BATTERY
GAS TURBINE 415V CHARGER
AUX BRD

Fig. 41 Emergency Power Supplies

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 94 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

A third diesel generator is provided for the gas turbine auxiliary board. This is called a black
start generator.

Under normal operating conditions, both emergency diesel generators are on auto standby
with one of the 415V bus section switches open.

If one of the diesel generators is not available both 415V bus section switches must be
closed.

When power supplies are lost from the ‘UB’ 415V switchboard:

1. The two feeders to the ‘UC’ 415V switchboard will trip.

2. Both emergency diesel generators will start, run up and their circuit breakers will
automatically close and feed power to the ‘UC’ 415V switchboard.

3. The changeover contactors at the gas turbine 415V Aux. Switchboard will change
to the black start generator position. The generator does not start automatically.
The supervisor must start it.

Once emergency supplies are available the power system can be checked and prepared for
restarting.

There are other emergency diesel generators located around the power system.

a) One to supply the central control building 415V switchboard.

b) Another located at the Adma Power Station to feed the 415V station auxiliary
switchboard.

The emergency systems should be checked regularly to ensure that when they are needed
they start.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 95 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

12.2 Back up Power Supply Systems

Back up systems supply constant and smooth power supplies to instruments and
control circuits.

They are in service all the time and contain battery banks for use during power
failures.

Instrument power supplies are fed via these units at key locations all over the plant
area, in all outstations.

There are two kinds of back up power supply systems:

1. 110V AC and 240V AC Uninterrupted power supply (UPS).

2. 120V DC and 24V DC No break power supplies (NBS).

We will look at each in turn to see what they do and describe how they do it.

12.3 110V AC Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS)

The UPS is made with a 100% hot standby and back up unit. That is two units, one in
service and the other ready to take over if the first one fails.

Each UPS unit is made up of a battery charger, an inverter, a battery bank,

static/manual changeover switches and a bypass transformer. (See Fig. 42).

The 415V AC supply can be fed from one of two places:

a) The central control building 415V switchboard.

b) The substation 415V switchboard.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 96 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

415V AC SWITCHBOARD
415V AC 415V AC
SUPPLY SUPPLY
FROM FROM
CCB SUBSTN

AUTO CHANGEOVER SWITCH

UPS 1 UPS 2

= =

= =
BY PASS
TRANSFORMER

STATIC AND
MANUAL
CHANGEOVER
SWITCHES

110V AC DISTRIBUTION BOARD

Fig. 42 110V AC Uninterrupted Power Supply Circuit

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 97 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The two power supplies are connected using an automatic changeover switch that changes to
the alternate supply if one fails.

The 415V supply then passes through the charger unit and is changed from AC to DC.

A battery bank is connected to the DC side of the charger that also feeds into the inverter that
changes it from DC to AC.

In the case of main incoming 415V AC supply failure the battery will give DC power to the
inverter.

The instrument power supply then goes by a static or manual switch to the 110V ac
distribution board.

In the case of an overload, or an inverter fault, the static switch will automatically switch to
the standby UPS.

Should the second unit also fail the static switch will change to the by-pass transformer.

The manual switch is used to isolate a unit for maintenance.

Each battery bank can supply 100% designed load for a maximum of 30 minutes.

Fig. 43 and 44 show UPS units and static/manual switching.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 98 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Fig. 43 UPS Units In The Central Control Building

Fig. 44 UPS Static And Manual Switches

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 99 of 132
 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

12.4 120V DC No Break Power Supplies (NBS)

The NBS system is made up of a rectifier (battery charger) and a battery bank.

Fig. 45 shows a typical NBS system circuit diagram with the two units connected in
parallel.

This means that the two units share the load but each one can supply the total demand
should one unit fail.

No switches are required to bring the other unit into service.

In the case of failure of the main 415V supply, from the switchboard, the load can be
supplied by the battery at 100% designed load for a maximum of 30 minutes.

Should one NBS unit fail (including the battery back-up) the second unit will take the
full load ensuring no break in DC output voltage.

A picture of a NBS unit mounted in an outstation is shown in Fig. 46. The battery
bank can be seen at the left hand side of to panel.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 100 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

415V AC 415V AC
SUPPLY SUPPLY
FROM 415V AC SWITCHBOARD FROM
CCB SUBSTN

AUTO CHANGEOVER SWITCH

NBS 1 NBS 2

= =

BATTERY BATTERY

120 DC DISTRIBUTION BOARD

Fig. 45 120V DC No Break Supply Circuit

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 101 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Fig. 46 120V DC No Break Supply Unit

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 102 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The emergency, UPS and NBS systems are important to prevent major damage to plant
during power disturbances.

It is also important that the supervisor understands the function of these systems and
recognizes the priority of any alarms that may affect them.

We have now covered the major components of our power system.

We have discussed, explained and described:

1. What they each are.

2. What they each do.

3. Why each is needed.

The next step is to look at the whole power system.

A power system is made up of the different components that we have discussed. They all
work using the same basic electrical principles.

We will now examine what sort of things may go wrong with a system and what the electrical
power supervisor could do to limit the effect such incidents.

In the next section power failures and blackouts will be discussed.

Recovery from such events will be studied and where possible we will look at some actual
incidents to see if we can find out why we think they happened.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 103 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

13. THE POWER SYSTEM

There are two terms used to describe loss of power when talking about a power system.

1. Power failure.

2. Power blackout.

Power failure Describes a situation when power is lost in a part of a system. It is a

local area power loss and maybe caused by the loss of a substation
or feeder supplying a consumer.

Power blackout This situation is more serious because power is not available to any
part of the system. The power system is dead (at zero voltage).
The primary, high voltage system, has failed.

Power failures are the result of faults in individual items of equipment that causes the
protection to operate and isolate it from the main power system.

In some cases a power failure can develop into a power blackout. This could happen if
the power system is not being operated in a secure manner and the system surge caused
by the original fault causes cascade tripping.

An example of cascade tripping is when the loss of one item of plant puts more load
onto another piece of fully loaded plant which then trips and puts more load onto
another section of plant and so on.

We will now look at what the electrical supervisor can do to minimize the risk of power
failures and blackouts.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 104 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

13.1 Power System Control Parameters

What do we mean by a parameter?

A parameter is a numerical value that defines a system limit that defines the scope of
operation.

Simply it tells us the range in which we must operate.

The two major parameters for controlling a power system are:

1. Frequency

2. Voltage

We have discussed these two items earlier. How do we control them?

The frequency and voltage of our power system is controlled by the generator outputs.

The frequency is determined by how much true power (MW) the generators supply to
the system compared with how much the consumers want (the power demand).

The operating parameter of our system is 50Hz.

If the frequency is low the demand for true power (MW) is higher than the generation.
The generation of MWs must be increased or the demand must be reduced, to meet the
set parameter.

Should the frequency rise it follows that true power generation must be reduced.

The turbine governor controls the MW output of a generator.

The system voltage parameter, of our system, is 11.1KV ± 1%.

The system voltage is determined by how much reactive power (MVAr) the
generators supply compared with how much the system needs.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 105 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

If the system voltage is low the generation of MVAr must be increased to obtain the
operating parameter.

When the system voltage rises above the set value the generation of Mvar must be reduced.

The generation of reactive power is controlled by AVR and the machine excitation controls.

As it has been stated earlier and in module 2:

When adjusting generator power outputs observe the ‘Generator Operating Limits’
Exercises 8, 9, 10, and 11 should be carried out from
‘The AC Generator’ CD Rom.

The above two parameters ensure system stability, if they are properly observed.

A misunderstanding that many inexperienced operators have is that of Power factor.

If the system frequency and the voltage are kept within set parameters the power factor is a
fixed value.

The power factor is determined by the size and type of the system load.

Look again at section11.1, Fig.39 the power triangle.

If the frequency is at the right value then the MW generation is correct.

If the voltage is at the correct value then the MVAr generation is correct.

Therefore the value of cos Φ (power factor) is also set because of the relationship between
MW, MVAr and MVA.

The only way the power factor can change is by a reduction or increase of system inductive
or capacitive load.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 106 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

13.2 Plant and Feeder Loads

When we talk about the rating of cables, circuits or plant items they are rated in MVA.

This is the design rating of the circuit.

The supervisor who is operating the plant needs to know what power the circuit can
safely carry.

There is no indication of the MVA (apparent power) of a circuit shown on any of the
control panel indications.

Indication of MW (true power) and MVAr (reactive power) is provided.

We have learnt that MW and MVAr are only parts of the total power being transmitted
by a circuit.

Many people look at MW and use it as a parameter for the circuit load carrying
capacity. This is wrong!!

MW indication does not take into account the reactive power (MVAr) required by the
system.

At unity power factor true power (MW) values can be used but at 0.8pf this is only
80% of the actual power being transmitted (refer to section 11.0).

How does the supervisor know the actual load on a circuit or feeder is within its rated
full load value? Where is the missing 20% indicated?

We must look for a common unit that is present in MW, MVAr and MVA and will
indicate the total instantaneous value of actual load.

Watts = ³√ VI cos Φ (power factor)

VAr r = ³√ VI sin Φ
VA = ³√ VI

We know from the power triangle that VA = √ (W²+ VAr²).

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 107 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The only common factor is current (amps) which will give an indication of the total load on
the circuit.

When looking at indications on a control panel the current being displayed is the algebraic
sum of in phase and out of phase components. It is an indication of total power flow.

All power system operators should use current as an indication of how much load a circuit is
carrying, because it includes the current of the reactive power (or out of phase component).

Full load rating is always given in amps and so are the alarm and trip values.

Get into the habit of looking at what the current values are it will help you compare
actual load flows on different parts of the system.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 108 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

13.3 Operating Guidelines

Problems occur on power systems when a few basic rules are not followed.

1. Persons controlling the power system should know the operating limits of
all the items of plant.

2. The power system should be set up to minimize the risk of instability in

the case of sudden changes in the load demand or power surges.

3. System load changes will alter the power flows and system parameters.
Observe, note and act to restore secure operating conditions.

4. When maintenance or switching operations are being carried out on the

system control and understand what is being done and why.

Item 1. We have discussed what operating limits are and what they mean to different
items of plant. You should find out what the actual operating limits are for
your particular generators, transformers and feeders etc.
The information is contained in, manuals, procedures standing instructions
and the TDC 3000 point detail displays. Read, learn and apply.

Item 2. The first thing that must be done to ‘set up’ the power system is to make
sure there are enough generators on load to meet the demand. The rule used
for this is (N+1) where ‘N’ is the number of generators needed to meet the
load plus ‘1’ for spinning spare.
Spinning spare is generation available to cover the loss of the largest on load
generator.
For example if the total demand was 52.5MW and each generator can
generate 17.5MW how many generators should be on load?

Answer: (52.5/17.5) + 1 = 3+1 = 4

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 109 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

The next item is to make sure that generators share the power required leaving room for the
governors and AVRs to work without reaching any operating limitations. This is called ‘free
governor action’.

A final point to is ensure that interconnectors are not fully loaded and can pick up extra load
should it be required. Depending on where the generators are located it may be necessary to
run them at different outputs to change the interconnector loading, but free governor action
should still be maintained.

Item 3. This is the item that can help supervisors to anticipate possible problems before
they happen. Watch for system changes or movement in power flows, they can be
signs of a problem downstream of the generation. Don’t rely on alarms to let you
know of a problem, it could be too late for you to take action.

Item 4. Switching operations are the act of closing or opening high voltage circuit
breakers. Synchronizing a generator is one of the most important of these
operations. We have discussed and practiced this operation. When you are
carrying out this operation make sure that all the parameters are correct.
Concentrate on the task in hand and discourage other people from distracting or
interfering with your task until it has been completed.
When it is intended to carry out an operation involving switching in remote
substations as well as the central control room discuss, write down what is going
to be done and control the operation.
Be aware of all maintenance being carried out on the power system, check and
read any permits to work. If you have any doubts discuss them with your
engineer.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 110 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

13.4 Recovery from Emergencies

We have discussed how we should operate to try to avoid a blackout situation. If one
does happen there is a sequence of actions to be taken.

When a blackout occurs the electrical power supervisor should follow an agreed
course of action:

The following items are a guide to help supervisors deal with an emergency
situation. They do not supersede emergency and plant operating procedures.

1. Asses the plant situation

Ensure the plant is in a safe condition and there are no fuel or gas leaks these must
be attended to before any other action is taken.
Check that the emergency generators have started and that emergency supplies to
essential services are established.
Establish the extent of the fault that caused the incident.
Call out personnel as per the standing instructions.

2. Prepare to restart generation

Ensure that the faulty equipment is isolated.
At the 11KV substations ensure that all incoming and out going 11KV circuit
breakers are open and the 11KV system is ready to be re-energised.
Check which generator is to be used to re-establish power supplies and make sure
that all auxiliary equipment has electrical supplies.

3. Re-establishing system power supplies

Start the selected generator and run up to full speed no load ready to energize the
11KV bus bars.
Close the generator 11KV circuit breaker using the dead bus bar selection and
increase the generator voltage and frequency ready to accept load.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 111 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Increasing the voltage and frequency of the generator to a higher value than normal will help
to prevent the generator tripping when a load switched in.
Start to re-establish system load making sure that the system is stable between each step.
Start generators before the running machines reach are fully loaded.
Gradually increase system load taking time to check that there is always enough generators
on load to maintain system stability.

Fig. 47 shows our typical 11KV power system, which has two sources of generation and two
separate systems. Under a total system blackout each power station has its own emergency
generators available for restart.

GT-1 GT-2 GT-3

ADMA

SUB-7
Train-III

ADGAS

LG-1 LG-2 LG-5

Fig. 47 Basic 11KV System Diagram (Five generators running, LG5 off load)

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 112 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

Having these two systems available gives the electrical supervisor flexibility when recovering
from a major incident:

4. Restart both power stations independently of each other and reconnect them when
both are stable. This gives back up of generation should one system fail under restart.

5. Use one power system to re-energize the other should its emergency systems fail.

The method of re-establishing supplies will depend on what and where was the fault that
created the blackout is. Item 1 is where this decision is made.

The total power system components and operation have been discussed. We will now look at
two reports about incidents that actually happened and have a general discussion about them.

Two incidents are available for discussion.

1. Failure of generator protection.

2. Total power blackout (PowerPoint presentation).

The instructor will make these available for discussion.

The equipment detailed in this discussion is all in use on Das Island.

Site visits should be made to enforce what has been discussed.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 113 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

PRETEST AND POST TEST GUIDE

The Pretest and Posttest consists of 20 questions for each paper. It is not intended that all
questions be used for one session.

It is suggested that the questions be given in batches of ten (10) so as to vary the content of
each separate course.

To further assist the instructor the answer sheets have a guide score marked in red to the left
of each answer. This score gives an idea of what the participant is expected to know and
does indicate the technical difficulty.

Questions should be mixed and include higher scoring ones to enable a true assessment to be
made.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 114 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

PRE TEST

Name :
P/F No. : Date :
Group : Score :
Instructor’s Sign. : Developee’s Sign. :

THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

1. List the major items of plant of the Das Island power system, as you understand them?

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

(c) __________________________________________________________________

(d) __________________________________________________________________

(e) __________________________________________________________________

(f) __________________________________________________________________

(g) __________________________________________________________________

2. What MW load can a steam turbine generator supply when pass out is not in service?

______________________________________________________________________

3. How do you control the MW output of a generator?

______________________________________________________________________

4. How do we control the terminal voltage of a generator?

______________________________________________________________________

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 115 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

5. What does a transformer do?

______________________________________________________________________

6. List four of the main generator protection relays.

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

(c) __________________________________________________________________

(d) __________________________________________________________________

7. What does a reactor do?

______________________________________________________________________

8. How many interconnectors are there on the Das Island power system?

______________________________________________________________________

9. Which of these instruments indicates the load on a feeder or interconnector?

(a) MVA meter

(b) Ammeter

(c) Voltmeter

10. What does an Is limiter do?

(a) Protects a substation

(b) Protects a generator
(c) Protects interconnector

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 116 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

11. Match the following items of plant with the list of electrical functions they carry out.

A. Transformer 1. Stores Electricity

B. Motor (electric) 2. Produces electric current

C. Commutator 3. Distributes electricity

D. Battery 4. Drives mechanical plant

E. Generator 5. Provides voltage change

F. Circuit breaker 6. Rectifies a.c. to d.c.

G. Relay 7. Monitors current

H. Bus Bar 8. Switch for electrical plant

I. Ammeter 9. Provides field current

J. Exciter 10. Electrical protection equipment

A B C D E F G H I J

12. In three AC circuits one contains resistance, another contains inductance and the third
contains capacitance. Which of the above have the current voltage relationships listed
below?

(a) The current leads the voltage by 90°C - _______________________________

(b) The current and voltage are in phase - _______________________________

(c) The current lags the voltage by 90°C - _______________________________

13. Name four of the main controls on the generator desk.

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

(c) __________________________________________________________________

(d) __________________________________________________________________

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 117 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

14. Can the electrical power supervisor control the system power factor? Tick the correct
answer.

(a) Yes

(b) No

15. What are the operating limits of a generator? Tick which ones.

(a) Rotor angle

(b) Stator angle

(c) Rotor current

(d) Stator current

(e) Active power (MW) limit

(f) Governor limit
(g) Temperature limit

16. What does AVR mean? Tick one of the following.

(a) Automatic VAr Regulator

(b) Automatic Voltage Regulator
(c) Automatic Vibration Recorder.

17. What does NBS mean?

______________________________________________________________________

18. What are the two main indications that the power supervisor is using to control the
power system?

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 118 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

19. What does UPS mean?

______________________________________________________________________

20. How many load shedding systems are there on the Das Island power system?

______________________________________________________________________

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 119 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

POST TEST

Name :
P/F No. : Date :
Group : Score :
Instructor’s Sign. : Developee’s Sign. :

THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

1. Name three mechanical trips on a turbine driving a generator.

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

(c) __________________________________________________________________

2. What is the generator speed, in rpm, of the Das Island main generators?

______________________________________________________________________

3. There are six 17.0MW generators available for service. The system load is 60.0MW.
How many generators should be on load to ensure spinning spare?

______________________________________________________________________

4. When should the neutral earth circuit breaker of a generator be closed?

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

(c) __________________________________________________________________

(d) __________________________________________________________________

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 120 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

5. Tick which one of these statements is correct.

(a) The output or secondary voltage of a transformer never changes.

(b) The output voltage of a transformer depends on the number of

primary windings compared with the number of secondary
windings.

(c) The power output of a transformer is lower than the input.

6. What does the following items mean?

(a) O.C.B. __________________________________________________________

(b) A.C.B. __________________________________________________________

(c) SF6 C.B. __________________________________________________________

7. What is the duty of these two circuit breakers?

(a) A Bus Section Switch: _______________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

(b) A Bus Coupler Switch: _______________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

8. How many neutral earth resistances are there on the Das Island generation system?
Tick the correct answer.

(a) 2
(b) 3

(c) 4

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 121 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

9. What is the value of current flowing in the neutral that will trip the generators on the
Das Island system?

______________________________________________________________________

10. What three system parameters does the Automatic Load Shedding use to control its
operation?

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

(c) __________________________________________________________________

11. The 11KV system voltage is falling what can be done to bring it back to normal?

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

12. What are the two system parameters that must be controlled to maintain system
stability?

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

13. What are the Emergency Systems on the LNG plant?

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 122 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

14. Name the two Back-Up systems on the LNG plant.

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

15. What are the first things to be done after a system blackout has happened? List them in
order of importance.

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

(c) __________________________________________________________________

16. The items in question 15 have been done. What must be done before generation is
restarted a power supplies restored?

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

17. A high voltage motor is going to be started. What should you do to make sure that the
system stays stable when the motor starts?

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

18. Why is the system neutral earth connected to earth via a resistor? Tick the correct one.

(a) To limit the size of any fault current

(b) To limit the fault voltage
(c) To stop the fault current

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 123 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

19. List the main generator electrical protection relays.

(a) __________________________________________________________________

(b) __________________________________________________________________

(c) __________________________________________________________________

(d) __________________________________________________________________

(e) __________________________________________________________________

(f) __________________________________________________________________

(g) __________________________________________________________________

(h) __________________________________________________________________

20. What is the difference between a power failure and a blackout?

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 124 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

PRE TEST ANSWERS

THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

1. (a) Generator
(b) Substation
(c) Transformers
(d) Interconnectors
(e) Reactors
(f) Èarthing system (neutral)
(g) Automatic load shedding

2. (c) 12.5MW.

3. (a) By raising or lowering the governor control.

4. (c) By increasing or reducing the excitation.

5. (b) Change the voltage.

6. (a) Over current (b) Biased differential (c) Under voltage (d) Over voltage

7. (a) Limits the fault current.

8. (b) 3

9. (b) Ammeter.

10. (a) Protects a substation

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 125 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

11.
A B C D E F G H I J

5 4 6 1 2 8 10 3 7 9

12. (a) Capacitance

(b) Resistance
(c) Inductance

13. (a) Governor

(b) AVR control (excitation)
(c) OCB open/close switch
(d) Emergency stop push button

14. (b) No

15. (a) Rotor Angle; (c) Rotor Current; (d) Stator current; (e) Active power (MW) limit

16. (b) Automatic Voltage Regulator

17. (a) 120 DC No Break Supply

18. (a) System Frequency

(b) System Voltage

19. (b) 110V AC Uninterrupted Power Supply

20. (c) 2 – one at ADGAS and one at ADMA power station

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 126 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

POST TEST ANSWERS

THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

1. (a) Overspeed

(b) Low low lube oil pressure

(c) High high lube oil temperature

2. 3000rpm

3. (60.0MW / 17.0MW) + 1 = 3.5 + 1 = 4.5

Therefore five (5) generators required.

4. (a) When the generator is being run up ready for synchronising

(b) When a generator is taken of load.

(c) When the generator is providing the system neutral earth.

(d) When a generator is running at speed fully excited.

5. (a) The output or secondary voltage of a transformer never changes.

6. (a) Oil Circuit Breaker

(b) Air Circuit Breaker

(c) SF6 Gas Circuit Breaker

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 127 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

7. (a) Joins together two sections of a bus-bar.

(b) Joins together two bus-bars.

8. (a) 2

9. 400 Amps.

10. (a) System Frequency.

(b) System Voltage

(c) Generation available against load demand

11. Increase generation of MVAr by increasing excitation of all on load generators.

12. (a) System Frequency

(b) System Voltage

13. Emergency diesel generators and black start diesel generator.

14. (a) UPS : 110 AC Uninterrupted Power Supply

(b) NBS : 120V DC No Break Supply.

15. (a) Make sure that the plant is in a safe condition – no gas leaks etc.

(b) Check that the Emergency Systems are running.

(c) Call out the standby staff – Group Alert.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 128 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

16. (a) Make sure the fault is isolated.

(b) Check that all incoming and outgoing 11KV circuit breakers are open in the
primary substations.

17. Increase the System Voltage and Frequency slightly (to take the extra MW and Mvar
required by the motor).

18. (a) To limit the size of any fault current

19. (a) Overcurrent

(b) Negative Phase Sequence

(c) Biased Defferentital

(d) Undervoltage

(e) Overvoltage

(f) Loss of Excitation

(g) Reverse Power

(h) Stator Temperature

20. A power failure is a loss of power in a part of the system. A blackout is a total loss of
power on the whole system. The system is at zero voltage.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 129 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

ASSESSMENT

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 130 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

LESSON PLAN

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 131 of 132

 Personnel & Training Division POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

INSTRUCTORS GUIDE

The CD – ROM “AC GENERATOR” is the basic material for the Power System Course.

Wherever possible this material should be used in Module 3. The exercises and definitions
are interactive and will keep the interest of the course participants.

It must be remembered that this Module is the last of this course and the content must remind
the participants of what they have learnt before in the previous modules.

Videos tapes are available:

1. ‘Understanding VARs’
2. ‘Generator Capability Curves’
3. ‘Voltage Control’

These contain more technical detail than is required at this course level and may confuse
rather than reinforce the course material.

Sections of the above videos would be beneficial but the instructor should be prudent in his
use of these visual aids.

Details of ‘Exercises’ and ‘Definitions’ contained in the CD ROM “The AC Generator” can
be found in Module pages 61 & 62.

The pre test and posttest could include questions contained in the above CD ROM.

The discussion of actual incidents can be done at the end of the course. Copies of the
incident are on the CD and may be used at your discretion.

Rev. 00 THE POWER SYSTEM AND ITS OPERATION

Page 132 of 132