CARDIOVASCULAR • Myocardium- consists of thick bundles of cardiac

muscle twisted and whorled into ringlike

SYSTEM arrangements.

• Endocardium- the inner-most, it is a thin, glistening sheet

• the major function of the cardiovascular of endothelium that lines the heart chambers.
system is transportation
Tight Junctions- which strongly bind the mobile cardiac

THE HEART cells together

Gap junctions- which allow ions to flow from cell to cell

Anatomy of the Heart carrying a wave of excitement across the heart.

Size, Location, and Orientation

• the size of a person’s fist, the hollow, cone-shaped
heart weighs less than a pound.

Mediastinum- the medial cavity of the thorax, the

heart is flanked on each side by the lungs.

Apex- is directed toward the left hip and rests on the

diaphragm, approximately at the level of the fifth C Chambers and Associated Great
intercostal space.
Vessels
Base- from which the great vessels of the body the heart has four hollow chambers: two atria and two
emerge, points toward the right shoulder and lies ventricles
beneath the second rib. Superior atria- primarily receiving structure.
Coverings and Walls of the Heart Interventricular septum or the interatrial septum- the
Pericardium- heart is enclosed by this double-walled septum that divides the heart longitudinally.
sac.
- the right side works as a pulmonary circuit
Fibrous pericardium- the loosely fitting superficial
part of this sac (pericardium), it helps protect the Superior and inferior venae cavae- where it receives
heart and anchors it to surrounding structures, such as relatively oxygen-poor blood from the veins of the body and
the diaphragm and sternum. pumps it out through the pulmonary trunk.

Serous pericardium- a slippery two layer that is Pulmonary arteries- which carry blood to the lungs, where
deep to the fibrous pericardium. oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is unloaded.

Parietal layer- lines the interior of the fibrous Pulmonary veins- where oxygen-rich blood drains from the
pericardium. lungs and is returned to the left side of the heart.

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE (1) Pulmonary circulation- from the right side of the heart to
Pericarditis- inflammation of the pericardium the lungs and back to the left side of the heart.
heart walls are composed of three layers:
- Its only function is to carry blood to the lungs for gas
• Epicardium- the outer exchange and then return it to the heart.
 (2) Systemic circulation- from the left side of the heartAtrioventricular (AV) valves- are located between the
through the body tissues and back to the right side of theatrial and ventricular chambers on each side. These
heart. valves prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles
contract.
- It supplies oxygen and nutrient-rich blood to all
body organs. Bicuspid or mitral valve- the left AV valve, consists of
two flaps, or cusps, of endocardium.

Tricuspid valve- the right AV valve has three flaps.

Chordae tendineae- a tiny white cord, “tendinous

cords” anchor the flaps to the walls of the ventricles.

Second set of valves:

Semilunar valves- guards the bases of the two large

arteries leaving the ventricular chambers. They are
known as the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves.

- av valves are open during heart relaxation and closed

when the ventricles are contracting.

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Endocarditis- infection of the endocardium.
C Cardiac Circulation
Coronary arteries- branch from the base of the aorta
and encircle the heart in the coronary sulcus
(atrioventricular groove) at the junction of the atria and
ventricles.

coronary arteries major branches: anterior

interventricular and circumflex arteries on the left, and
posterior interventricular and marginal arteries on the
right are compressed when the ventricles are contracting
and fill when the heart is relaxed.

Cardiac veins- where myocardium is drained, which

empty into an enlarged vessel on the posterior of the
Aorta- from which the systemic arteries branch to heart called the coronary sinus.
supply essentially all body tissues.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
left ventricle- is the systemic pump that pumps blood Angina pectoris- which the myocardium is deprived
over a much longer pathway through the body. of oxygen often result in crushing chest pain.
Myocardial infraction- commonly called a “heart
- its walls are substantially thicker than those of the right attack” or “coronary”.
ventricle, and it is a much more powerful pump.

H Heart valves Physiology of the heart

Four valves: atrioventricular or (AV) valves, bicuspid or
mitral valve, tricuspid valve, and chordae tendineae. Intrinsic Conduction System of the
Heart Setting the Basic Rhythm (1) Mid-to-late diastole- the pressure in the heart is
two systems act to regulate heart activity: low, and blood is flowing passively into the pulmonary
and systemic circulations.
(1) Autonomic nervous system- which act like brakes
and accelerators to decrease or increase the heart rate (2) Ventricular systole- the atria are relaxed, and their
depending on which division is activated. chambers are again filling with blood.

(2) Intrinsic conduction system- that is built into the (3) Early diastole- the intraventricular pressure
heart tissue and sets its basic rhythm. drops. When it drops below the pressure in the atria,
the AV valves are forced open, and the ventricles
sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker)- a crescent-shaped again begin to refill rapidly with blood, completing
node of tissue, located in the right atrium. the cycle.
- it is a tiny cell mass with a mammoth job Two distinct sounds during each cardiac cycle:
atrioventricular (AV) node- at the junction of the heart sound are often described by two syllables “lub” and
atria and ventricles. “dup”.
- the atrioventricular (AV) bundle and the right and - sequence is lup-dup, pause, lub-dup, pause, and so on
left bundle branches located in the interventricular
septum. lub- this first heart sound is caused by the closing of the AV
valves. It is longer and louder.
purkinje fibers- which spread within the muscle of
the ventricle walls. dub- this second heart sound occurs when the semilunar
valves close at the end of systole. Which tends to be short
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE and sharp.
Heart block- when the ventricles begin to beat at
their own rate, which is much slower, some or all HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
the time. Heart murmurs- abnormal or unusual heart sounds
Ischemia- or lack of an adequate blood supply to
the heart muscle, may lead to fibrillation, a rapid,
uncoordinated shuddering of the heart muscle. Cardiac Output
Cardiac output- is the amount of blood pumped out by
Tachycardia- is a rapid heart rate (over 100 beats per each side of the heart in a minute. It is the product of the
minute) heart rate (HR) and stroke volume (SV).
Bradycardia- is a heart that is substantially slower Stroke volume- is the volume of blood pumped out by a
than normal (less than 60 beats per minute) ventricle with each heartbeat.
Cardiac Cycle and Heart HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Sounds Congestive heart failure (CHF)- a progressive
Contractions of the Ventricles condition that reflects weakening of the heart by
coronary atherosclerosis (clogging of the coronary
Systole and Diastole- mean heart contraction and vessels with fatty buildup), persistent high blood
relaxation. pressure, or multiple myocardial infarctions.
Pulmonary congestion- if the left heart fails
Cardiac Cycle- refers to the events of one complete
Peripheral congestion- if the right side of the heart
heartbeat, during which both atria and ventricles fails, it occurs as blood backs up in the systemic
contract and then relax. circulation.
Pulmonary edema- as blood vessels within the
events occur during three periods: lungs become swollen with blood, the pressure
 within them increases, and fluid leaks from the
circulation into the lung tissue.

BLOOD VESSELS
Vascular system- a closed transport system which
formed when blood circulates inside the blood vessels

- arterioles which feed the capillary beds in the tissues Structural Differences in Arteries,
Venules- drained capillary beds, which in turn empty into Veins, and Capillaries
veins that finally empty into the great veins entering the - walls of arteries are usually much ticker than those of
heart. veins

Two types of vessels:

Microscopic Anatomy of Blood
Vessels (1) Arteries- which are closer to the pumping action of
Tunics the heart.
Three coats or tunic: (2) Veins- far from the heart in the circulatory pathway,
and the pressure in them tends to be low all the time.
(1) Tunica intima- which lines the lumen, or interior, of
the vessels, is a thin layer of endothelium resting on a Microcirculation- the flow of blood from an arteriole to
basement membrane. Its cells fit closely together and a venule that is, through a capillary bed.
form a slick surface that decreases friction as blood flows
through the vessel lumen. a capillary bed consists of two types of vessels:

(2) Tunica media- is the bulky middle coat. It is mostly (1) vascular shunt- a vessel that directly connects the
smooth muscle and elastic fibers. It is also much heavier. arteriole and venule at opposite ends of the bed

(3) Tunica externa- is the outer-most tunic. This layer is (2) true capillaries- the actual exchange vessels
composed largely of fibrous connective tissue, and its
Precapillary sphincter- surrounds the root of each true
function is basically to support and protect the vessels.
capillary and acts as a valve to regulate the flow of blood
into the capillary.
 through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity,
where it becomes the abdominal aorta.

Special Circulations
Arterial Supply of the Brain and the Circle of Willis

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Varicose veins- are common in people who stand
for long periods of time and in obese individuals.
Thrombophlebitis- inflammation of a vein that
results when a clot forms in a vessel with poor
circulation.

Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels

Major Arteries of the Systemic Circulation

Aorta- is the largest artery of the body, and it is a truly

splendid vessel. In adults, the aorta is about the size of a
garden hose.
Internal carotid arteries- branches of the common
Different parts of the aorta: aorta springs upward from the carotid arteries, run through the neck and enter the skull
left ventricle of the heart as the ascending aorta, arches to through the temporal bone.
the left as the aortic arch, and then plunges downward
through the thorax, following the spine finally to pass
 Anterior and middle cerebral arteries- which supply
most of the cerebrum.

Vertebral arteries- pass upward from the subclavian

arteries at the base of the neck.

Basilar artery- serves the brain stem and cerebellum as

it travels upward.

Posterior cerebral arteries- which supply the posterior

part of the cerebrum.

Cerebral arterial circle or the circle of willis- which

surrounds the base of the brain.

Fetal Circulation

the umbilical cord contains three blood vessels: one large

umbilical vein and two smaller umbilical arteries

umbilical vein- carries blood rich in nutrients and

oxygen to the fetus.

umbilical arteries- carry carbon dioxide and debris-

laden blood from the fetus to the placenta.

Ductus venosus- where blood flows superiorly toward Blood Pressure

the heart of the fetus, most of it bypasses the immature Blood pressure- is the pressure the blood exerts against
liver. the inner walls of the blood vessels, and it is the force that
keeps blood circulating continuously even between
Foramen ovale- a flaplike opening in the interatrial
heartbeats.
septum.
Blood Pressure Gradient
Ductus arteriosus- a short vessel that connects the aorta
and the pulmonary trunk. Measuring Blood Pressure
Fossa ovalis- a remnant of foramen ovale, is visible in the two arterial blood pressure measurements are usually
right atrium. made:
Hepatic Portal Circulation (1) systolic pressure- the pressure in the arteries at the
peak of ventricular contraction.
Hepatic portal circulation- drain the digestive organs,
spleen, and pancreas and deliver this blood to the liver (2) diastolic pressure- the pressure when the ventricles
through the hepatic portal vein. are relaxing.

Physiology of circulation Auscultatory method- used to measure blood pressure

Arterial Pulse in the brachial artery of the arm.
- the pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per minute in a normal Effects of Various Factors on Blood Pressure
resting person.
Peripheral resistance- is the amount of friction the
blood encounters as it flows through the blood vessels.
factors can alter blood pressure:

(1) Neural factors: the autonomic nervous system

Vasoconstriction or narrowing of the blood vessels-

which increases the blood pressure.

(2) Renal factors: the kidneys

(3) Temperature

(4) Chemicals

(5) Diet

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Orthostatic hypotension- when elderly people may
experience temporary low blood pressure and
dizziness when they rise suddenly from a reclining or
sitting position.
Circulatory shock- a condition n in which the blood
vessels are inadequately filled, and blood cannot
circulate normally. The most common cause is blood
loss.

Hypertension, or high blood pressure- is pathological

and is defined as a condition of sustained elevated
arterial pressure of 140/90 or higher.

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Primary or essential hypertension- which cannot be
attributed to any specific organic cause.

Capillary exchange of gases and

Nutrients
Substances tend to move to and from body cells
according to their concentration gradients.

(1) Direct diffusion through membrane.

(2) Diffusion through intercellular clefts

(3) Diffusion through pores

(4) Transport via vesicles

Developmental Aspects of the

Cardiovascular System