Introduction

to

Technical Drawing

August 2023

EDITED
BY IHAGH GODWIN T.

Page 1 of 229
Introduction to Technical
Drawing
(Especially For Beginners)

Copyright Free: You may distribute

without permission, and share with

anybody

Written by Ihagh G. T.

MSc, BSc, and 7 years university teaching

experience

Editor, MoTEnv

Email: godwinihagh@gmail.com
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Table of Contents Page
1. History of Technical Drawing ………………………………… 5

1.1 Brief History of Non-Mathematical and Mathematical

Approaches to Technical Drawing…………………………… 7

1.2 Brief History of the Science of Technical Drawing Known as

Descriptive Geometry…………………………………………… 8

1.3 Brief History of the Computer Graphics (CAD) Form of

Technical Drawing……………………………………………….. 9

2. 17 Drawing Tools/Equipment or Instruments……………. 11

3. 17 Types of Lines and Their Uses ……………………………. 28

4. Lettering, Dimensioning, and Measurement Systems…... 39

4.1 Types of Lettering………………………………………….. 39

4.2 Dimensioning & 7 types of dimensions……………… 50

4.3 Measurement Systems……………………………………. 61

5. Symbols, Sections, and Abbreviations ……………………… 66

5.1 519 Basic Conventional Symbols ……………………. 66

5.2 How to Use Section Lines & Do Sectioning……….. 87

5.3 Abbreviations………………………………………………. 99

6. Circles, Triangles, Quadrilaterals, and Regular Polygons.. 109

6.1 How to Draw Circles………………………………………. 109

6.2 How to Draw Triangles…………………………………… 116

6.3 How to Draw Quadrilaterals…………………………….. 124

6.4 How to Draw Regular Polygons………………………… 130

7. Angles and Tangents ……………………………………………... 141

7.1 How to Construct Angles………………………………… 141

7.2 How to Draw Tangents……………………………………. 149

8. Scales and Tolerances ……………………………………………. 156

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 8.1 Definition & Types of Scale……………………………... 156

8.2 Tolerances…………………………………………………….. 164

9. Freehand Sketching ………………………………………………. 171

9.1 What is Freehand Sketching?................................. 171

9.2 Importance/Advantages of Freehand Sketching….. 172

9.3 Freehand Sketching Tools……………………………….. 174

9.4 Freehand Sketching Techniques for Straight Lines and

Curved Lines…………………………………………………………. 175

10. 8 Types of Projection & 11 Types of Technical Drawing.. 181

10.1 8 Types of Projection……………………………………. 182

10.2 11 Types of Technical Drawing………………………. 197

11. 6 Basic Technical Drawing Exercises ……………………….. 217

11.1 How to Draw a Line Between or Through Two Points 218

11.2 How to Draw Parallel Lines………………………………. 220

11.3 How to Draw Horizontal Lines…………………………... 222

11.4 How to Draw Vertical Lines………………………………. 224

11.5 How to Draw Inclined Lines……………………………… 225

References………………………………………………………….………… 229

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1. History of Technical Drawing

Drawing is a universal language that has been used by human

beings to communicate the visual images conceived in their

minds; it is such an old practice that its recorded history could

be as old as humanity.

There is evidence that as far back as 12,000 B.C., ancient caves

were inscribed with drawings that give clues to some human

experiences in prehistoric times.

Technical drawing—or drawings that communicate technical

ideas—might have even existed before written language. There is

evidence that what we now call “technical planning” in the

present-day, actually started about 7000 B.C.

As ancient and earlier societies became more civilized and

advanced, they planned and organized how roads, cities, bridges

and other structures would be built; technical drawing was the

most important tool to achieve this goal, especially in the fields of

engineering and architecture which are deeply engrained in

society.

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At inception, technical drawings were drawn with hands by using

tools that can be regarded as primitive versions of the present-

day manual (traditional) technical drawing tools: set square,

ruler, protractor and compass; it remained this way for about

5000 years before the beginning of engineering and architectural

drawing/drafting.

The earliest form of modern-day drawing instruments can be

found in the Museum of the Louvre, Paris, on two headless

statues of Gudea (2130 B.C.).

In ancient times, Gudea was an engineer, and the governor of the

city/state of Lagash which was located in the country later

known as Babylon. Two contemporary drawing boards were also

constructed and placed on the statues of Gudea.

The drawing boards had the top (plan) view of the temple of

Ningirsu, and another drawing tool that looked like scribing

instrument and scales.

The ancient Greek civilization has had a great deal of influence

on modern-day drawing through its work in geometry. Many of

the manual tools used in technical such as the compass and

triangles, were developed when Greek civilization was at its peak.

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Around the year 450 B.C., the architects of the Parthenon,

Ictinus and Callicrates, used perspective drawing by

foreshortening and converging parallel lines in their technical

drawings.

At different points throughout history, great civilizations across

the world (Africa, Europe, Asia, Middle East, South America,

North America) adopted one form of technical drawing, or

another.

1.1 Brief History of Non-Mathematical and Mathematical

Approaches to Technical Drawing

During the renaissance (mainly between the 14th and 17th

centuries), two popular approaches to drawing were developed at

the time: the non-mathematical, and the mathematical

approaches.

Giotto and Duccio used the non-mathematical approach to

advance the applicability of perspective drawings by using

symmetry, converging lines, and the technique of foreshortening.

On the other hand, Italian architect, Brunelleschi, used the

mathematical approach and its terms to demonstrate the

theoretical principles of perspective drawing. The era of

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Brunelleschi was followed by that of Alberti who mathematically

defined the principles of perspective drawing in paintings.

Other people who advanced the mathematical approach were

Francesca (who made 3-view drawings using orthogonal

projection), Leonardo da Vinci (who wrote about the theory of

perspective drawings), and Durer (who published a book on

orthographic drawing). In the early 19th century, William Farish

introduced isometric drawing as a type of pictorial drawing.

During the evolution of technical drawing, one thing is quite

clear: in ancient times, it was difficult for human beings to

express or illustrate 3D (three-dimensional) objects on 2D (two-

dimensional) surfaces.

1.2 Brief History of the Science of Technical Drawing

Known as Descriptive Geometry

A young and exceptional mathematician named Gaspard Monge

developed the science of technical drawing known as descriptive

geometry while designing a complicated star-shaped fortress. He

used orthographic drawing to solve some problems graphically,

instead of mathematically.

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The great contributions of Gaspard Monge are the basis of the

today’s three-dimensional representations on two-dimensional

media such a paper and computer screen.

1.3 Brief History of the Computer Graphics (CAD) Form of

Technical Drawing

Computers have had a significant impact on the types of

projections used to design and produce technical drawings. In

1950, the first computer-driven display attached to MIT’s

Whirlwind I computer was used to produce simple pictures;

advances in computer graphics increased significantly since that

time onwards.

An MIT graduate student named Ivan Sutherland published his

doctoral thesis in 1963, and paved a way for the development of

interactive computer graphics which later evolved into computer-

aided design (CAD). In the middle of the 1960s, many studies

were conducted in the field of computer graphics at MIT, Bell

Telephone laboratories, GM, and Lockheed Aircraft.

Developments continued through the 1970s, and around 1980

IBM and Apple popularized the use of bitmap graphics which led

to the widespread use of inexpensive graphic-based applications.

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In the early 1980s computer-based software programs began to

emerge, with AutoCAD and Versa CAD being the most popularly

used at the time. From the 1990s till date, the world has

witnessed the growth of CAD companies and 3D modelling which

supports the design of objects, products and structures.

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2. 17 Drawing Tools/Equipment or

Instruments

Various tools or equipment (also called “drawing materials” or

“drawing instruments”) are often used to produce technical

drawings that are clear, concise, and accurate. Therefore, it is

important to know all technical drawing tools or equipment and

what they are used for.

Generally, technical drawing tools, equipment, or instruments

are used to produce three basic types of drawings: freehand

drawings/sketches, instrument drawings, and computer

drawings/models.

Figure 2.1: Different types of drawing board

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Computer-aided design/drafting (CAD) tool plus 16 other

traditional drawing tools constitute 17 different technical drawing

tools, viz:

1. Computer-aided design/drafting (CAD)

2. Drawing board

3. Drawing paper/sheet

4. Masking tape (or drafting tape)

5. Drawing set

6. Drawing pencil

7. Sharpener

8. Eraser & erasing shield

9. Dusting brush

10. T-square (or straightedge)

11. Set squares

12. Protractor

13. French curve (or irregular curve)

14. Divider

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15. Compass

16. Scales

17. Templates

1. Computer-aided design/drafting (CAD)

Most modern-day models in technical drawings are created via

computer-aided design/drafting (CAD) systems which are

computer software and related computer hardware that evolved

from traditional technical drawing tools such as pencils, T-

squares, scales, triangles, protractors, compasses, dividers, etc.

CAD generally employs the same concepts and drafting standards

applicable to drawings created by hand via traditional tools, and

can be used to produce virtually any type of technical drawing via

programmed commands for circles, lines, triangles, etc. The main

benefits of using CAD include:

 Speed

 Accuracy

 The opportunity to demonstrate visual and spacial

information in various effective ways.

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  The opportunity to quickly demonstrate different types of

lines used in technical drawings.

Figure 2.2: A technical drawing from CAD

2. Drawing board

Drawing board is usually made of white pine which, according to

WordWeb Dictionary, is a “straight-grained durable and often

resinous white to yellowish timber of any of numerous trees of

the genus Pinus”. But drawing boards can sometimes be

produced from other types of soft woods.

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Regardless of the type of wood used (typically, soft white pine or

basswood), the working or drawing surface of any drawing board

should be smooth, flat, and unshakeable, and the working edge

of the board must be straight.

Figure 2.3: Different types of drawing board

Figure 2.4: Drawing board with drawing sheet/paper

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3. Drawing paper/sheet

Drawing paper is a material on which technical drawings are

made; it is a technical drawing tool used to convey graphic

information that follows universally accepted standards widely

used in practice and many fields. Depending on application,

there are different types of drawing paper:

(a) White plain paper, which is manufactured according to

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard for

various paper sizes. Standard drawing sheet sizes are in three

series, designated An, Bn, and Cn, where subscript n varies

according to the paper/sheet size. The variety of “A” plain paper

is very common: A0, A1, A2, A3, and the popular A4

(b) Profile, plane/profile, and cross-section papers

(c) Tracing paper

Figure 2.5: Paper/sheet sizes

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4. Masking tape (or drafting tape)

Masking tape is used to bind drawing paper with or attach

drawing paper to drawing board in order to help prevent

unnecessary errors due to misalignment.

Figure 2.6: Masking tape (Source: Serame.co.za)

5. Drawing set

A drawing set usually consists of a divider/set of dividers, two

bow compasses (i.e., a big and a small bow compass), inking

points, a tube with extra parts, and a beam compass or a

fastening for large arcs and circles.

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 Figure 2.7: A drawing set

6. Drawing pencil

The two main types of pencils used in technical drawing are

wooden pencils and mechanical pencils. Wooden pencils are of

different grades of hardness. The grades of wooden pencils,

designated by a number in conjunction with a letter, are:

 Hard: 9H, 8H, 7H, 6H, 5H, and 4H

 Medium: 3H, 2H, H, F, HB, and B

 Soft: 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, and 7B

Generally, B grades of pencils are soft and used for freehand

sketching, while H grades are hard and used for instrumental

drawings. On the other hand, mechanical pencils (of different

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lead grades that do not need to be sharpened) can be any of the

following sizes: 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 diameters.

Figure 2.8: Drawing pencils: wooden and mechanical

7. Sharpener

Sharpener is a technical drawing tool used to sharpen pencils,

especially any of the different types of wooden pencils. They can

be operated by an electric motor or manually by hand. It may be

essential to note that special sharpeners may be required for

some pencils or lead holders on pencils.

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 Figure 2.9: Sharpener (Source: Stepbystepart.co.uk)

8. Eraser & erasing shield

Mistakes are part of life—and part of technical drawing practice

too. Erasers are used to delete or erase unnecessary parts of a

drawing and make modifications and corrections when

necessary. An erasing shield makes the drawing neater by

focusing the eraser only on the area that needs to be erased.

Figure 2.10: Eraser and erasing shield (Source:

Projectworkshopph.com)

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9. Dusting brush

To keep drawings neat, a dusting brush should be used to gently

remove any particles that remain after something has been

erased. Eraser or hands should never be used to scrub drawings

because they can take the life out of lines and make drawings to

be untidy.

Figure 2.11: Dusting brush (Source: Deansart.com)

10. T-square (or straightedge)

A T-square (or straightedge) is a parallel edge or technical

drawing tool used to draw horizontal lines and guide triangles in

order to create vertical and inclined lines.

The uppermost part or edge of a T-square and the inner edge of

the T-square’s head are known as “working edges”. Working

edges should be straight and at right angles to each other.

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 Figure 2.12: T-square (Source: Wtb.com.)

11. Set squares

Triangles are sometimes regarded as or called set squares which

are right-angled triangular plates used to draw and incline lines

at 90°, 45°, 60°, or 30° to any of the 3 major axes (x, y, and z).

The two main set squares are the 30-60° and 45° triangles,

respectively.

Figure 2.13: Set squares

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12. Protractor

Protractor is a semicircular technical drawing tool or device

which has a center where the starting point of a line can be

indicated; it is used for setting off or measuring angles that are

different from the common ones found on triangles.

Figure 2.14: Protractor (Source: Mathsisfun.com)

13. French curve (or irregular curve)

French curves are used to draw curves that are not arcs or

circles; examples include parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, and

involutes. French curves can be used in conjunction with points

to draw short elliptical radius curves or mechanical curves with

shapes that are not circles or circular arcs. There are many

different sizes and forms of French curves.

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 Figure 2.15: French curve (Source: Luprous.com)

14. Divider

Divider is part of drawing set and also worthy of discussion. A

divider is a technical drawing instrument that is used to divide

distances into equal parts or ensure that distances are equally

divided.

Figure 2.16: Divider (Source: Cuemath.com)

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15. Compass

Compass is used to draw circles and arcs. Depending on the aim

of drawing, it is generally of two types: bow compass and beam

compass as shown in Figure 2.17 a) and b) respectively.

Figure 2.17: Bow compass and beam compass

16. Scales

Scales are used to measure and establish the lengths of lines or

distances. Generally, they are 6 or 12 inches long and made of

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plastic, wood, or metal. Triangular plastic scales are quite

common and provide users with a combination of several scales

on each side.

The mechanical engineer’s scale, the civil engineer’s scale, the

architectural scale, and especially the metric scale are the most

common types of scales used in technical drawing. There is even

a “combination scale” which is the type of scale that has metric,

engineering, and architectural components. Figure 2.18 shows

part of a full scale (A) and part of a 1:20 scale (B).

Figure 2.18: Scales

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17. Templates

Templates are technical drawing tools used to draw repetitious

features including (but may not be limited to) architectural

symbols, ellipses, circles, and threaded fasteners.

There are different types of templates: the circle template is used

to draw arcs, rounds, circles, and fillets and makes some aspects

of drawing much faster than when using a compass; the ellipse

template is used to create ellipses. Templates are also of other

common shapes, and CAD can create templates of almost

anything.

Figure 2.19: Templates (Source: Amazon.in)

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3. 17 Types of Lines and Their Uses

Seventeen types of technical drawing lines and their respective

uses are as follows:

1. Break lines

Break lines are used to create breakouts on sections in order to

shorten distances between parts of a drawing and give more

clarity. Three types of lines are normally used as break lines; they

have different line weights: long break lines, short break lines,

and cylindrical break lines.

Figure 3.1: Break line

2. Center Lines (or, long/short-dashed thin lines)

Center lines are used to locate or represent the centers of tools,

circles, cylindrical surfaces or volumes, symmetrical

areas/objects, etc. Center lines are drawn as thin broken lines

that have long and short dashes. In many instances, the long and

short dashes vary in length; however, this depends on the scale

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or size of the drawing. Center lines could be extended and used

as extension lines during dimensioning of objects or shapes.

Figure 3.2: Center Line

3. Chain lines

Chain lines are thin or thick broken or spaced parallel lines used

to indicate either pitch lines (lines that show the pitch of gear

teeth or sprocket teeth), center lines, developed views, or the

features in front of a cutting plane. Usually, chain lines are

applied at the beginning and end of long dashes, at center points

as center lines, in dimensioning, or for other purposes.

Figure 3.3: Chain line

4. Construction lines

Construction lines (light thin lines) are used to develop shapes

and locations of features in technical drawings. After using

construction lines to develop thick visible outlines of objects, they

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are either left on the sketches of many drawings or cleaned off

with an eraser.

Figure 3.4: Construction line

5. Continuous thick lines

Continuous thick lines are used to represent visible edges and

outlines of objects, shapes, and structures on paper or computer.

They are usually dark and heavy solid lines which are very

prominent in many drawings.

Figure 3.5: Continuous thick line

6. Continuous thin lines

Continuous thin lines are used to represent dimension lines,

extension lines, projection lines, hatching lines for cross sections,

leader lines, reference lines, imaginary lines of intersections, and

short center lines.

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 Figure 3.6: Continuous thin line

7. Cutting plane lines (viewing plane lines)

Cutting plane lines are used to indicate the positions of cutting

planes in sections, or during sectioning. Two types of cutting

plane lines can be used.

The first type is a dark line that consists of one long dash and

two short dashes spaced alternately. Long dashes are usually

drawn at any length between 20 and 40mm, or a little bit more; it

depends on the scale and size of the drawing. On the other hand,

short dashes are usually drawn approximately 3mm long, and

spaced at 1.5mm (between dashes).

The second type of cutting plane line consists of short dashes of

equal lengths, approximately 6mm long, with a space (of length)

of 1.5mm between each short dash.

Figure 3.7: Cutting plane line

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8. Dimension lines

Dimension lines are thin lines that have arrowheads at their

opposite ends; they are used to show the precise length, breadth,

width, and height of objects.

Figure 3.8: Dimension line

9. Extension lines

Extension lines are thin solid lines that are used to show the

extent (beginning and end) of a dimension in a drawing.

Extension lines are usually drawn at approximately 1.5mm away

from the outlines of objects and extended 3mm longer than the

outermost arrowheads located at the ends of dimension lines.

Figure 3.9: Extension line

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10. Freehand break lines (or continuous narrow irregular

lines)

Freehand break lines are lines drawn with freehand, and used to

indicate short breaks or irregular boundaries; they can be used

to set the limits of partial views or sections.

Figure 3.10: Freehand break line

11. Hatching lines (or section lines)

Hatching or section lines are used to indicate the sectional view

or outlook of surfaces produced as a result of making arbitrary

cuts on an object. Hatching lines are usually thin lines that are

drawn at an angle of 45° and equally spaced to indicate cut or

sectioned material.

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 Figure 3.11: Hatching line

12. Hidden lines

Hidden lines are used to describe features that cannot be seen

when objects are viewed from a particular direction; they consist

of short and equally spaced thin dash lines and spaces. The

dashes are usually three to four times longer than the space

between them.

It is recommended that the dashes used in hidden lines should

be approximately 3 mm long, and have a space of 1.0mm

between each dash. On the other hand, the length of the dashes

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and the space between them can be slightly altered, depending

on the scale and size of the drawing.

Figure 3.12: Hidden line

13. Leader lines

Leader lines are used to show the dimensions of an object,

feature, or structure whenever such dimensions are not clear

enough after being placed beside objects, features, or drawn

structures.

Figure 3.13: Leader line

14. Long break line (or continuous thin straight lines with

zigzags)

Long break lines or continuous straight lines with zigzags (see (B)

below) show continuity of partially interrupted views; they are

very suitable for computer-aided design (CAD) drawings.

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 Figure 3.14: Long break line

15. Phantom lines

Phantom lines are thin lines that consist of alternating long

dashes that are separated by two short dashes and are often

used to represent the direction of movement of an object or a part

of an object in alternate positions. Phantom lines can also be

used to indicate adjacent features or objects.

Figure 3.15: Phantom line

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16. Symmetry lines

Symmetry lines are imaginary lines that pass through the centers

of areas, shapes, objects, and drawn structures; in most cases,

symmetry lines divide objects into equal and similar-looking

parts.

Figure 3.16: Symmetry line

17. Visible lines

Visible lines are thick and continuous bold lines that are used to

indicate the visible edges of objects. They usually stand out when

compared with other lines.

Figure 3.17: Visible line

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The figures below are pictorial views of various types of lines used
in technical drawing:

Figure 3.18: Various types of lines in one drawing

Figure 3.19: Various types of lines in another drawing

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4. Lettering, Dimensioning, and Units of

Measurement

4.1 Types of Lettering

The texts that appear on technical drawings are used to

communicate non-graphic information and may be as highly

important as graphic information. Without text and lettering, it

would be almost impossible to describe technical drawings

completely.

The fact that lettering or lettered text must always be used to

completely express and describe the details of an object goes to

show just how essential it is for all types of technical drawing.

4.1.1 Definition of lettering in technical drawing

Lettering is the act or process of creating, inscribing, or writing

letters, titles, subtitles, numbers, notes, fractions, decimal

points, symbols, dimension values, equations, and other

important non-graphic information to express or illustrate details

of objects or items on drawings. Lettering describes and provides

detailed information about each particular drawing: instructions,

the size, dimensions, notes, etc.

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Lettering can also be defined as any writing process that

expresses the details of objects or items on drawing paper by the

use of lettered texts in the form of alphabets, numbers, fractions,

and/or decimal points which could also provide detailed

specifications for objects.

4.1.2 Common types of lettering in technical drawing

There are two broad or common classes of lettering: traditional

and computer-aided design/drafting (CADD) lettering; implying

that lettering can be done by hand or computer.

Traditional or hand lettering is of two types: free hand lettering

and mechanical lettering; while CADD on the other hand could

actually be more than the 12 lettering types listed in this post,

along with images.

1. Traditional lettering

(i) Free hand lettering

Drawing and lettering all started with the hand before evolving

into the widely used CADD lettering of today. Although free hand

lettering is used much less nowadays, it is still important to

master how to write clear, legible, and comprehensible hand-

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lettered words, numbers, and decimal points that conform to

universally accepted or standard styles.

Lettering can be done with the hand by using “guide lines” which

are very light or thin construction lines that serve as guides to

create clear and uniform letters on technical drawings. Hard

pencils, such as 4H, 5H, or 6H, are often used to construct guide

lines from a lettering guide, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Adjustable lettering guide for creating guide lines

and applying hand lettering in technical drawings

Lettering guides help to conveniently set out text dimensions and

inclinations or orientations, and can be used to create vertical,

horizontal, or inclined guide lines. The individual letters are

drawn within these guide lines.

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Each letter is constructed via a particular style. Figure 4.2 shows

examples of different capital or uppercase letters and numbers in

vertical format, while Figure 4.3 shows examples of different

lowercase letters in vertical format.

Figure 4.2: Capital or uppercase letters and numbers in

vertical format

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 Figure 4.3: Lowercase letters in vertical format

(ii) Mechanical lettering

All text in traditional drawings was hand lettered and very

personalized until Johann Gutenberg invented printing in the

15th century; but with the invention of printing, the text styles

used for lettering in technical drawing became more

standardized.

Mechanical lettering guides—such as the lettering template

shown in Figure 4.4, the press-on type, and the lettering

machine—were all developed in the years that preceded CADD.

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Figure 4.4: Mechanical lettering guide or template for

traditional or hand lettering in technical drawing

2. Computer-aided design/drafting (CADD) lettering

Computer-aided design/drafting has provided users with many

text style options and almost eliminated any need for hand

lettering. One of the greatest advantages that CADD lettering and

tools have over traditional lettering and tools is their remarkable

speed and also the speed with which text lettering can be done on

technical drawings.

CADD text is grouped and classified according to different

characteristics. The style and size of a CADD text type define its

font, but the text can vary if bold or italic versions are applied

during lettering on a technical drawing. Figure 4.5 shows the

characteristics of a CADD text type. It is important to note that

the type size of CADD texts is measured in “points” and each

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vertical inch consists of 72 points; therefore, a 36-point type

CADD text is about ½ inch high.

Figure 4.5: Important terms associated with each available

CADD text or interface

Three major classes of CADD lettering: (A) Alphabets/letters,

(B) Numbers and fractions, and (C) Decimals

(A) Lettering of alphabets/letters: 12 types

(i) Sans serif lettering

A Sans serif typeface is a typeface that does not have any serifs,

spurs, or sharply pointed projection. For example, the old school

and popular Gothic typeface is a sans serif letter or typeface. The

Sans serif letters used in technical drawings are also referred to

as Gothic text.

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 Figure 4.6: Sans serif lettering using CADD

(ii) Serif lettering

A serif is a spur, small finishing stroke, sharply pointed

projection) that is at right angles to the main character stroke of

the CADD typeface.

Figure 4.7: Serif lettering using CADD

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(iii) Roman lettering

Figure 4.8: Roman lettering using CADD

(iv) Italic letters/lettering

Figure 4.9: Italic letters/lettering using CADD

(v, vi, vii, viii, ix, x, xi, and xii) Seven other different

lettering using CADD: AutoCAD Txt Font, Roman Simplex,

Roman Duplex, Baskerville, Times New Roman, Playbill,

Arial, and Letter Gothic:

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Figure 4.10: Seven other different lettering types using

CADD

(B) Lettering of numbers and fractions

When indicating a fraction on a technical drawing, the number in

the fraction should be the same size as any other number on the

drawing. The height of a fraction should be twice the height of its

corresponding whole numbers, and both the numerator and

denominator should be about three-fourths as high as the whole

number so there can be sufficient space between both of them

and the fraction bar which can also be placed diagonally,

depending on company or school standards.

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 Figure 4.11: Lettering of fractions using CADD

Figure 4.12: Lettering options for fractions using CADD

(C) Lettering of decimal points

When lettering any dimension value that has a decimal point, the

decimal point should be uniform, dense, and large enough for

viewers to see, and it should be placed in line with the bottom

edge of the text.

Whenever any metric or millimeter dimension is less than 1, a

zero should be placed before the decimal point; for example, 0.5.

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But, whenever an inch dimension is less than 1, a zero should

not be placed before the decimal point; for example, .02.

Whenever a metric dimension consists of only whole numbers,

neither a decimal point nor a zero should be indicated; for

example 24, instead of 24.0.

Figure 4.13: Lettering options for decimal points using CADD

4.2 Dimensioning & 7 Types of Dimensions

It is important to not only be able to describe the shape, form, or

structure of objects or features, but also be able to go a bit

further by describing their sizes and locations. After defining the

shape of an object by geometrical description on paper or

computer, you would need dimensioning to add size information

in the form of dimensions.

Whether you are creating 2D or 3D drawings or models either by

hand or CADD (computer-aided design/drafting) systems, you

have to follow widely or universally accepted standards for

dimensioning (or setting dimensions) to make the information in

your technical drawing understandable to whomever it may meet.

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Selecting where dimensions should be placed to ensure clarity

requires some level of understanding and intelligence that CADD

systems may not be able to teach you. Therefore, it’s up to you or

any CADD user to understand how to employ dimensioning in

ways that can always carry along every individual that is

connected to any drawing.

4.2.1 Definition of the terms dimensioning and

dimensions in technical drawing

Dimensioning is the process of adding data/information about

object size to a drawing. Dimensioning can also be defined as the

process of inscribing or expressing the geometry (length, area,

volume, etc.) or spatial shape and alignment of an object or

feature through the use of numbers or numerical values. In other

words, dimensioning is the process of indicating dimensions or

measurements and their respective magnitudes and directions,

and the tolerance required for each on technical drawings.

A dimension on the other hand is the magnitude or extent of a

numerical value (especially length, width, or height) in a

particular direction and expressed in appropriate units of

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measurement to define the size, form, structure, orientation, or

location of an object, a feature, or part of something.

Dimensions are expressed via widely recognized standard

symbols during dimensioning to provide more details that

graphic drawings or representations cannot communicate or

provide in entirety in technical drawing. Dimensions help to

describe an object clearly and completely.

4.2.2 Classification of dimension in technical drawing

Each complete detail in technical drawing usually has multi-

views and dimensions that describe the shape and size of the

object in the drawing. Dimensions are of two classifications: size

(or functional) dimension and location (or datum) dimension.

Size (or functional) dimensions are used directly on graphic

objects or features to express specific sizes, and they can be

linked to a part or feature in the form of a note. Location (or

datum) dimensions, on the other hand, express the relationship

between different features of an object.

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4.2.3 Units of dimensions/measurements

The standard units of linear measurement used in technical

drawings and documents include metric units in millimeters

(abbreviated as mm) and the U.S. (United States) customary units

in inches (abbreviated as in).

However, the use of either millimeters or inches depends on the

intention or needs of the individual. Most countries outside the

USA use the metric or international system of units (SI), while the

customary system is widely used in the United States because of

multinational company affiliations and global trade.

Whenever all dimensions on a drawing are either in millimeters

or inches, the general note “UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED,

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS (or INCHES, as

applicable)” would be indicated on such a drawing.

If all dimensions on a drawing are in millimeters, then the term

or word METRIC should be at the upper right corner of the

drawing. If dimensions are expressed in inches and indicated

beside millimeter dimensions on a millimeter-dimensioned

drawing, then the abbreviation IN should follow any inch

dimension value.

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If millimeter dimensions are shown on an inch-dimensioned

drawing, then the symbol MM would be used. Occasionally,

companies use dual dimensioning which expresses both metric

and inch dimensions or measurements on drawings, as indicated

in Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14: Dual-dimensioned technical drawing indicating

both millimeter and inch measurements

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4.2.4 Seven types of dimension in technical drawing

1. Linear dimension

Linear dimension is a type of technical drawing dimension that

can be expressed as any of the following two distances:

(A) Horizontal: this distance or measurement is made from left

to right (or vice versa) relative to the drawing plane (paper or

computer), as shown by the width (the horizontal dimension) in

Figure 4.15. Horizontal and vertical distances can be expressed

in standard units of linear measurement—mainly in meters,

millimeters, inches, and feet.

(B) Vertical: this is made distance or measurement is from up to

down (or vice versa) relative to the drawing plane (paper or

computer), as shown by depth or height (the vertical dimension)

in Figure 4.15.

Figure 4.15: Dimensions indicating the width and depth (or

height) of an object

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2. Angular dimension

Angular dimension is a type of technical drawing dimension that

is indicated either in only degrees or a combination of degrees (°),

minutes (′), and seconds (″) which are the units of angular

dimension. In any situation(s) where only minutes and seconds

are specified, a zero (0) is placed before the number of minutes or

seconds, as shown on the last diagram in Figure 4.16—examples

of angular units used to in angular dimensioning.

Figure 4.16: Examples of angular dimensions expressed in

degrees and a combination of degrees, minutes, and seconds

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3. Diametral dimension

Diametral dimension is a type of technical drawing dimension

that expresses the magnitude of the diameter or straight line

connecting the centre of a circle with two points on its perimeter.

Diametral dimension is used on mostly full circles or arcs whose

magnitude is more than half of a full circle. The symbol for

diameter is the Greek letter phi Ø.

Figure 4.17: Dimensions showing the diameter and radius of

a hole

4. Radial dimension

Radial dimension is a type of technical drawing dimension that

expresses the magnitude of the radius or distance between the

center of a circle or arc (that is less than half of a circle) and any

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point on a circle’s or arc’s perimeter. The symbol for radius is the

capital letter R as shown in Figure 4.17 above.

5. Ordinate (or coordinate) dimension

Ordinate dimension is the type of technical drawing dimension

that is indicated via rectangular coordinates or rectangular

coordinate dimensioning in which a datum line or baseline is

established for each Cartesian coordinate and every other

dimension is positioned with respect to the datum line or

baseline.

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Figure 4.18: An object dimensioned by coordinate

dimensions, with a baseline or datum surface as starting

point

6. Reference dimension

Reference dimension is the type of technical drawing dimension

that provides extra information that is not essential for
fabricating or creating a part or feature. Reference dimension is
usually enclosed in parentheses [such as (2.00) as shown in
Figure 4.19] on drawings, only providing certain information
which cannot be used to fabricate a feature or part.

Figure 4.19: An object assigned a reference dimension of

2.00

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7. Note dimension or notes

Notes are the type of technical drawing dimension described by

written specifications or words, more detailed than numerical

values and clearly point out specific information and sizes of a

feature or features.

There are two types of notes:

(A) Specific (or local) note: this is the type of technical drawing

dimension that provides information applicable or relevant to

specific features and not the whole drawing. Local notes are

linked to specific features on drawing views. Three examples of

specific notes include:

Figure 4.20: Three examples of specific notes

(B) General note: this is the type of technical drawing note that

provides information that is applicable or relevant to the whole

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drawing. General notes are linked to all drawing views of a

drawing. Three examples of general notes include:

(a) FINISH ALL OVER (FAO)

(b) ALL DRAFT ANGLES 3° UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED

(c) DIMENSIONS APPLY AFTER PLATING

4.3 Measurement Systems

Technical drawings consist of drawn objects or items that will be

eventually produced, manufactured, or constructed in real life;

the sizes and dimensions of objects are always expressed by

using the units of a particular measurement system.

The two most widely used measurement systems are the “Metric

System” (also known as the “International System of Units”), and

the “United State Customary Units”; both measurement systems

consist of a number of units.

Among the two measurement systems, the metric system is the

standard that is mostly used around the world, especially for

expressing the sizes and dimensions of the lengths, heights, and

widths of objects on technical drawings.

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Various professions use measurement systems in technical

drawings to communicate and document their designs; some

examples of professions include civil engineering, environmental

engineering, mechanical engineering, architecture, landscape

design, industrial design, and manufacturing.

4.3.1 The Metric System (International System of Units,

or SI Units)

The present-day metric system is the “International System of

Units” which is commonly referred to as “SI Units”—an acronym

from the French phrase “le Système International d’Unités”.

The International System of Units is a measurement system that

was established in 1960 after an international agreement was

reached; it is presently the international standard used in

expressing the sizes and dimensions of objects.

Although some countries still use the U.S. Customary Units to a

lesser or greater degree, all countries in the world have adopted

the International System of Units.

The most widely used units of the Metric System (International

System of Units) are the kilometer (mm), the meter (m), and the

millimeter (mm). The centimeter (cm) and the decimeter (dm) are

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also among the units in the Metric System, but they are rarely

used on technical drawings.

It’s quite common to see some industries using a dual

dimensioning system to express the units of the sizes of the

dimensions of objects on each of their drawings.

For example, they could use “millimeter” and “inch” together on

one drawing, even though millimeter is a unit that belongs to the

Metric System (International System of Units) and inch belongs to

the U.S. Customary Units.

It has to be noted that using a dual dimensioning system to

express the units of the sizes of the dimensions of objects can

cause a bit of confusion because the sizes derived by using two

different systems may contain rounding errors whenever one unit

is converted to another.

Most creators of technical drawings use Metric System units on

dimensions in order to maintain consistency between different

units that belong to the same measurement system. In standard

practice, the following Metric System units and relationships are

often used:

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1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters = 10,000 decimeters = 100,000

centimeters = 1,000,000 millimeters

1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters = 100 centimeters = 1000

millimeters

1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters = 100 millimeters

1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters = 0.1 decimeter

1 millimeter (mm) = 0.1 centimeter = 0.01 decimeter.

4.3.2 The United States Customary Units

The United States Customary Units is a measurement system

that was formalized in 1832 and has been commonly used in the

United States since then.

The United States Customary System (USCS or USC) was derived

from the English units that were being used in the British Empire

before the United States became an independent nation.

The most widely used units in the United States Customary Units

are the mile (mi.), the foot (ft.), the inch (in.), and the yard (yd.).

The pica (P.) and the point (p.) are also among the units in the

United States Customary Units, but they are rarely used.

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Although technical drawings may use either measurement

system (Metric System, or the United States Customary Units),

they adhere to popularly accepted drawing standards.

The dimensions given in the United States Customary Units can

be easily converted to Metric System units in decimal or

fractional form. In standard practice, the following units and

relationships are often used:

1 mile (mi.) = 1760 yards = 5280 feet = 1.609 kilometers

1 yard (yd.) = 3 feet = 0.9144 meters = 914.4 millimeters

1 foot (ft. or ′) = 12 inches = 0.3048 meters = 304.8 millimeters

1 inch (in. or ″) = 6 pica = 25.4 millimeters = 2.54 centimeters

1 pica (P.) = 12 points = 4.233 millimeters

1 point (p.) = 0.3538 millimeters.

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5. Symbols, Sections, and Abbreviations

5.1 519 Basic Conventional Symbols

There are countless widely used basic conventional graphic

symbols that are direct representations of basic features,

materials, objects, or even words in technical drawings. This post

contains a list of 519 basic conventional symbols under the

following 11 categories:

 (1) Material Symbols: 32

 (2) Building symbols: 25

 (3) Piping symbols: 219

 (4) Refrigeration symbols: 33

 (5) Electrical/electronic symbols: 102

 (6) Dimensioning and tolerancing (GDT) symbols: 36

 (7) Links/linkage symbols: 4

 (8) Weld symbols: 28

 (9) External and internal thread symbols: 9

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  (10) Rivet symbols: 17

 (11) Topographic map symbols: 14

5.1.1 Material Symbols: 32

Figure 5.1 shows 32 basic conventional material symbols in

technical drawing:

Figure 5.1: 32 Material symbols (Source: Quantity-

takeoff.com)

5.1.2 Building symbols: 25

Figure 5.2 shows 25 basic conventional building symbols in

technical drawing:

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Figure 5.2: 25 Building symbols (Source: Gharpedia.com)

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5.1.3 Piping symbols: 219

Figure 5.3 shows 219 basic conventional piping symbols in

technical drawing:

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Page 70 of 229
Page 71 of 229
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Page 73 of 229
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 Figure 5.3: 219 Piping symbols

5.1.4 Refrigeration symbols: 33

Figure 5.4 shows 33 basic conventional refrigeration symbols in

technical drawing:

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 Figure 5.4: 33 Refrigeration symbols

5.1.5 Electrical/electronic symbols: 102

Figure 5.5 shows 102 basic conventional electrical/electronic

symbols in technical drawing:

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Page 77 of 229
Page 78 of 229
Page 79 of 229
 Figure 5.5: 102 Electrical/electronic symbols

5.1.6 Dimensioning & tolerancing (GDT) symbols: 36

Figure 5.6 shows 36 basic conventional dimensioning &

tolerancing (or geometric dimensioning & tolerancing: GDT)

symbols in technical drawing:

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Page 81 of 229
Figure 5.6: 36 Dimensioning & tolerancing symbols

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5.1.7 Links/linkage symbols: 4

Figure 5.7 shows 4 basic conventional links/linkage symbols,

while Figure 5.8 shows 6 applications of links symbols (The

applications are not links symbols but they consist of links.):

Figure 5.7: 4 Links/linkage symbols

Figure 5.8: 6 applications of linkage symbols

5.1.8 Weld symbols: 28

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Figure 5.9 shows 28 basic conventional weld symbols in technical

drawing:

Figure 5.9: 28 Weld symbols

5.1.9 External and internal thread symbols: 9

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Figure 5.10 shows a simplified symbol or representation and a

schematic symbol (which is an alternative to the simplified one)

for external threads in technical drawing, and Figure 5.11 shows

simplified symbols and their corresponding alternative schematic

symbols for internal threads:

Figure 5.10: External thread symbol: simplified symbol or

schematic symbol

Figure 5.11: 8 Internal thread symbols: simplified symbols or

schematic symbols

5.1.10 Rivet symbols: 17

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Figure 5.12 shows 17 basic conventional rivet symbols in

technical drawing:

Figure 5.12: 17 Rivet symbols

5.1.11 Topographic map symbols: 14

Figure 5.13 shows 14 basic conventional topographic map

symbols in technical drawing:

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 Figure 5.13: 14 Topographic map symbols

5.2 How to Use Section Lines & Do Sectioning

Section lines are important in technical drawing design and

documentation and they are often used to reveal interior features

of parts, facilitate the dimensioning of drawings, and enhance the

clarity and visualization of new designs.

This post defines section and sectioning, lists the various types of

sections, and provides information on how to use sectioning and

section lines to visualize and create full section views in technical

drawing.

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5.2.1 What is a section and sectioning in technical

drawing?

A section can be defined as an imaginary cutting plane that is

positioned to cut through an object and reveal internal parts or

features which could fit with other potential sections to

constitute a whole object. A section can also be defined as the

area that is created by an imaginary plane that cuts through a

solid object.

Sectioning can be defined as a process that uses section lines

and imaginary cutting planes to reveal and graphically

demonstrate hidden or interior features of an object. Sectioning is

employed in graphically demonstrating hidden parts of structures

such as interior details of floors, walls, and ceilings, and

designing complex systems.

Sectioning drawings are multiview technical drawings that

contain graphic representations/views of sectioned parts and

reveal the interior structure of features. The main reason for

creating section views or sectional drawings is to visualize and

reveal how hidden features look.

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Sectioning is used to produce sectional multi-view technical

drawings which contain special views of a part or parts, which

reveal interior features. Figure 5.14 shows an imaginary cutting

plan, section line, and section views of the internal features of a

sectioned box-shaped object.

Figure 5.14: Section view of internal or hidden features of an

object

Figure 5.15 shows a section line of sight and an imaginary

cutting plane cutting through the object to help reveal its internal

hidden features which would remain hidden and incapable of

being expressed graphically.

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Figure 5.15: An imaginary cutting plane cutting through an

object to help reveal interior features

Imaginary cutting planes used by drafters or designers can be

controlled in the following ways:

 To cut completely through the object (called “full section”)

 To cut halfway through the object (called “half section”)

 To cut through features that are not aligned (called “offset

section”), or

 To cut through part of an object (called “broken-out

section”)

Figure 5.16 shows a section view or sectional drawing that

includes the sectioning process along with correct (A), incorrect

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(B), and normal multiview (C) graphic representations created

from a cutting plane that cut through the center of a counter-

bored hole.

Figure 5.16: The sectioning (cutting plane) process along

with correct (A), incorrect (B), and normal multiview (C)

sections or graphic representations

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Figure 5.17: The sectioning line (cutting plane) and full

section in 3D

Figure 5.18: The sectioning line (cutting plane) and full

section in 2D

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5.2.2 Types of sections in technical drawing

There are several types of section views used in technical

drawings:

 Full section

 Assembly section

 Auxiliary section

 Broken-out section

 Half section

 Offset section

 Removed section

 Revolved section

However, up to this point, we have only discussed and illustrated

full sections (as shown in preceding figures), and we will focus

only on full section because of its wide range of applications.

Generally, the choice of a particular section type is based on

one’s aims or needs. It is recommended that one should select

the section type that would be able to represent the most

important features of an object in the clearest and most concise

manner.

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For example, although full sections are widely used by many

people, sometimes it may be more befitting to use broken-out

section for small areas or a half section for symmetrical objects.

It all depends. Whenever an imaginary cutting plane cuts

completely through an object, or an object (like the melon fruit in

Figure 5.19) is fully cut in half, the resulting section view is a

“full section”.

Figure 5.19: The full section of a melon fruit (at the right)

produced by passing an imaginary plane (for example, a

knife’s blade) completely through the full melon (at the left)

Four steps for visualizing and creating full section views

It’s only possible to clearly represent a full section view of an

object by passing an imaginary cutting plane completely through

it. The steps for visualizing and creating full section views are as

follows:
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1. Select a position for the cutting plane

For example, to section the collar in Figure 5.20 and create a

clear section view that can show both the bored recess (or

indented enclosure) and smaller hole around the top, one must

choose a cutting plane and position i to cut through the vertical

centreline in the selected front view, while at the same time

imagining that the right half of the object has been removed.

Figure 5.20: Selected position for cutting

2. Identify the revealed surfaces

Proper identification of revealed surfaces is crucial to production

or creation of clear full section views. The 3D graphic

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representation of the remaining half of the object in Figure 5.21

is shown in Figure 8. Parts of the object or surfaces on the object

(indicated by R, S, T, U, and V) have been labeled to help pictorial

or graphic views.

Figure 5.21: Identifying points and making a projection

3. Draw a section view of the fully sectioned object

To draw the section view, the part of the object that is in front of

the cutting plane can be left out because only the portion that

remains after cutting is important.

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The points (represented by numbers) that would be projected to

create a section view have been identified in Figure 5.22. The

three surfaces produced after applying the cutting plane are

bounded by points 1-2-3-4, 5-6-7-8-9-10, and 13-14-12-11.

These points are joined together by lines and the created

enclosed area is hatched or shaded using fine parallel or crossed

lines as shown in Figure 5.22 which also shows visible parts

behind the cutting plane.

Figure 5.22: Visible parts behind the cutting plane

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4. Project the visible lines; add and equally space hatching

From the direction the section is viewed, the top surface or plan

of the object in Figure 5.20 is indicated in the section as visible

line 15-16-12-11, as shown in Figure 5.22. One of the object's

edges appears as visible line 2-3-6-7-13-14, while the bottom

surface of the recess is indicated in the section as visible line 19-

20. In addition, the back half of the recess and the drilled hole

are indicated as rectangles in the section at 3-4-5-6 and 15-16-

20-19. Proper representation requires that these points must be

projected, with the finished view indicated at the right of Figure

5.23. Hatching must consist of lines that are arranged in the

same direction.

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 Figure 5.23: Drawing the detailed section

5.3 Abbreviations

Each abbreviation used in technical drawing is a shortened form

of a word or phrase that represents a common term/phrase.

Common abbreviations are important in notes only or especially

when they cannot be misunderstood. Less common abbreviations

can be avoided. This post provides the following list of authorized

abbreviations and acronyms for use on technical drawings and

related documents:

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Figure 5.24: Commonly used abbreviations

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6. Circles, Triangles, Quadrilaterals, and

Regular Polygons

6.1 How to Draw Circles

A circle is a curve that is created by moving a point at a constant

length from another fixed point. All the points on the

circumference of a circle (i.e., the borderline encompassing a

circle) are equidistant from one point which is known as the

center. A circle can also be defined as an ellipse that has two axes

of equal length. Circles are often used to represent holes and the

top or side views of cones, cylinders, etc.

Technical drawing tools or instruments such as compass and

template are commonly used to draw circles (and even arcs) of

different diameters or radii. Compasses consist of an extension

bar for drawing large circles by stretching the range of the large

bow compass. Beam compasses are even used for much larger

circles. On CAD, the CIRCLE command is used to create circles

of almost any size.

It takes either talent or practice and patience to quickly produce

good freehand sketches of circles. With patience and practice, it’s

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possible for anyone who isn’t good at freehand to become good at

it and make quick, clear sketches of circles which usually have

the following main elements:

 Center: This is the midpoint of any circle.

 Circumference: This is the distance around the circle.

 Radius: This is the line that joins the center to any point on

the circumference. The radius is half of the diameter.

 Diameter: This is the straight line that passes through the

center and connects two points on the circumference curve.

The diameter is twice the radius.

6.1.1 Steps to construct/draw a circle by using a

compass

To create a circle on a technical drawing, the conventional

practice is to draw center lines which help to (1) site or set up a

location for the centers of circles (2) represent any of the major

axes of cylinders, cones, and other curved surfaces, and (3)

represent lines of symmetry.

The following steps are involved in drawing a circle by using a

compass:

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 Step 1: To locate and mark the center of the circle, draw

two lines or center lines directly perpendicular to each

other, and mark the desired radius on one of the center

lines (Figure 6.1).

 Step 2: Place the compass point at the intersection of the

center lines and set the compass pencil point to the desired

radius.

 Step 3: Draw the circle by turning the compass pencil in

the clockwise or counter-clockwise direction.

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 Figure 6.1: Steps to draw a circle with a compass

Figure 6.2 shows the multiview drawing for a cylinder. The top

view consists of a horizontal center line and a vertical center line

intersecting, with the intersection point located or established as

the circle's center. The front view beneath the top view shows a

center line which is the location of the cylinder’s axis.

Figure 6.2: Multiview drawing of a cylinder showing the

application of center lines in establishing the centers of

different views

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6.1.2 Steps to construct/draw a circle by using a

template

A circle template is used to draw circles; in many cases,

templates make drawings faster than compasses. Circle template

is made of plastic and has circular holes of various diameters,

with each circle having a specific diameter.

The following steps are involved in drawing a circle by using a

template:

 Step 1: Establish the center of the circle by using center

lines (Figure 6.3).

 Step 2: Place/position the circle template to cover the

desired radius or diameter. The template can be adjusted for

center lines to align with precise marks on/of the template.

 Step 3: Use a pencil to draw the circle by tracing it around

the selected circle template diameter.

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Figure 6.3: A template and the steps involved in drawing a

circle

6.1.3 Steps to construct/draw a circle by using CAD

CAD software usually has a command option for drawing circles

which is usually stored as a center point and radius.

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 Figure 6.4: AutoCAD circle construction options

Most CAD systems enable users to define a circle by assigning

values for any one of the following:

 the center and a diameter

 the center and a radius

 two points on the diameter

 three points on the circle

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  a radius and two lines, circles, or entities that are tangent to

the circle

 three lines, circles, or entities that are tangent to the circle.

Figure 6.5: Ways to define a circle

6.2 How to Draw Triangles

In addition to the definition and types of triangles, this section

also provides the following relevant practical information (read to

the very end):

 (1) How to construct/draw a triangle given the lengths of the

respective sides and a compass.

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  (2) How to construct/draw a right-angled triangle given the

hypotenuse and one side.

 (3) How to construct/draw a triangle by using CAD

(computer-aided design or drafting).

 (4) How to construct/draw an equilateral triangle by using a

compass.

 (5) Alternate method or steps to construct/draw an

equilateral triangle by using the 60-degree angle of the

30/60 triangle

6.2.1 What is a triangle?

A triangle is a closed plane figure that is bounded by three

straight sides. A triangle can also be defined as a three-sided

polygon—i.e., a polygon that has three sides. The sum of the

interior angles of any triangle is equal to 180 degrees—i.e., 180°.

The vertex of any triangle is the point at which two of any of the

three sides meet.

6.2.2 Types of triangle

Triangles, named according to their respective interior angles,

can fall into any of the following six types:

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 Equilateral triangle: Any triangle that has three sides of

equal length and three interior angles that are the same or

equal to 60 degrees.

 Isosceles triangle: Any triangle that has at least two sides

of equal length or two interior angles of equal degrees.

 Scalene triangle: Any triangle in which none of the sides or

interior angles are of equal length or degrees.

 Right-angled triangle: Any triangle in which two sides are

inclined to each other by 90 degrees and the square of the

hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other

two sides—Pythagoras Theorem.

 Obtuse triangle: Any triangle in which one of the interior

angles is greater than 90 degrees.

 Acute triangle: Any triangle in which all of the interior

angles are less than 90 degrees.

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 Figure 6.6: Six types of triangles

6.2.3 How to construct/draw a triangle given the lengths

of the respective sides and a compass

To construct a triangle with some selected technical drawing

tools/instruments, use the following procedure:

 Step 1: Assuming you are given the length of each of the

sides A, B, and C without any interior angles, you can start

out by drawing any one of the sides, for instance, A.

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  Step 2: With the compass pointer placed at one end of A

and the pencil set at a desired radius, draw an arc with a

radius equal to length B.

 Step 3: From the only other end of line A, draw another arc

with a radius equal to length C and intersect the arc related

to length B.

 Step 4: Draw sides B and C, respectively, by joining one

endpoint of line A to the point of intersection of the two arcs

and the other endpoint of line A to the same point of

intersection of the two arcs constructed as stated in steps 2

and 3 above.

Figure 6.7: Constructing a triangle given the lengths of the

sides and a compass

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6.2.4 How to construct/draw a right-angled triangle

given the hypotenuse and one side

Given the lengths of sides S and R, respectively (Figure 6.8), use

the following procedure:

 Step 1: Draw AB equal to diameter S and use a compass to

draw a semicircle.

 Step 2: With A (or one end of AB) as center and R as radius,

draw an arc to intersect the semicircle (Step 1) at C.

 Step 3: Draw AC (A to C) and BC (B to C) to complete the

right-angled triangle.

Figure 6.8: Constructing a right-angled triangle given the

hypotenuse and one side

6.2.5 How to construct/draw a triangle by using CAD

(computer-aided design or drafting)

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Triangles can be produced in CAD by using the CIRCLE or ARC

commands to create the construction arcs and using OBJECT

snap commands thereafter to draw the lines by snapping up or

grabbing the endpoints of the lines and the intersection of the

arcs. The POLYGON command can be used to produce equilateral

triangles by specifying the length and number of the respective

sides and the length of the sides and locating the vertices.

6.2.6 How to construct/draw an equilateral triangle by

using a compass

Use the following procedure (Figure 6.9A):

 Step 1: Given the length of side D, extend and set the

compass to be equal in length with D.

 Step 2: Place the compass pointer at one end of side D and

draw an arc.

 Step 3: Place the compass pointer at the other end of side D

and draw an arc.

 Step 4: Draw a line from one end of side D to the

intersection of the two arcs, and another line from the other

end of side D to the intersection of the two arcs.

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Figure 6.9A: Constructing an equilateral triangle by using a

compass

6.2.7 Alternate method or steps to construct/draw an

equilateral triangle by using the 60-degree angle of the 30/60

triangle

Use the following procedure (Figure 6.9B):

 Step 1: Place the 30/60 degree triangle so that the 60-

degree angle is at the base.

 Step 2: Use a pencil to draw the two sides that are not

vertical—alternatively, use a pencil to draw the two sides

that are not horizontal.

 Step 3: Flip the 30/60 degree triangle so that the 60-degree

angle is at the base and other end, and use a pencil to

repeat step 2 and draw the whole equilateral triangle.

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Figure 6.9B: Constructing an equilateral triangle by using the

60-degree angle of the 30/60 triangle

6.3 How to Draw Quadrilaterals

In addition to the definition and types of quadrilaterals, this

section also provides the following relevant practical information:

 How to draw a square or any quadrilateral.

 How to draw any quadrilateral by using CAD.

6.3.1 What is a quadrilateral?

A quadrilateral is a polygon that has four sides (i.e., it is a four-

sided polygon) of equal or unequal length and four interior angles

of equal or unequal magnitude (degrees). The sum of the interior

angles of any quadrilateral is equal to 360 degrees—i.e., 360°.

Quadrilaterals that have parallel sides are called parallelograms.

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6.3.2 Types of quadrilaterals

Quadrilaterals, named according to the respective lengths of their

sides and magnitudes of their interior angles, can be classified

into any of the following six types:

 Rectangle: Any quadrilateral in which the opposite sides

are parallel and of equal length, and all four interior angles

are equal, i.e., 90 degrees.

 Rhomboid: Any quadrilateral in which the opposite sides

are parallel and equal, opposite angles are equal, and only

two opposite sides slant in the same direction.

 Rhombus: Any quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are

parallel, opposite angles are equal, only two opposite sides

slant in the same direction, and all four sides are of equal

length.

 Square: Any quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are

parallel, all four sides have the same length, and all four

interior angles are equal, i.e., 90 degrees.

 Trapezium: Any quadrilateral that has no parallel sides of

equal length and no angles of equal degrees.

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  Trapezoid: Any quadrilateral that has two parallel sides, no

sides of equal length, and no angles of equal

magnitude/degrees.

Figure 6.10: Six types of quadrilateral

6.3.3 How to draw a square or any quadrilateral

Quadrilaterals are constructed using specific technical drawing

tools/instruments such as T-square or straightedge, triangle, and

protractor to measure equal or unequal angles and create parallel

lines. To construct a square and any quadrilateral, do the

following:

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 Step 1: Given side AB, use the 45-degree angle of the 45-

degree triangle (or use a protractor for any quadrilateral)

and place the triangle with the 45-degree angle at A, then

draw a line. Repeat the same at B (use a protractor for any

angles in any quadrilateral) and the lines would cross to

indicate the center of the square.

 Step 2: In the case of a square, draw two vertical lines

perpendicular to endpoints A and B, respectively, and

ensure they intersect the 45-degree construction lines at C

and D, respectively. For any quadrilateral, use a protractor

and T-square or ruler to create equal or unequal interior

angles.

 Step 3: For a square, draw a line from C to D to get a

complete drawing. For any quadrilateral, use a T-square or

ruler to connect vertices or constructed intersection points

of lines.

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Figure 6.11: Drawing a square or quadrilateral through

diagonals

6.3.4 How to draw any quadrilateral by using CAD

Quadrilaterals are produced in CAD by using the POLYGON

command, defining the number of sides needed, and deciding

whether the sides should be circumscribed or inscribed within a

circle. The POLYGON command can be used to draw

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quadrilaterals and regular polygons of just about any number of

sides, with the desired polygon based on the radius of a

circumscribed or inscribed circle and the length of an edge of the

polygon used to define the size. Figure 6.12 shows the CAD quick

help for the POLYGON (Polygon) command. The RECTANGLE

(Rectangle) command is another alternative and quick way to

create a square in CAD or AutoCAD.

Figure 6.12: Drawing a quadrilateral or any general polygon

by using CAD

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6.4 How to Draw Regular Polygons

In addition to the definition of polygon and a list of the different

types of regular polygons, this post provides the following

relevant practical information on regular polygons (equilateral

triangle, square, pentagon, etc.):

 (1) How to draw a pentagon

 (2) How to draw an inscribed hexagon

 (3) How to draw an inscribed octagon

 (4) How to draw any regular polygon

 (5) How to draw any regular polygon by using CAD

6.4.1 What is a polygon?

A polygon is a plane figure that is multisided and bounded by a

minimum number of straight sides. Generally, there are two

broad classes of polygons: regular polygons and irregular

polygons. Both can be further divided into various types.

A regular polygon has equal interior angles and straight sides

that are equal in length. An irregular polygon, on the other hand,

has straight sides that are not equal in length, and interior

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angles that are also not equal. This post focuses mainly on

regular polygons and how to draw or construct them.

Because regular polygons have equal sides and equal interior

angles, they are thus “regular” and can be inscribed in or

circumscribed around a circle and constructed for various

purposes. The following formula is used for determining the sum

of all interior angles of any polygon: S = (n − 2) × 180 degrees,

where S is the sum total of all interior angles and n represents

the number of sides of the polygon. Regular polygons are named

based on the number of straight sides they have.

6.4.2 Types of regular polygons

Regular polygons, named according to the number of their

respective straight sides, can fall into any of the following ten

types or classes, as shown in Figure 6.13:

 Equilateral Triangle: Any polygon that has three equal

sides and angles. The sum of all interior angles of an

equilateral triangle is S = (n − 2) × 180 degrees = (3 − 2) ×

180 degrees = 180 degrees or 180°. Generally speaking, the

sum of all interior angles of any types of triangle is 180

degrees.

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 Square: Any polygon that has four equal sides and angles.

The sum of all interior angles of a square is S = (n − 2) × 180

degrees = (4 − 2) × 180 degrees = 360 degrees. Generally,

the sum of the interior angles in any types of quadrilateral

(including squares) is 360 degrees.

 Pentagon: Any polygon that has five equal sides and angles.

The sum of all interior angles of a pentagon is S = (n − 2) ×

180 degrees = (5 − 2) × 180 degrees = 540 degrees.

 Hexagon: Any polygon that has six equal sides and angles.

The sum of all interior angles of a hexagon is 720 degrees.

 Heptagon: Any polygon that has seven equal sides and

angles. The sum of all interior angles of a heptagon is 900

degrees.

 Octagon: Any polygon that has eight equal sides and

angles. The sum of all interior angles of an octagon is 1080

degrees.

 Nonagon: Any polygon that has nine equal sides and

angles. The sum of all interior angles of a nonagon is 1260

degrees.

 Decagon: Any polygon that has ten equal sides and angles.

The sum of all interior angles of a decagon is 1440 degrees.

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  Dodecagon: Any polygon that has twelve equal sides and

angles. The sum of all interior angles of a dodecagon is

1,800 degrees.

 Icosagon: Any polygon that has twenty equal sides and

angles. The sum of all interior angles of an icosagon is 3,240

degrees.

Figure 6.13: Ten types of regular polygon

6.4.3 How to draw a pentagon

A pentagon has five straight sides and angles that are

respectively equal to each other, as shown in Figure 6.13 above

along with other regular polygons. A pentagon can be drawn or

constructed by dividing a circle into five equal parts (i.e., 360 ÷ 5

or 72 degrees each) and using a protractor (or compass and

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dividers) and scale ruler to locate and mark five equal angles at

five vertices, as shown in Figure 6.14. Any pentagon that is

constructed within a circle is also called an inscribed pentagon.

Take the following steps to construct a pentagon:

 Step 1: Draw a circle, divide its circumference into five

equal parts (or, divide the circle into five equal parts,

originating from the circle’s center at 72 degrees each), and

mark five points to represent the vertices of the hexagon.

 Step 2: Use a scale ruler, T-square, or any technical

drawing tools that have a straight edge to join the points or

vertices and form or draw the pentagon.

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Figure 6.14: Simple construction of a pentagon by creating

and marking five equal distances on a circle’s circumference

6.4.4 How to draw an inscribed hexagon

A hexagon has six equal sides and six equal interior angles at its

vertices. A T-square (or straightedge) in combination with a

30/60-degree triangle can be used to construct inscribed or

circumscribed within or around a given circle. Alternatively, the

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circle can be divided into six equal parts (i.e., 360 ÷ 6 or 60

degrees each) and constructed following the previous steps on

how to draw a pentagon.

An inscribed hexagon is a hexagon or polygon that is drawn with

the help of a circle and has all of its five vertices constructed

within the circle; a circumscribed hexagon, on the other hand,

has five straight edges that are individually outside the circle but

tangent to it such that all the vertices are also outside the circle.

When a polygon is inscribed within a circle, the circle is

circumscribed around the polygon; when a polygon is

circumscribed around a circle, the circle is inscribed within the

polygon.

To construct an inscribed hexagon (or a hexagon that is inscribed

within a circle), take the following steps to construct an inscribed

hexagon:

 Step 1: Draw a circle with a center at point A and a

horizontal center line BC and mark points B and C where

the horizontal center line intersects the circle, as shown in

Figure 6.15.

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  Step 2: Construct and draw two diagonals such that they

pass through center A and are at 60 degrees to the

horizontal line BC, then mark the points D, E, F, and G

where the diagonals intersect the circle.

 Step 3: Use a ruler or T-square to connect the intersection

points and draw an inscribed hexagon.

Figure 6.15: Simple construction of an inscribed hexagon

6.4.5 How to draw an inscribed octagon

An octagon is a polygon that has eight equal straight sides and

equal angles. In other words, it is an eight-sided polygon. A circle

(360 degrees) can be divided into eight equal parts (i.e., 45

degrees each, originating from the center of the circle) and used

to draw an octagon. To construct an inscribed octagon, take the

following steps:

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 Step 1: Draw a circle with a center at point A and a

horizontal center line EH and mark points E and H where

the horizontal center line intersects the circle; then draw a

vertical center line BC and mark points B and C where the

center line intersects the circle, as shown in Figure 6.16.

 Step 2: Construct and draw two diagonals such that they

pass through center A and are at 45 degrees to either

horizontal line EH or vertical line BC, and mark the points

D, F, G, and I where the diagonals intersect the circle.

 Step 3: Use a ruler or T-square to connect the intersection

points and draw an inscribed octagon.

Figure 6.16: Simple construction of an inscribed octagon

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6.4.6 How to draw any regular polygon

Any polygon with n number of straight sides can be drawn by

dividing a circle into n equal parts (i.e., the number of sides for

the polygon) and using a protractor (or compass and dividers)

and scale ruler to locate and mark n number of equal angles or n

number of vertices and join them to form the polygon.

Alternatively, any n-sided polygon with n number of straight sides

can be drawn by dividing the circumference of a circle into n

equal parts and using a protractor (or compass and dividers) and

scale ruler to complete the job.

6.4.7 How to draw any regular polygon by using CAD

Most CAD systems have a POLYGON command that can be used

to draw any regular polygon of n (a given number) of sides and

sizes or sides of equal length. Generally, the POLYGON command

can be used to draw quadrilaterals along with regular polygons of

just about any number of sides. Figure 6.17 shows the CAD

quick help for the POLYGON (Polygon) command.

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Figure 6.17: Drawing any polygon by using CAD

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7. Angles and Tangents

7.1 How to Construct Angles

In addition to the definition of angles and a list of the main types

of angles, this post also provides the following relevant practical

information:

 How to construct an angle by using a protractor

 How to construct an angle by using a compass and a

ruler

 How to construct any angle by using CAD

7.1.1 What is an angle?

An angle can be defined as the space about/between two straight

lines or planes that intersect or meet at a point called the “vertex”

of the angle. An angle can also be defined as the magnitude or

degree of inclination of one line or plane to another.

Angles are measured or expressed in degrees or radians. A degree

is divided into 60 minutes (i.e., 60′) and a minute is divided into

60 seconds (i.e., 60″). The angle between two lines or planes can

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be denoted by using any of the Greek letters θ (theta), α (alpha), β

(beta), etc.

7.1.2 Main types of angles

Based on magnitude (in degrees), any angle can be classified into

one of the following six main types of angles:

 Acute angle: Any angle that is less than 90 degrees (i.e.,

90°) about the vertex.

 Right angle: Any angle that is exactly 90 degrees about the

vertex.

 Obtuse angle: Any angle that is more than 90 degrees and

less than 180 degrees—i.e., any angle between 90° and

180°—about the vertex.

 Straight angle: Any angle that is exactly 180 degrees about

the vertex.

 Reflex angle: Any angle that is between 180 and 360

degrees about the vertex.

 Full rotation or complete circle/angle: Any angle that is

exactly 360 degrees about the vertex.

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 Figure 7.1: Six main types of angle

7.1.3 How to construct an angle by using a protractor

A protractor can be used to construct various types of angles.

Alternatively, angles can be constructed using a compass and

ruler, or even CAD (computer-aided drafting), as discussed in the

next sections, respectively.

It is easy to measure and construct an angle by using a

protractor and pencil. To construct an angle by using a

protractor, do the following:

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  Step 1: Draw a line AB.

 Step 2: Position the protractor's center at big black point A

so that line AB is parallel to and aligned with the line of the

protractor.

 Step 3: Depending on the required angle to be constructed,

take A as the origin and mark point C.

 Step 4: Starting from point A, draw a line to join points A

and C to construct the required angle.

Figure 7.2: Steps to construct an angle by using a protractor

(Source: Byjus)

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7.1.4 How to construct an angle by using a compass and

a ruler

The combination of a compass and a ruler is a method that can

be used to construct some particular angles only such as

30°, 45°, 60°, 90°, etc. Angles such as 23°, 44°, 57°, etc., can also

be constructed by using a compass and ruler.

The construction of 60 degrees (i.e., 60°) angle is one of the most

basic and popular constructions which can help in constructing

several other angles. To construct 60° by using a compass and

ruler, do the following:

 Step 1: Draw a straight line OB with the left end as point O

and the right end as point B.

 Step 2: With a compass, draw any desirable radius by

placing the compass pointer at O and using the pencil head

to construct an arc such that the arc intersects line OB at a

point P.

 Step 3: Place the compass pointer at P and construct an arc

such that the arc passes through O and intersects the

previous arc at a point A.

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  Step 4: Draw a line originating from O and passing through

A.

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4

Figure 7.3: Steps to construct an angle by using a compass

and ruler (Source: Byjus)

Click here to learn how to construct 30°, 45°, 90°, and other

angles.

7.1.5 How to construct any angle by using CAD

Constructing any angle with CAD/AutoCAD gives more control

over the positioning of drawing elements. AutoCAD, specifically,

provides Polar Tracking which can be used to constrain the

computer cursor into predefined angles. The exact angle direction

for any angle is indicated by a long dotted line and the angle. To

construct any angle by using CAD, do the following:

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  Step 1: Click the Tools menu, go to Draft Settings, go to the

Polar Tracking tab, and put on the Polar Tracking button.

Figure 7.4: Using the Polar Tracking command to start the

construction of any angle using CAD

 Step 2: In the Increment Angle list, select the desired polar

tracking angle.

 Step 3: To define additional tracking angles, select

Additional Angles, click New, and Enter the desired angle

into the text box.

 Step 4: Go to Polar Angle Measurement, and define any

desired polar tracking increments relative to the last created

object or based on the UCS.

 Step 5: Click OK.

 Step 6: On the status bar, right-click the Polar Tracking

button, click on any available angle, or go to Settings to

define additional tracking angles.

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Figure 7.5: Complete steps for constructing any angle using

CAD

7.2 How to Draw Tangents

Tangent construction has an important role in technical drawing.

Tangents and tangencies can be constructed by using traditional

tools such as triangles, compass, and T-square. With CAD,

tangent construction is easy and automatic. In addition to the

definition of tangent and tangency, this post provides the

following relevant practical information:

 How to draw an arc tangent to a line by using a triangle and

a compass

 How to draw lines tangent to two circles by using a T-square

and triangle or two triangles

 How to draw a tangent by using CAD

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7.2.1 What is a tangent?

A tangent is a line that intersects, touches, or passes through

only one point on the circumference/surface of a circle or only

one point on the surface of an arc. The point where the tangent

line intersects the circle is called the "point of tangency".

A point of tangency or tangent condition exists when a straight

line intersects with a curve at only one point. In other words, a

line is tangent if it line touches only one point on a surface.

7.2.2 What is tangency?

Tangency is the quality or state of being tangent or intersecting

only one point—and no more. For instance, a line and a circle are

tangent to each other if the line intersects or passes through the

circle at only one point. The same applies to two curves that are

tangent to each other—they cross paths or touch each other at

only one point.

Figure 7.6: Different tangent conditions

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Figure 7.7: Tangent and non-tangent conditions, respectively

7.2.3 How to draw an arc tangent to a line by using a

triangle and a compass

To draw an arc tangent to a given line, do the following (see

Figure 7.8):

 Step 1: Draw line AB and tangent point T and use a triangle

to construct a line that is perpendicular to AB and passes

through point T.

 Step 2: Define and mark the radius on the perpendicular

line to locate the center of the arc. Place the compass’s point

at the center of the arc and use the lead/pencil to target the

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 radius of the arc and draw the arc to be tangent to line AB

and pass through point T.

Figure 7.8: Drawing an arc tangent to a line at a given point

on the line

7.2.4 How to draw lines tangent to two circles by using a

T-square and triangle or two triangles

To draw lines tangent to two circles, do the following:

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 Step 1: Set the T-square and two triangles or one triangle

as shown in Figure 7.9, and create the tangent lines by

placing one side of one of the two triangles between the two

circles and projecting a line that is tangent to the circles;

adjust the other triangle so its vertex passes through the

center of one of the two circles, and use a pencil to mark the

points of tangency (which are the points where the line is

tangent to the two circles, respectively) on the circumference

of the two circles, and draw the tangent line. Repeat this

step to draw the second tangent line.

 Step 2: Draw lines from the centers of the circles

perpendicular to the tangent lines, and label the tangent

points (T1, T2, T3, and T4) at the points where the lines from

the centers of the circles intersect with the tangent lines.

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Figure 7.9: Drawing Constructing lines tangent to two circles

or arcs, using a straightedge

7.2.5 How to draw a tangent by using CAD

Most CAD systems can automatically locate tangent points. The

TAN command is used in drawing tangents in AutoCAD; it

enables users to draw a line that is tangent to an arc or circle.

After selecting the arc or circle for tangency, the “TAN” command

should be used via the command line. The TAN or TANGENT

command can be used to draw a line that is tangent to two

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curves. In AutoCAD, the point of tangency is determined by using

the INTERSECTION option to snap the tangent point.

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8. Scales and Tolerances

8.1 Definition & Types of Scale

Scales are often used in technical drawings to make

representations possible since—unlike on computer or CAD

drawings where objects are represented according to their actual

sizes—it’s not always possible to represent the actual (or full

sizes) of objects on paper or printed drawing which usually

represents objects in either smaller, actual, or larger sizes,

depending on the size of paper used.

In other words, the technical drawing of an object is often

“scaled” or drawn “to scale” because the actual size of the object

is either too big to fit on drawing paper or too small to be

conveniently seen or viewed.

For instance, the actual or full size of a real-life microchip circuit

has to be scaled up or drawn at a size that is thousands of times

its actual size for it to be clearly viewed.

The scale chosen for a drawing has to be indicated and clearly in

the title block. A drawing that is scaled or done at full size is

labelled as FULL SIZE, meaning that the scale is the ratio 1:1.

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8.1.1 Definition of a scale in technical drawing

A scale or “drawing scale” is any ratio that represents or indicates

the relationship between the size of a drawn object and its actual

size, regardless of the unit used to express the dimensions of the

object. In other words, a scale is a ratio of the number of drawing

units to the number of actual units of an object or entity.

A scale can also be defined as any ratio that expresses the

relative/proportional relationship between a drawing and the

full/actual size of the object or entity it represents. It’s only

possible to represent the floor layout for a building, for instance,

on a drawing if its actual size (i.e., the full size of the floor layout)

is scaled down or reduced to fit on paper.

Conversely, the actual size of a tiny object would be too small to

be viewed or seen if placed on a sheet of paper; therefore, it has

to be scaled up or enlarged (i.e., drawn a number of times larger

than the tiny object’s full size) for it to be conveniently view on

paper.

Different scales are used to represent various kinds of objects on

different types of technical drawing views and using scales makes

it possible for viewers to visualize objects, regardless of their

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actual size. Whenever an object or drawing is not scaled, NONE is

usually indicated in the scale area of the paper drawing’s title

block. Alternatively, the abbreviation NTS, meaning “not to scale”,

may be used, in the same way as they appear on older types of

technical drawings.

The scale instrument used to indicate an object’s dimension(s) is

usually 6 or 12 inches long and can be made of either plastic,

metal, or wood. Scale instruments that have a linear cross-

section, and scale instruments that have a triangular cross-

section (called “triangular scale”) are commonly used in technical

drawing. Triangular scales have a greater advantage because of

the combination of several scales they offer on each of the three

sides.

Figure 8.1: Part of a scale instrument that has a linear cross-

section

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Figure 8.2: Part of a triangular scale (or scale instrument

that has a triangular cross-section)

8.1.2 Types of scales

The most common types of scales used in technical drawing are:

 Mechanical engineer’s scale: is commonly used to draw

mechanical parts.

 Civil engineer’s scale: is commonly used to draw large

structures and maps.

 Architect’s scale: is commonly used to draw buildings and

structural layouts.

 Combination scale: is a scale that has engineering, metric,

and architectural components on it—i.e., on a single scale.

8.1.3 How to specify a scale on any drawing

Although there are various methods for specifying or noting

scales on technical drawings, all of them have one thing in

common—i.e., they express one thing: the relationship between

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the size of an object or sizes of objects on paper and their actual

size or sizes off paper, in real life.

For instance, the scale for an object that is drawn on paper at

half its actual (or real-life) size can be represented or expressed in

three different ways in the drawing paper’s title block, viz:

 SCALE: 1:2

 SCALE: 1/2

 SCALE: 0.5

Unlike a full-size drawing which is marked or labelled as FULL

SIZE, a half-size drawing is labelled as HALF SIZE or 1:2. There

are other smaller or reduced scales such as quarter size (1:4),

eighth size (1:8), sixteenth size (1:16), etc. Larger or enlarged

scales include 2:1 (double size), 3:1 (triple size), 4:1 (quadruple

size), 10:1 (denary size), 100:1 (hundred-fold size), etc.

Technical drawing scales are usually written in the following

formats:

 1:1 — Full size

 1:2 — Half size

 1:5 — Fifth size

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  1:10 — Tenth size

 1:20 — Twentieth size

 1:50 — Fiftieth size

In each of these common scales, the value on the left (i.e., 1)

represents the scale factor. The scales or drawing ratios can be

reduced or increased by multiplying or dividing them by 10. For

example, the twentieth size or 1:20 scale can be reduced to 1:200

scale by multiplying by 10.

When the value on the left part of a scale is greater than 1, it

means the drawing of the object is larger than the same object’s

actual size. A smaller value means the drawing of the object is

smaller than the object’s actual size.

Figure 8.3 shows the same rectangle drawn at two different

scales: the first rectangle is drawn at a scale of 1:1 which

represents the rectangle’s actual, full, or true size; on the other

hand, the second rectangle is drawn at a scale of 2:1 which

represents twice the rectangle’s actual or true size. It is important

to note that in both scales, the dimension of magnitude 3.00

remains the same, regardless of the unit used.

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Figure 8.3: A rectangle drawn to two different scales: 1:1 (or

full size) and 2:1

Figure 8.4 shows the front view of an object drawn at three

different scales: the first view is drawn at a scale of 1:1 which

represents the actual size of the view; the second view is drawn at

a scale of 1:2 which represents half size or half of the view’s

actual size; lastly, the third view is drawn at a scale of 2:1 which

represents twice the view’s actual size.

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Figure 8.4: The full, reduced, and enlarged scales of an

object’s front view

8.1.4 Important advice when choosing a scale for paper

drawing

Before selecting the paper size for a drawing, determine the area

or longest vertical and horizontal dimensions of the object to be

drawn; this will give a precise idea about the adequate size paper

that has to be selected, especially in regard to a particular scale

that can make the drawing fit the paper.

8.1.5 Scales in CAD (computer-aided design)

Usually, CAD drawings are created in full scale or full size which

automatically shows the true dimensions. The desired units of

measurement or dimensions have to be set when starting CAD

drawings which are scaled to fit any chosen size of paper to be

printed or plotted.

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The scale number on a CAD drawing plot would represent the

plot or printed scale which is not the same scale that was applied

when creating the CAD drawing. Appropriate adjustments have to

be made for text sizes so that the texts are not too big or too

small when creating the scaled plot.

8.2 Tolerances

Since it is not always possible to produce objects to an exact size

or prevent variations between coupling parts, tolerances are often

used to control any variations or differences more accurately on

production drawings during the manufacturing process.

Luckily, with tolerance, it’s not necessary to use only exact or

perfect sizes. An example that shows how tolerance can be

generally specified by indicating a note on a drawing:

ALL TOLERANCES ±.02 INCH

UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED.

Another way to specify tolerance is illustrated in the title block in

Figure 8.5.

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Figure 8.5: A technical drawing title block that specifies

tolerances

8.2.1 What is tolerance?

Tolerance is the allowable variation or variance in the

dimension(s) of an object or part, expressed as the difference

between the upper tolerance limit and the lower tolerance limit.

Tolerance can also be defined as the magnitude a particular

dimension is allowed to vary from the specification for the model

or drawing dimension before or during the manufacturing or

production process.

If a manufactured or finished part varies from the exact specified

dimension, it should vary slightly; implying that it should not

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vary beyond certain limits, as dictated by the upper and lower

tolerance limits.

8.2.2 Uses of tolerances in technical drawing

 Tolerances help to manage the manufacturing process more

accurately when parts are being coupled together.

 Tolerances help to ensure that any number of merging or

mating parts fit together properly, regardless of any

variation or variance they may have from their specified

dimension(s).

 Tolerances help to maintain the individual size and shape of

each part within prescribed limits after they are fitted

together.

 Tolerances help companies save materials, reduce waste,

and increase profits, especially during the manufacturing

process. This is one of the main reasons why tolerances and

tolerancing are very important during manufacturing.

8.2.3 Ways to express tolerance

Tolerances can be expressed in the following ways:

 As a general tolerance note in the title block of any drawing.

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  As direct limits (upper and lower) or as tolerance values

assigned to any dimension.

 As geometric tolerances.

 As notes that refer to specific dimensions and conditions.

8.2.4 How to represent tolerance values using general

tolerance

When using general tolerance, tolerances are represented as

direct limits (upper and lower) or tolerance values. General

tolerances are provided in notes or indicated in the title block in

various minds of dimensions:

1. Decimal dimensions

An example of a general tolerance note for decimal dimensions

includes:

ALL DECIMAL DIMENSIONS TO

BE HELD TO ±0.002MM

This implies that if a dimension such as 0.600MM is assigned a

tolerance value of ±0.002MM, it (i.e., the dimension) would

automatically have an upper tolerance limit of 0.602MM and a

lower tolerance limit of 0.598MM.

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2. Metric dimensions

An example of a general tolerance note for metric dimensions

includes:

ALL METRIC DIMENSIONS

TO BE HELD TO ±0.05MM

This implies that if a dimension such as 75.00MM is assigned a

tolerance value of ±0.05MM, it would automatically have an

upper tolerance limit of 75.05MM and a lower tolerance limit of

74.95MM.

3. Fractional dimensions

An example of a general tolerance note for fractional dimensions

includes:

ALL FRACTIONAL DIMENSIONS ±⅒″ (INCH)

UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED

4. Angular dimensions

An example of a general tolerance note for angular dimensions

includes:

ALL ANGULAR TOLERANCES ±1° DEGREE

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5. Specifying tolerances based on the number of decimal

places in the dimensions

In this type of general tolerance method, the dimension that is

assigned to each part or object automatically identifies with a

particular tolerance. An example of a general tolerance note for

machined parts based on the number of decimal places includes:

UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED,

TOLERANCES ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Decimal inches:

Feature X = ± 0.300

Feature Y = ± 0.150

Feature Z = ± 0.075

Millimeters:

Whole numbers = ± 0.6

Feature X1 = ± 0.3

Feature Y1 = ± 0.15

Note

If a tolerance is added to a dimension, it will always supersede

the general tolerance, even if it (i.e., the added tolerance) is

greater than the general tolerance.

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8.2.5 Tolerances in CAD

Some tolerancing concepts are unique to CAD software which

usually provides features for tolerancing and evaluating fits and

interferences that help during the tolerancing process. To provide

adequate tolerances in CAD drawings and models, you should:

 Be able to understand the extent of fit that would be

required to properly couple different parts.

 Have a clear understanding of how inspection

measurements should be done appropriately.

 Be able to use tolerance symbols in any model or drawing.

 Be able to apply functional tolerancing to each individual

part or object in an assembly of objects.

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9. Freehand Sketching

Technical drawing, which is the graphical representation of an

object or entity, can be done using any one of three methods:

freehand drawing, mechanical drawing, or computer/digital

drawing (i.e., CAD).

Some drawing tools/equipment or instruments can be used to

create, not only basic types of drawings such as instrument

drawings and computer drawings and models, but freehand

sketches too.

9.1 What is freehand sketching?

Freehand sketching (also called technical sketching) is the process

of creating a rough or “brief”—and usually preliminary—drawing

without the aid of drawing tools/equipment or instruments to

illustrate a summary of at least the main points (if not more) of

an idea, object, product, feature, or structure.

Freehand sketching is easy and convenient because it involves

only the use of pencil, eraser, and paper. A freehand sketch is

usually less structured and less finished, or incomplete. Good

freehand sketches and the lines they consist of are not expected

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to be precisely straight or uniform as traditional instruments or

CAD or drawing lines.

The main difference between a traditional instrument or CAD

drawing and a freehand sketch can be clearly seen in the quality

or appearance of the lines they consist of, respectively.

Usually, sketches are not meant to be perfect; this is okay,

insofar as they adequately represent what needs to be graphically

represented or illustrated for technical audiences or non-

technical audiences, or any type of audience it is intended for.

It may be convenient or advisable to always start any design

project or technical drawing with a freehand sketch or some

sketches.

9.2 Importance/Advantages of Freehand Sketching

The importance/advantages of freehand sketching are, but may

not be limited to:

 It helps to better organize one’s thoughts, thereby

eliminating or at least minimizing errors in the final or

finished drawing.

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 It helps to quickly produce and easily modify informal non-

restrictive sketches to communicate both geometric and

non-geometric information.

 It helps to quickly establish dimensions and layout features

for later use or transfer to formal drawing.

 It saves many hours of work before beginning a formal or

finished drawing.

 It helps in deciding how the finished or final drawing should

appear.

 It helps in determining the size of the final drawing and

adequate sheet layout.

 It serves as a fast form of communication that makes visual

communication faster whenever technical concepts are

being discussed with people, either at home or at work (i.e.,

in a professional environment).

 It helps in keeping notes or records of the stages involved in

designing until a final drawing/design is ready for formal

drafting.

 It helps or inspires one to capture mental images of ideas

and develop them into better and permanent forms without

much difficulty.

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9.3 Freehand sketching tools

Usually, the tools used for freehand sketching include pencil,

paper, and eraser. Although each of these tools exists in

numerous forms, the goal of using them together is to perform

freehand drawing in the simplest way and convey or pass over all

or as much important information as possible.

Generally, only one or more pencils, an eraser, and some sheets

of paper are all that may be needed to create a good freehand

sketch or drawing, even when there may be a temptation to use

T-squares and triangles.

 Pencils: Mechanical pencils are commonly used nowadays,

but traditional wooden pencils can serve the same purpose

during sketching.

 Eraser: Eraser should be used to erase or make changes

only when mistakes require correction or need to be

corrected.

 Paper: Freehand sketches can be made on various kinds of

paper sizes. One of the easiest to use and most accessible is

notebook size 8½″ × 11″ paper. Larger paper sizes are useful

for making many freehand sketches that may have to be

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 grouped together. Plain bond paper that has no lines is

equally good because it offers a very high degree of

flexibility.

9.4 Freehand sketching techniques for straight lines and

curved lines

Practice helps to master the freehand sketching techniques for

straight lines and curved lines such as circles and arcs:

1. Straight lines

It is common for sketches to be made up of at least some lines.

The sketches that consist of mechanically created lines (i.e., lines

that are drawn and guided by traditional drawing instruments

such as compass, divider, T-square, template, etc.) differ from the

sketches made by freehand or freehand techniques which do not

require any guidance by traditional drawing instruments.

Instead, they require guidance strictly from the hand and eyes.

Freehand lines differ in aesthetic quality from mechanical lines

(Figure 9.1).

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 Figure 9.1: Mechanical line vs. sketched/freehanded line

Although it is normal for the straight lines of any freehand sketch

to be slightly uneven, they should by all means follow a fairly or

considerably straight path without any outright interruptions

(Figure 9.2).

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Figure 9.2: Example of a good straight line and three bad

straight lines sketched (drawn by freehand)

The following steps summarize the technique used to sketch

straight lines:

 Step 1: Place the paper in a position that would make

freehand sketching comfortable.

 Step 2: Mark the endpoints of the line or lines to be

sketched.

 Step 3: With your hand and eyes guiding the whole process,

start drawing a line from one endpoint to another (i.e.,

either from left to right or vice-versa).

Note

To draw a long straight line by freehand, sketch a series of short

straight lines and draw a line to connect all of them together to

form a long straight line. Whenever necessary, sketch on plain

grid paper or on tracing paper that is placed on grid paper.

2. Curved lines: circles and arcs

Curved lines such as circles and arcs are a bit more difficult to

draw by freehand or without the aid of traditional drawing

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instruments or a grid. In cases involving circles and arcs, the

curved lines are drawn as interpolations between two or more

“guide” points while ensuring that the eye(s) take a somewhat

“global” view of all the points whenever they are being finally

connected together using a pencil from point to point.

A very small circle can be sketched just like drawing the letter O,

and small circles and arcs can be drawn without guide points;

however, larger circles may need some guide points at the

preliminary stage of sketching.

Usually, the minimum number of guide points for sketching a

circle is four, at 90-degree intervals apart. To sketch an arc, at

least one guide point may be required for every 90 degrees, with

one guide point placed at each end.

The following steps summarize the technique used to sketch

circles:

 Step 1: Draw a square box with all four sides equal in

length to the diameter of the circle to be sketched.

 Step 2: Locate and mark the midpoints of the four sides of

the square. The circle will touch the midpoints (also called

“points of tangency”) when it is being sketched.

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 Step 3: Sketch diagonals across directly opposite corners of

the square and locate the center of the circle wherever the

diagonals cross each other.

 Step 4: On each diagonal, mark the guide points at a

distance of approximately two-thirds the distance from the

center of the circle to the corner of the square such that

there are four more marks on the circle’s perimeter.

 Step 5: Create or sketch eight short arcs, with each arc

located between two adjacent marks on the perimeter.

 Step 6: Draw a thick black continuous line over the arcs

(i.e., from one arc to another) to complete the sketched

circle.

Figure 9.3: Steps involved in sketching a circle

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Note

Arcs are drawn using the same techniques that apply to circles,

by creating a number of points that would be appropriate for

sketching the curvature or length of the arc. Sketching non-

circular arcs can even be more difficult or demanding; however,

they can be sketched by using the eye to cleverly estimate guide

points and drawing a curve line to pass through the guide points.

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10. 8 Types of Projection & 11 Types of

Technical Drawing

Technical drawings are created from any one of the two main

types of projection: parallel projection and perspective projection.

In practice, these two main types of projection (i.e., parallel and

perspective) are used respectively via any one of six subtypes

(orthographic projection, oblique projection, multi-view

projection, axonometric projection, aerial perspective projection,

and linear perspective projection) to create 11 types of technical

drawing defined individually in this article.

After Figure 10.1, there are two different lists and brief

definitions of the 8 main types of projection and 11 types of

technical drawing that can be created from the projections, either

individually or in combination/by association.

(For more detailed or elaborate explanations, visit 11 Types of

Technical Drawing.)

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Figure 10.1: 8 types of projection (blue, orange, and grey

rectangular boxes) and 11 types of technical drawing (yellow

rectangular boxes) produced from the projections

10.1 8 Types of projection

10.1.1 Parallel projection

Generally speaking, you have to make a projection (either parallel

or perspective) and/or a subtype of projection (orthographic,

oblique, multi-view, axonometric, aerial perspective, or linear

perspective) to produce any of the 11 different types of technical

drawing views.

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Parallel projection is the type of projection in which projectors

(also known as “lines of sight” or “imaginary lines”) are projected

from a position (the eye of a viewer, or something) in such a way

that they are parallel to each other and at the same time

perpendicular to the planes of the object(s) they are projected

upon.

Parallel projection is of two types: orthographic projection and

oblique projection; orthographic projection is of two types: multi-

view projection or axonometric projection. Generally, parallel

projection and its subtypes can be used to produce seven

different types of technical drawing: first-angle, third-angle,

isometric, dimetric, trimetric, cavalier, and cabinet drawings

respectively.

Figure 10.2: Lines of sight in parallel and perspective

projections, respectively
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10.1.2 Orthographic projection

Orthographic projection is a type of parallel projection in which

projectors are projected perpendicularly (in a perpendicular

direction) on the major planes of a 3-D object, and the

corresponding 2-D (2-dimensional) representations of the object

are drawn on media such as paper and computer screen.

Orthographic projection is of two types: multi-view projection and

axonometric projection.

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Figure 10.3: Orthographic projections of objects (Image

credits: Google.com and Dreamcivil.com.)

10.1.3 Multiview projection

Multi-view projection is actually a projection of many

orthographic projections or views all on one place or media such

as paper or computer screen: in multi-view projection, the

parallel projectors are directed perpendicularly to the major

planes or important parts of an object such as the top, front, and

side views (and may include other important sides) of an object

which are all drawn or represented in 2-D.

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Multiview projection is used to produce first-angle and third-

angle drawings respectively, depending on the quadrant (either

first—for first-angle, second—second-angle, third—third-angle, or

fourth quadrant—for fourth-angle) in which the object is placed

for the parallel projectors or observer’s eyesight to make a

perpendicular projection on before drawing the individual

projected planes.

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Figure 10.4: Quadrants used during multi-view projection to

produce first-, second-, third-, and fourth-angle projections,

respectively (Image credit: Google.com.)

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Figure 10.5: Multiview (3 major views) for 3 orthographic

projections

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Figure 10.6: Multi-view (6 major views) for 6 orthographic

projections

10.1.4 Axonometric projection

Axonometric projection is another but different expression of

orthographic projection, well suited for illustration purposes:

parallel projectors are directed perpendicularly towards any plane

of a 3-D object that is tipped or rotated about one or more of its

major axes (x, y, and z) to show different sides (top, side, and

front views), and the projection is usually expressed in a single

view with some foreshortened dimensions that are easy to

visualize.

Axonometric projection is used to produce isometric, dimetric,

and trimetric drawings respectively.

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Figure 10.7: Axonometric projection and view of an object

(Image credit: Peachpit.com.)

10.1.5 Oblique projection

Oblique projection is another type of parallel projection (the other

is orthographic) in which the projectors are parallel to each other

but not perpendicular to any planes of the 3-D object they are

projected on, and one of the three planes of the object is

projected at either 30°, 45°, or 60° to the x-axis. Angle 45° is used

in most oblique projections. The parallel projectors are not

projected perpendicularly on any 3-D object’s plane; this would

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result in a technical drawing that has true shapes and sizes on

only one or two planes/faces.

Oblique projection is used to produce cavalier and cabinet

drawings respectively.

Figure 10.8: Oblique projection of objects (Image credit:

Slideplayer.com.)

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10.1.6 Perspective projection

Perspective projection is the type of projection in which the

parallel projectors or lines of sight originate from the same point

(called “point of convergence”) and increasingly diverge away the

more they approach an object’s plane of projection; the projectors

converge or come together at a fixed point(s) (called vanishing or

convergence point(s)), away from the object’s plane of projection—

illustrated by the shape of a cone, thereby making objects appear

smaller the more their distance increases away from an observer.

Perspective projection is of two types: aerial perspective

projection and linear perspective projection. Generally,

perspective projection and its subtypes (i.e., aerial and linear) can

be used to produce four different types of technical drawing:

aerial, one-point, two-point, and three-point drawings

respectively.

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Figure 10.9: Difference in the orientation of projectors in

perspective and parallel projections, respectively

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Figure 10.10: Center of projection (viewpoint, vanishing

point, or convergence point) in perspective projection (Image

credits: Art-Design-Glossary and Google.com.)

10.1.7 Aerial projection

Aerial perspective projection (a.k.a. atmospheric perspective) is

the type of perspective projection in which the projectors diverge

away from their point of convergence (or vanishing point) unto

the planes of projection, and colors, tones, and atmospheric

effects are used to give the object its shape—a shape that would

appear smaller the more the object’s distance increases away

from the observer or vanishing point. The use of colors and tones

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usually creates the illusion of depth on a 2-D surface such as

paper or computer screen.

Aerial projection is used to produce aerial drawings.

Figure 10.11: Aerial perspective projection of an area (Image

credits: GenesisStudios and YouTube.)

10.1.8 Linear projection

Linear perspective projection (often referred to as "geometric

perspective”) is the type of perspective projection in which a set of

construction rules are employed in such a way that the

projectors or imaginary lines of projection converge/meet at one

or more vanishing point(s) and give the illusion of a depth that is

not real.

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Linear projection is used to produce one-point, two-point, and

three-point drawings respectively.

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Figure 10.12: Linear perspective projection of some cubes

(Image credits: Dreamstime.com and Pinterest.com.)

With the definitions of the 8 commonly used types of projection,

we can now proceed to define the following 11 types of technical

drawing:

10.2 11 types of technical drawing

10.2.1 First-angle drawing

First-angle drawing is the type of technical drawing that contains

multi/multiple (i.e., at least 3) 2-dimensional projections or

multi-view produced from the resulting parallel projections that

are perpendicular (orthographic projection) to different/multiple

planes of projection of an object; after making projections on the

planes of an object in the first quadrant, the projection of the

front view (F)—which is one of the planes of the object—is drawn

on the middle area of a medium (paper, computer screen, etc.)

along with the right side view (R) of the object which is drawn on

the left side of the front view, while the left side view (L) of the

object is drawn on the right side of the front view, and the top

view (T) or plan of the object is drawn alone/by itself beneath the

front view. In some other cases, the bottom view (B) of the object

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is included/drawn on top of (but spaced a bit away from) the

front view, and the rear view (R) of the object is included/drawn

on either the right side of the left view or left side of the right

view. First-angle drawing is also known as the

European/international system of projection or drawing.

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Figure 10.13: First-angle drawings of various objects (Image

credit: Google.com.)

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10.2.2 Third-angle drawing

Third-angle drawing is similar to first-, second-, and fourth-angle

drawings, in that it also contains multi/multiple (i.e., at least 3)

2-dimensional projections or multi-view produced from the

resulting parallel projections that are perpendicular (orthographic

projection) to different/multiple planes of projection of an object.

In many cases (involving at least three 2-D projections:

projections on three planes of an object), after projections are

made on the planes of an object in the third quadrant, the

projection of the top view (T) or plan of the object—which is one of

the planes of an object—is drawn alone/by itself on the middle of

a medium (paper, computer screen, etc.), while the front view (F)

of the object is drawn beneath the top view, and the right side

view (R) of the object is drawn on the right side of the front view;

if four 2-D projections are made instead of three, then the extra

2-D projection would represent the left side view (L) of the object,

usually drawn on the left side of the front view. Third-angle

drawing is also known as “the American system” of projection or

drawing.

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Figure 10.14: Third-angle drawings of objects (Image credit:

Google.com.)

Note

Second-angle drawing and fourth-angle drawing are not included

in the 11 types of technical drawing presented in this article

because, unlike in engineering drawing where they are sparingly

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applied in some instances, in technical drawing they don’t seem

to be applied in many or any capacity.

10.2.3 Isometric drawing

Isometric drawing is the type of technical drawing created from

the resulting parallel projectors that are projected

perpendicularly on the planes of any 3-D object that is tipped or

rotated about one of its own major axes (x, y, and z). Isometric

drawings are drawn in such a way that an object’s axes are

inclined to each other by 120°—i.e., the angle between each axis

is the same; furthermore, 2 of the 3 axes are at either 30°, 45°, or

60° to the imaginary x-axis on any 2-D medium.

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Figure 10.15: Isometric drawings of different objects (Image

credit: Google.com.)

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Figure 10.16: Isometric drawing in comparison with dimetric

and trimetric drawings of an object

10.2.4 Dimetric drawing

Dimetric drawing is similar to isometric and trimetric drawings,

in that, it is also the type of technical drawing created from

resulting parallel projectors that are projected perpendicularly on

the planes of a 3-D object that is tipped or rotated about one of

its major axes (x, y, and z). However, unlike in isometric drawing,

only two faces of the object are equally inclined to the plane of

projection—i.e., only 2 angles between any 2 major axes are

unequal. Generally, two different angles are required to construct

2 planes of objects in dimetric projections.

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Figure 10.17: Dimetric drawing of an object (Image credit:

Google.com.)

10.2.5 Trimetric drawing

In trimetric drawing, the three major axes of an object are

inclined to each other by three different angles, respectively:

three different angles are required to construct 3 planes of any

object, and the 3 angles between the 3 major axes are unequal.

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Figure 10.18: Trimetric drawing of an object (Image credit:

Xamou-Art.com.)

10.2.6 Cavalier drawing

Cavalier drawing is the type of technical drawing created from the

resulting parallel projectors that are not projected

perpendicularly on the planes of any 3-D object that has one of

its three planes projected at either 30°, 45°, or 60° to the x-axis;

but all the dimensions (width, breadth, and height) of the 3-D

object are all drawn to full scale.

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Page 207 of 229
Figure 10.19: Cavalier drawing of different objects (Image

credit: Google.com.)

10.2.7 Cabinet drawing

Cabinet drawing is similar to cabinet drawing, in that, it is also

the type of technical drawing that is created from resulting

parallel projectors that are not projected perpendicularly on the

planes of any 3-D object that has one of its three planes projected

at either 30°, 45°, or 60° to the x-axis; however, unlike cavalier

drawing, the width or breadth (whichever you designate to a

particular dimension) is only drawn to half scale instead of full

scale; but the height is drawn to full scale just as is applicable to

cavalier drawing.

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Figure 10.20: Cabinet drawings of different objects (Image

credit: Google.com.)
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10.2.8 Aerial drawing

Aerial drawing is the type of technical drawing produced from

aerial perspective projection in which the projectors diverge away

from their point of convergence (or vanishing point) unto the

planes of projection, then and colors, tones, and atmospheric

effects are used to give the object its shape—a shape that would

appear smaller the more the object’s distance increases away

from the observer or vanishing point.

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Figure 10.21: Aerial drawing of a building and environment

(Image credit: Google.com.)

10.2.9 One-point drawing

One-point drawing is the type of technical drawing produced from

linear perspective projection in which a set of construction rules

are used to ensure that the projectors diverge away from their

point of convergence (or vanishing point) as they approach an

object’s plane of projection; but the same projectors (or imaginary

lines) converge/meet at only one vanishing point. As a result,

one-point drawings consist of only one vanishing point.

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Figure 10.22: One-point drawings of different objects (Image

credit: Google.com.)

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10.2.10 Two-point drawing

Two-point drawing is similar to one-point and three-point

drawings, in that, it is also the type of technical drawing that is

produced from linear perspective projection in which a set of

construction rules are used to ensure that the projectors diverge

away from their point of convergence (or vanishing point) as they

approach an object’s plane of projection; however, the projectors

(or imaginary lines) converge/meet at two different vanishing

points. As a result, two-point drawings consist of two vanishing

points.

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Figure 10.23: Two-point drawings of different objects (Image

credit: Google.com.)

10.2.11 Three-point drawing

In three-point drawing, the projectors (or imaginary lines)

converge/meet at three different vanishing points. As a result,

three-point drawings consist of three vanishing points.

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Figure 10.24: Three-point drawings of different objects

(Image credit: Google.com.)

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Page 216 of 229
11. 6 Basic Technical Drawing Exercises

This chapter provides six different basic technical drawing

exercises on:

 (1) How to draw a line between or through two points

 (2) How to draw parallel lines by using a drafting machine or

T-square (or straightedge)

 (3) How to parallel lines by using two triangles

 (4) How to horizontal lines

 (5) How to vertical lines, and

 (6) How to inclined lines, respectively—all the above via

traditional drawing tools and CAD.

The post ends by providing eight links to different web pages that

contain basic technical drawing techniques on:

 (1) How to circles

 (2) How to triangles

 (3) How to quadrilaterals

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  (4) How to regular polygons

 (5) How to angles

 (6) How to tangents

 (7) How to do sectioning, and

 (8) How to do freehand sketching straight and curved lines,

respectively.

All these basic technical drawing exercises and techniques will be

especially useful to people who are novices or beginners in

technical drawing. Now, let’s dive right in.

11.1 How to draw a line between or through two points

The technique or steps required to draw a line between or

through two points depends on the tools that are available or

selected. The following steps summarize the technique used to

draw a line between or through two points:

 Step 1: Place one edge of a triangle to touch the two points.

 Step 2: Place a pencil along the edge of the triangle and

draw a line to connect the two points (Figure 11.1).

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 Figure 11.1: Drawing a line between or through two points

Alternatively, a line can be drawn between or through two points

by aligning one side of a T-square (straightedge) to touch the two

points and using a pencil to connect them with a line.

With CAD, a line can be drawn between and through two points by

“defining” or “picking” the position or location of each of the two

points which are “endpoints”. The “SNAP” command can be used

to set to “endpoints” which the CAD software will accurately

connect with a new line. Generally, CAD has many available

options for picking centers, midpoints, and intersections.

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11.2 How to draw parallel lines

The technique or steps required to draw a line parallel to a given

line depends on the tools that are available or selected: Parallel

lines can be drawn by using either a drafting machine or

triangles. The following steps summarize the technique used to

draw parallel lines by using a drafting machine:

 Step 1: Unlock and adjust the protractor head until the

straightedge is appropriately aligned with the given line.

 Step 2: Lock the protractor head and change the position of

the drafting machine to any position where it will be

possible to draw a really good parallel line (Figure 11.2).

Figure 11.2: Drawing parallel lines by using a drafting

machine

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Alternatively, the following steps summarize the technique used

to draw parallel lines by using two triangles:

 Step 1: Set the two triangles so that the edge of one of the

triangles is aligned with the given line and the other triangle

is being used as a straightedge while being held in a

stationary position at the same time.

 Step 2: Move the aligned triangle so that it can slide on the

edge of the stationary triangle and move one or more

different positions.

 Step 3: Draw a line on the edge of the aligned triangle, then

move the aligned triangle into a new position and draw a

parallel line on the same edge that was aligned with the

given line (Figure 11.3).

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 Figure 11.3: Drawing parallel lines by using two triangles

CAD software has a number of techniques that can be used to

create parallel lines. A PARALLEL command can be used to draw

parallel lines or lines parallel to each other. Usually, the given line

is picked and a point is defined from where the parallel line would

be drawn.

11.3 How to draw horizontal lines

The following steps summarize the technique used to draw

horizontal lines:

 Step 1: Hold a pencil in a convenient position, either in

your right hand or left hand.

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 Step 2: If the pencil is in your right hand, use your left

hand to hold the straightedge firmly enough to be able to

pull the pencil from right to left across the paper; but if the

pencil is in your left hand, use your right hand to hold the

straightedge firmly enough to be able to pull the pencil from

left to right across the paper.

 Step 3: Place either hand lightly on the straightedge.

 Step 4: Place the pencil at approximately 60 degrees to the

paper and rotate slowly it while drawing a line guided by the

top edge of the straightedge (Figure 11.4).

Figure 11.4: Drawing a horizontal line

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CAD software can be used to draw horizontal lines in various

ways. The lines endpoints can be individually defined using X-Y

coordinate positions such as, for example, (0,0) for one endpoint

(as the origin) and (8,5) for the other endpoint—meaning, it is

defined by 8 units on the horizontal X-axis and 5 units on the

vertical Y-axis. Alternatively, a rectangular grid can be utilized

along with the snap command to snap to the grid points.

11.4 How to draw vertical lines

The following steps summarize the technique used to draw

vertical lines:

 Step 1: Place one of the edges of either the 45- or 30/60-

degree triangle on the top edge of a straightedge or T-

square. Alternatively, any drafting machine’s vertical blade

can be used.

 Step 2: Rest the right or left hand on the lower end of the

triangle (Figure 11.5) and at the same time hold both the

straightedge and triangle comfortably and firmly with either

hand.

 Step 3: With the pencil tip firmly on the edge of either the

45- or 30/60-degree triangle, hold the pencil at 60 degrees

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 to the paper and rotate it slowly as you draw and move the

pencil from the lower end of the triangle to the top of the

paper.

Figure 11.5: Drawing a vertical line

With CAD, vertical lines are drawn using a technique or procedure

similar to the one for drawing horizontal lines. Coordinate

endpoints can be defined, as explained in the previous section on

how to draw horizontal lines.

11.5 How to draw inclined lines

The technique or steps required to draw inclined lines depends

on the tools that are available or selected. Using a drafting

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machine requires setting the protractor head at a desired angle

and locking it, then placing the pencil along the blade (which

should be inclined—for example, at 60 degrees) to the paper and

slowly rotating the pencil while moving it along the blade.

Alternatively, 45- and 30/60-degree triangles can be used

separately or combined with a T-square (straightedge) to draw

lines that are inclined say, for example, at 15-degree intervals

(Figure 11.6).

Figure 11.6: Drawing inclined lines at 15-degree intervals by

combining a T-square with 45- and 30/60-degree triangles

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Any one of these three traditional tools can be used to draw lines

that are not at 15-degree intervals: a drafting machine’s

protractor head (Figure 11.7), an adjustable triangle, or a hand-

held protractor. The following steps summarize the technique

used to draw inclined lines with the aid of a protractor:

 Step 1: Use a pencil along with a protractor or protractor

head to mark the desired angle, as previously described.

Triangles can be used as a guide when setting out and

marking any angle that is at 15-degree intervals using the

technique or guide shown in Figure 11.6.

 Step 2: Adjust the triangle to be aligned with the marks and

be in the proper position for the line to be drawn.

 Step 3: Draw the inclined line along the edge of the triangle.

Figure 11.7: Drawing an inclined line by using a drafting

machine’s protractor head

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The polar or rectangular coordinates in CAD software can be used

to create inclined lines. For example, if the first endpoint of a line is

defined and located at (0,0), the second point can be defined by

any length and angle that is relative to the first point. This

procedure creates a CAD-inclined line.

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References

1. Technical Drawing with Engineering Graphics, 15th edition, by

Giesecke et al.

2. Engineering Drawing and Design by David A. Madsen, 6th

edition, by Madsen D. A. and Madsen D. P.

3. Technical Graphics Communication, 4th edition, by Bertoline

et al.

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