Water Supply Engineering

(Chapter 9)
WARER QUALITY

Associate Prof. Mohammad Aslam Haziq

Kandahar University
Engineering Faculty
Water & Environmental Engineering Department
Semester : Sep ,2023
 Chapter Outline

• Introduction

• Types of impurities

• Analysis of water

• Water borne diseases and their control

• Standard of quality of water required for industries

• Illustrative examples

2
 Introduction

It is necessary that the water supplied to public through

water supply scheme is pure.
Absolutely pure water is the one which does not contain any
dissolved and suspended matter and also it is free from any
kind of bacteria, but its not found in nature.

3
 Introduction (contd.)

In general the water that is available from the various surface and sub-
surface sources is contaminated with various impurities which needs to
be removed before it can be supplied to the public.

The water required for public water supply should be potable (fit for
drinking purpose) and wholesome (it may not chemically pure but does
not contain anything harmful to human body).

It has been found that the presence of certain minerals such as Iron,
Calcium, magnesium in small quantities in the water may be useful for
human body. On the other hand the presence of these materials in large
quantity will render the water less suitable for human consumption.

4
 Introduction (contd.)
Further the presence of various toxic and poisonous elements such as
arsenic, barium, cadmium, cyanamide, lead, selenium, copper, etc.,
and various other impurities will render the water unfit for
consumption.

It is therefor essential to ascertain the quality of water available from

various sources. This would involve the determination of the various
impurities which may be present in the water available from the
various sources.

5
Type of impurities in water and their effects

The various impurities may be present in water is

classified as bellow.
1. Physical impurities
2. Chemical impurities
3. Bacteriological impurities
Physical impurities: are those impurities which affect the
physical characteristics of water such as color, odour, taste
and turbidity.

6
 Type of impurities (contd.)

• Chemical impurities: are those which affect the chemical

characteristics of water such as total dissolved and
suspended solids present in water, pH value, hardness,
chloride content, nitrogen content, etc.
• Bacteriological impurities: are those which affect
bacteriological or microscopical characteristics of water
such as pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria present
in water.
In order to ascertain the quality of water, it is necessary to
determine the physical, chemical and bacteriological
impurities present in a water sample.
7
 Analysis of water
The analysis of water involve the various tests to be
carried out for determining the impurities which may be
presented in water.

1. Physical analysis.
2. Chemical analysis.
3. Bacteriological analysis.

8
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Physical analysis
Physical analysis involves the corresponding physical
characteristics of water. In this analysis tests are carried out
for determining color, taste, odor, and turbidity.
Color:
• color may be imparted to water by the presence of natural metallic
ions (Iron and Manganese), peat (decayed vegetable matter), humus
and industrial wastes.
• An undesirable appearance is produced by color in water and
people may not like to drink colored water.
• Colored water may spoil the cloths washed in it and it may affect
various industrial processes.
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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Color Analysis (contd.)

• Color in water is measured by platinum-cobalt
method. In this method color is measured by
visual comparison of the water sample with
standard colored water prepared by dissolving
platinum-cobalt in distilled water.
• The intensity of color in water is expressed on
the platinum-cobalt scale as the number of color
units.
• On this scale one unite of color is the color
produced by 1 mg of platinum-cobalt dissolved
in 1 liter of distilled water.

10
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Color Analysis (contd.)
• A simple instrument called Tintometer is used for comparing the
water to be tested with the standard colored water. This instrument
has an eye-piece with two holes.
• A slide of standard colored water is seen through one hole and
through the other hole, the slide of water to be tested is seen. If the
colors of two slides differ the slide of standard colored water is
replaced. This process is repeated till the color of both slides
matches.
• The number of color units of the matching standard colored water
thus gives the number of color units of the water sample.

11
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Color Analysis (contd.)
• The platinum-cobalt method is, however, not convenient for field
use. As such another method is generally adopted to measure the
color in water in the field. In this method the water sample to be
tested is compared with special, properly calibrated glass color
discs instead of standard colored water.
• For drinking water the number of color units on platinum-cobalt
scale should not exceed 5. However, the number of color in excess
of 5 may be tolerated but it should not exceed 25.

12
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Taste and Odor Analysis

The taste of water may be bitter, salty, sour and sweet. Similarly water
may possess odor such as unpleasant, earthy, fishy, grassy, peaty and
sweetish.
Taste and odor are closely related by the presence of dissolved gases
such as 𝐶𝐻4 , 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝑂2 , etc., combined with organic matter, mineral
substances like NaCl, iron compounds, carbonates and sulphates of
other element.
It is evident that the water to be supplied from a public water supply
scheme should not have any undesirable or objectionable taste and
odor.

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Taste and Odor Analysis (contd.)

The taste of water measured by flavor threshold test and the test of the
water sample is expressed in terms of flavor threshold number (FTN).
The odor of water is measured by threshold odor test and results are
expressed in term of threshold odor number (TON).
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴+𝐵
FTN = TON =
𝐴 𝐴

A= volume of water sample in ml.

B= volume of taste free water added in ml.

FTN and TON should not exceed 3 and be preferably 1.

14
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Turbidity Analysis
Turbidity in water is caused by suspended matter, such as
clay, silt, finely divided organic an inorganic matter, and
microscopic organisms.
Turbidity is an important consideration in public water
supplies for three major reasons.

 Aesthetic
 Filterability
 Disinfection

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Turbidity Analysis (contd.)

Aesthetic: a turbid water has a muddy or cloudy appearance
and it is aesthetically unattractive.

Filterability: filtration of water is more difficult and costly

with the increase in turbidity.

Disinfection: in cases where turbidity is caused by sewage

solids the disinfection of public water supplies may not be
effective because many of the pathogenic organisms may be
encased in the particles and protected from the disinfectant.

16
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Measurement of Turbidity
Turbidity is expressed in terms of suspended
matter per million parts of water or shortly
written as PPM.
It may be noted that for water 1 PPM is
approximately equal to 1 mg per liter and hence
turbidity is also expressed in terms of mg/l.
The measurement of turbidity in the field may
be done with the help of a turbidity rod.
In laboratory turbidity may be measured with
the help of instruments called turbidity meters.
17
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Types of turbidity meters:

The commonly used turbidiameters are indicate as below.

• Jackson turbidiameter.

• Baylis turbidiameter.

• Helige turbidiameter.

• Nephelometer.

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Types of turbidity meters (contd.):

Nephelometer: Is a modern commercial turbidimeter which
is commonly used these days particularly for measuring low
turbidities as in the case of treated water or drinking water
for which turbidities usually fall in the range of 0 to 1 ppm.
Turbidity is measured by Nephelometric turbidity units
(NTU)
The drinking water should not have turbidity more than 2.5
ppm. However, turbidity more than 2.5 ppm may be tolerated
but it should not exceed 10 ppm.

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Types of turbidity meters (contd.):

Nephelometric turbidimeter.

Nephelometric turbidimeter units.

20
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chemical Analysis
The Chemical analysis of water involves the chemical tests which are
carried out to determine chemical impurities and the corresponding
chemical characteristic of water.

Total solids (TS) :

The total solids present in water comprise total dissolved solids
(TDS) and suspended solids.

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chemical Analysis (contd.)

For determining the amounts of total solids present in water a
measured volume (between 100 ml to 300 ml) of water is placed in a
crucible or dish and it is evaporated to dryness in an even at 105°C,
and the weight of the dry residue left is determined. The amount of
total solids present in the water in mg/l or ppm is given by the
expression.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒(𝑚𝑔)×1000
Total solids(mg/l or ppm) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟(𝑚𝑙)

22
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chemical Analysis (contd.)

For determining the total dissolved solids (TDS) present in water, it is
first filtered through Whatman filter paper No. 44 so that suspended
solids are removed. And then apply the method expressed before and
use the following equation to calculate TDS.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒(𝑚𝑔)×1000
Total dissolved solids(mg/l or ppm) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟(𝑚𝑙)
The total suspended solids present in water is then given by
the expression:
Suspended solids = Total solids – Total dissolved solids

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chemical Analysis (contd.)

pH value or Hydrogen-ion concentration:
In general 𝐻2 𝑂 is a combination of positively changed
hydrogen ions 𝐻 + and negatively changed hydroxyl ions
𝑂𝐻 − . In pure water the concentration of 𝐻 + ions is equal to
that of 𝑂𝐻 − ions.
If the concentration of 𝐻 + ions is excess of concentration of
𝑂𝐻 − ions the water solution becomes acidic and if the
concentration of 𝑂𝐻 − ions is in excess of the concentration
of 𝐻 + ions the water solution becomes alkaline.

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chemical Analysis (contd.)

pH value or Hydrogen-ion concentration:

25
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chemical Analysis (contd.)

pH value or Hydrogen-ion concentration:

The acidity in water is caused by the presence of mineral

acids, free carbon dioxide, sulphates of iron, aluminum etc.

The alkalinity in water is caused by presence of bicarbonates

of calcium and magnesium or by the presence of carbonate
or hydroxide of sodium, potassium, calcium and
magnesium.

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chemical Analysis (contd.)

Measurement of pH: The pH value of water can be
measured by the following two methods.
1-Electrometric method 2-Colorimetric method.
Electrometric method: in this method by the help of
electrical potentiometer, measuring the concentration of 𝐻 +
ions in water.
Colorimetric method: in this method chemical indicators are
added to water and the color produced is compared with the
standard colors of known pH values.
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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chemical Analysis (contd.)

pH indicators

28
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Chemical Analysis (contd.)
List of indicators used for measurement of pH value by colorimetric method

original color of final color produced

indicator pH range
indicator in water
Methyl orange 2.8-4.4 red yellow
Bromophenol blue 3-4.6 yellow blue
Brom cresol green 3.8-5.4 yellow blue
Methyl red 4.4-6.2 red yellow
Clorophenol red 5.4-6.8 yellow red
Bromothymol blue 6-7.6 yellow blue
Phenol red 6.8-8.4 yellow red
Cresol red 7.2-8.8 yellow red
Thymol blue 8-9.6 yellow blue
Phinolphathalein red 8.6-10.3 yellow red
Tolyl red 10-11.6 red yellow

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Measurement of pH
• For drinking water the value of pH should be between 7.0 and 8.5.
However, water having pH values less than 7.0 or more than 8.5
may also be acceptable but the one having pH<6.5 or >9.2 is not
suitable for human consumption and it should be rejected.

• Further from general considerations the water having lower values

of pH (acidic water) may cause tuberculation and corrosion, while
those having higher values of pH (alkaline water) may cause
incrustation, sediment deposits, difficulties in chlorination, certain
physiological effects in human system.

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 Analysis of water (contd.)
Hardness
• Hardness is that characteristic of water which prevents the
formation of sufficient lather of foam with soap.
• The hardness of water is caused by presence of
bicarbonates (carbonate hardness or temporary),
sulphates, Chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium (non-carbonate or permanent hardness).
• Temporary hardness can be removed easily by boiling of
water but permanent can’t be removed just by simply
boiling the water.

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Hardness (contd.)
• The total hardness (T.H) of water is the sum of the carbonate
hardness (C.H.) and the non-carbonate hardness (N.C.H.).
T.H = C.H.+ N.C.H.
• The natural alkalinity in water is due to the presence of carbonates
and bicarbonates in water which are produced by the action of
groundwater on lime stones or chalk as shown by the following
equation. CaCO3 + H2O → Ca(HCO3)2
• When the total hardness is greater than total alkalinity then the
amount of hardness equivalent to the total alkalinity is equal to the
carbonate hardness and the amount of hardness in excess of this is
equal to the non-carbonate hardness.

32
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Hardness (contd.)
• On the other hand when the total hardness is equal to or less than
the total alkalinity then the entire hardness is the carbonate hardness
and the non-carbonate hardness is absent.
i. When T.H. > alkalinity, then
C.H. = alkalinity, and
N.C.H. = T.H. – C.H.
= T.H. – alkalinity

ii. When T.H. ≤ alkalinity, then

C.H. = T.H., and
N.C.H. = 0
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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Hardness (contd.)
• The hardness of water usually expressed in ppm or mg/l of calcium
carbonate 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3 present in water. A scale of hardness showing
different level of hardness of water is as follow.

Range (mg/l) hardness level

0-50 soft
50-100 moderately soft
100-150 slightly hard
150-250 moderately hard
over 250 hard

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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Measurement of Hardness
• The hardness of water is usually measured either by the soap
solution test or the Versenate or EDTA method.
• The EDTA method is considered to be more accurate.
• In soap solution test the standard soap solution is added to the
water sample and it is vigorously shaken for about five minutes
and the formation of lather is observed.
• The hardness of water is then determined from the difference
between the total amount of soap solution added to the water
sample and the lather factor which is the amount of standard
soap solution required to produce lather when added to distilled
water of zero hardness.
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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Measurement of Hardness (contd.)

• In EDTA method the total hardness is measured by titrating the
water sample against Ethylene diaminetetracetic acid (EDTA) or its
sodium salt so as to form stable complex ions with the calcium
(Ca++) or magnesium (Mg++) ions in water according to the
𝐶𝑎++ 𝐶𝑎. 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴
following equation. ++ + 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥
𝑀𝑔 𝑀𝑔
• The wine red color is changed to distinct blue color which indicates
the end of titration. The total hardness of the water sample is ginven
in mg/l or by ppm by this equation.

𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 × 1000

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
𝑙 𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
36
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Measurement of Hardness (contd.)

• Determination of Hardness of water from the results of
chemical analysis of water.
• As stated earlier the hardness of water is normally expressed in
terms of calcium carbonate. The results of the chemical analysis for
individual ions are usually given in terms of that ion. It will thus
necessary to convert the analytical results to the common
denominator for which the following expression may be used.
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜3 = 𝑀++ ( ൗ𝑙 ) ×
𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑀++
Where M++ represents any ion or radical.

37
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Measurement of Hardness (contd.)

• Determination of Hardness of water from the results of chemical
analysis of water.
For solving the problems on hardness the following points may be
noted.
40+12+(3×16)
1. Equivalent weight of CaCo3 = = 50
2
2. The alkalinity will be caused bby positively charged Ca++, Mg++
and Sr++ ions and negatively charged CO3– and HCO3- ions only.
The readings of other metals should be ignored.
3. The equivalent weights of Ca++, Mg++ and Sr++ will be respectively
be as: 𝐶𝑎 = 40
2
= 20 ; Mg =
24.4
2
= 12.2; 𝑆𝑟 =
87.6
2
= 43.8

38
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Measurement of Hardness (contd.)

• Determination of Hardness of water from the results of chemical
analysis of water.
4. For measuring alkalinity, reading of only Co3 or HCO3
will be required and expressed as percentage. The values
of the carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinities can be
determined from the following relations.
Total alkalinity as CO3 in mg/l={carbonate alkalinity in
mg/l }×0.6
Total alkalinity as HCO3 in mg/l={Bicarbonate alkalinity
mg/l}×1.22
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 Analysis of water (contd.)

Measurement of Hardness (contd.)

5. Molecular weight of HCO3 = [1+12+(3×16)] = 61; and
Molecular weight of CO3 = [12+ (3×16)] = 60
For drinking water the total hardness should be less than
200mg/l. However, water of total hardness more than
200mg/l may also be used for drinking purposes but the one
having total hardness more than 600mg/l should be rejected.

40
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chloride Contents
• Chloride are usually present in water in the form of sodium chloride
(common salt) . These impart a salty taste to water.
• The chloride may be added to water due to solvent power of water
dissolving salts, intrusion of sea water into fresh water, disposal of
industrial and domestic wastes and etc.
• The Chloride content of water can be measured by titrating the
water with standard (N/35,5) AgNO3 solution using potassium
chromate (K2CrO7) as indicator. The silver first reacts with all
chlorides and silver chloride is formed.
• The silver chloride so formed then reacts with potassium chromate
to form silver chromate.

41
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Chloride Contents (contd.)

• The silver chromate appears as reddish precipitation and the amount
of silver nitrate required to produce such reddish precipitate
determines the amount of chlorides present in water by using the
following equation:

𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 × 1000

𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑙 =
𝑙 𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
• A high chloride content in water may harm metallic pipes and
structures as well as growing plants.
• For drinking water range of chloride content is equal to 200 – 1000
mg/l

42
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Nitrogen Contents
• The presence of nitrogen and its compounds in water is an
indication of the presence of organic matter in water and
the extent to which the organic matter was undergone
decomposition resulting in the pollution of water.
• The nitrogen is present in water in four forms.
– Free ammonia
– Albuminoid nitrogen
– Nitrites
– Nitrates

43
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Nitrogen Contents (contd.)

The presence of free ammonia in water indicates the presence of
undecomposed organic matter. Further it also represents the first stage
of decomposition of organic matter present in water and thus indicates
that the pollution if water has just commenced.
For drinking water the amount of free ammonia should not exceed
0.15 ppm and the amount of albuminoidal nitrogen should not exceed
0.3 ppm. The presence of nitrites is drinking water is highly dangerous
and hence the amount of nitrites in drinking water should be nil. The
amount of nitrates in drinking water should not exceed 45mg/l (or
45ppm).

44
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Alkalinity
• The alkalinity of water is its capacity to neutralize a standard
solution of acid. It is due to the presence of bicarbonate (HCO3),
carbonate (CO3) and hydroxide (OH).
• Out of these bicarbonates present the major form of alkalinity since
they are formed in considerable amounts from the action of CO2
upon the basic materials in the soil, as indicated by the following
solution.
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2

45
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Alkalinity (contd.)
• Water may also contain appreciable amount of carbonate and
hydroxide alkalinities particularly surface waters blooming with
algae.
• The algae take up CO2 from its photosynthesis activities and rise
the pH.
• The carbonate alkalinity may be present with either hydroxide or
bicarbonate alkalinity, but hydroxide and bicarbonate alkalinity
cannot be present in the same water sample.

46
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Alkalinity (contd.)
• According to the pH value of water, its alkalinity is usually divided
into the following two parts.
1. Total alkalinity, above pH 4.5
2. Caustic alkalinity, above pH 8.2
• The determination of alkalinity of water is very useful because it
provides buffering to resist changes in pH value.
• The alkalinity of water is determined by titrating water sample with
standard N/50 or N/40 solution of H2SO4. in the titration the
following two indicators are commonly adopted.
1. Phenolphthalein: Pink above pH 8.2 and colorless below pH 8.2
2. Methyl orange: Red below pH 4.5 and yellow-orange above pH 4.5
47
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Alkalinity (contd.)
The procedure adopted for determining alkalinity of water is as follows.
• Take 100 ml of water sample in a conical flask. Add 3-4 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator. If no color is produced, the
phenolphthalein alkalinity is absent. If the sample turns pink, titrate
with standard N/50 H2SO4 solution till the pink color disappears.
• Record the ml of acid used, designated as P. add one drop of methyl
orange to the titrated mixture and titrate again with same N/50
H2SO4 solution untill the first appearance of orange color is noted.
Record the total ml of acid used for the entire titration designated as
T. The phenolphthalein and total alkalinity may be computed as
𝑃×1000
follows. 𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑚𝑙.𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑇 × 1000
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑚𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 48
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Arsenic
• Occur in ground water from availability of arsenic element
in bottom layer of ground, industrial wastes and
agricultural insecticides and etc.
• High arsenic causes various type of dermatological lesions,
muscular weakness, paralysis of lower limbs, can also
cause skin and lung cancer.
• Acceptable limit – 0.05 mg/l

49
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Dissolved Gasses
• The water contains various gases which are dissolved in it
due to its contact with atmosphere and ground surface. The
sulphide, carbon dioxide and oxygen.
• The contents of these dissolved gases in water may be
determined so as to get an idea of the extent of
contamination of water and treatment required for
purifying the same.

50
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Dissolved Gasses (contd.)

• The concentration of methane gas is to be studied for its
explosive property.
• The Hydrogen sulphide gas present in water even in small
amount may give bad taste and odor to water.
• The presence of carbon dioxide gas in water indicates
biological activity, causes corrosion, increases solubility of
many minerals in water and gives taste to water.

51
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Metals and other Chemical substances

• Water may contain several metals and other chemical

substances such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, barium,
cadmium, arsenic, selenium, sulphates, fluorides, etc.

• In drinking water the amount of metals should not exceed

the permissible values because their presence in excess of
the limits may be harmful as indicated below.

52
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Metals and other Chemical substances

• The excess concentration of iron and manganese in water
may cause discoloration of cloths washed in such water
and may cause incrustation in water mains due to
deposition of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide.
• The presence of copper in excess is likely to affect human
lungs and other respiratory organs.
• Lead, arsenic, cadmium, selenium etc. are the toxic
materials and only a very low concentration of these can be
tolerated by human body.

53
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Physical and Chemical Standard for drinking water
No Characteristics Acceptable Cause for rejection
Turbidity
1 Units on NTU scale 1 10
Units of JTU scale 2.5 10
2 color units of platinum-cobalt scale 5 25
3 taste and odor unobjectionable unobjectionable
4 pH 7 - 8.5 <6.5 or > 9.2
5 total dissolved solids(mg/l) 500 2000
6 total hardness as calcium carbonat (mg/l) 200 600
7 Chloride (mg/l) 200 1000
8 solphates (mg/l) 200 400
9 Fluorides (mg/l) 1 1.5
10 nitrates (mg/l) 45 45
11 calcium (mg/l) 75 200
12 magnesium (mg/l) ≤30 150
54
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Physical and Chemical Standard for drinking water (contd.)
13 iron (mg/l) 0.1 1
14 manganese (mg/l) 0.05 0.5
15 copper (mg/l) 0.05 1.5
16 Aluminum (mg/l) 0.03 0.2
17 Alkalinity (mg/l) 200 600
18 residual chlorine (mg/l) 0.2 >1
19 Zink (mg/l) 5 15
20 phenolic compounds (mg/l) 0.001 0.002
21 Anionic detergents (mg/l) 0.2 1
22 Mineral oil (mg/l) 0.01 0.03
23 Arsenic (mg/l) 0.01 0.05
24 Cadimium (mg/l) 0.01 0.01
25 Chromium (mg/l) 0.05 0.05
26 Cyanides (mg/l) 0.05 0.05
27 lead (mg/l) 0.05 0.05
55
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Physical and Chemical Standard for drinking water (contd.)

28 Selenium (mg/l) 0.01 0.01

29 Mercury 0.001 0.001

30 polynuclear aromatic hydracarbones (µg/l) 0.2 0.2

31 pesticides (mg/l) _ _

32 Gross alpha activity (Bq/l) 0.1 0.1

33 Gross Beta activity (Bq/l) 1 1

56
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis
What is bacteria and virus?
• The bacteria are a minute single cell organisms which are
universally found in water obtained from any source. They
are very small only 1 to 4 micron in length
(1microm=10−6 m) and cannot be seen by naked eye.
• Viruses are the group of infections or agents which are
smaller than ordinary bacteria and cannot be seen even by
microscope.

57
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

Classification of bacteria
• According to shape: cocci (round shape), bacilli
(rod shape), and trichobacteria (filamentous shape).
• According to oxygen requirement: aerobic(require
free oxygen for survival), anaerobic(don’t need free
oxygen), facultative(can survive with or without
free oxygen).
• According to effect of mankind: harmless(non-
pathogenic), harmful(pathogenic).
58
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)
• The non-pathogenic bacteria besides being harmless, under
certain conditions are beneficial to human beings, animals
and crops.
• The pathogenic bacteria are the real foes of mankind,
which may cause serious water borne diseases such as
cholera, typhoid, dysentery, infectious hepatitis, etc.
• Generally non-pathogenic and pathogenic bacteria occur
together, and hence the presence of large amount of non-
pathogenic bacteria in a water sample indicates the
possibility of the pathogenic bacterial being also present in
the water sample.
59
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

• A particular types of bacteria called coliform bacteria are
commonly present in water. From the colon of humans and
animals where coliform bacteria are found to be present
and are exerted with their faeces.
• The coliform bacteria are non-pathogenic, aerobic bacteria
and their presence or absence in water indicates the
presence or absence of pathogenic bacteria. One of them is
Escherichia coli or E-coli.

60
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

• For determining the presence of coliform bacteria

and measuring their concentration in water the
following methods are adopted.
– Total count or agar plate count test.
– E-coli test.
– Membrane filter technique.

61
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

1. Total count or agar plate count test.
• In this test, bacteria are cultivated on specially prepared
medium of agar for different dilutions of sample of water
with distilled water. The dilutions commonly used are 1/10,
1/100 and etc.
• The diluted sample is placed in an incubator for 24 hours
or 37 Celsius (human body temperature) or for 48 hours at
20 Celsius.
• The bacterial colonies which are formed, are then counted
and the results are computed per 100 ml. for drinking water
the total should not exceed 1 per 100ml. 62
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

E-coli test. This test is divided into the following three parts.

a- Presumptive test
b- Confirmed test

c- Completed test

63
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

Presumptive test:
• Definite amounts of diluted samples of water are taken in
multiple of ten, such as 0.1 ml, 1 ml, 10 ml, etc.
• The water sample is place in standard fermentation tubes
containing lactose broth.
• The tube is placed in an incubator and kept there at a
temperature of 37 Celsius for a period of 48 hours.
• If gas is seen after this period is over, it indicates the
presence of E-coli group and the test is treated as positive.

64
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

Confirmed test:
• A small portion of the incubated material from the
fermentation tubes showing gas in the presumptive test is
carefully transferred to another fermentation tube
containing brilliant green lactose bile broth. This tube is
kept at 37 Celsius for a period of 48 hours . If gas is seen
in the tube, the presence of E-coli group is confirmed and
the completed test becomes essential.

65
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

Completed test:
• This test is carried out by introducing or inoculating
bacterial colonies or cultures grown in the confirmed test
into lactose broth fermentation tubes and agar tubes.
• The tubes are placed in an incubator and kept there at a
temperature of 37 Celsius for a period of 24 hours.
• If gas is seen in the tube after this period, it indicates the
presence of E-coli group and the result of the test is treated
as positive.

66
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

3. Membrane filter technique.
• It is simplest and the most recent method used for detecting
the presence of bacteria of coliform group and measuring
their concentration in water.
• In this method the water sample is fitered through sterile
membrane having porosity 80% and microscopic pores
(pore size 5 to 10 μm).
• The bacteria present in water are retained on the
membrane.

67
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

3. Membrane filter technique (contd.)
• The membrane with bacteria is isolated and put in contact
with a suitable nutrient (M-Endo’s medium). Which
inhibits bacteria other than the bacteria of coliform group.
• It is then place in an incubator and kept there at a
temperature of 37 Celsius for a period of 20 hours.
• The coliforms if present in water are developed into visible
colonies which can be counted with the help of
microscope.

68
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

Bacteriological Quality of Drinking water:
• According to U.S. public health service the number of
samples that should be taken per month for checking
bacteriological quality of drinking water depends on the
population served by the water supply system.
• It is further stipulated that of all the standard samples of 10
ml quantities examined per month, not more than 10%
shall show the presence of organisms of the coliform
group. And of 100 ml quantities examined per month not
more than 60% shall show the presence of organisms of
coliform. 69
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)
Collection of Water samples for Bacteriological Test.
• Collect samples in bottles that have been cleansed and
rinsed carefully, given a final rinse with distilled water, and
sterilized.
• Keep sampling bottle closed until it is to be filled. Remove
stopper and cap as a unit, do not contaminate inner surface
of stopper or cap and neck of bottle. Fill the bottle with
rinsing, replace stopper or cap immediately, and if used,
secure hood around neck of bottle.
• When sample is collected, leave air space in the bottle ( at
least 25 mm) to facilitate mixing by shaking before testing.
70
 Analysis of water (contd.)
Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)
Collection of Water samples for Bacteriological Test (contd.)
• Collect samples that are representative of the water being
tested, disinfect sample ports, and use aseptic techniques to
avoid sample contamination.
• When water sample is to be taken from a distribution-system
tap without attachments, then select a tap that is supplying
water directly from service pipe connected with the main.
• Open the tap and let it run for 2-3 minutes.
• Do not sample from leaking taps.
• When the sample is to be taken from a well or hand pump,
pump water for 5 minutes before collecting sample.
71
 Analysis of water (contd.)

Bacteriological Analysis (contd.)

Collection of Water samples for Bacteriological Test (contd.)
• In drinking water evaluation, collect samples of finished
water and from distribution sites select to assure systematic
coverage during each month.
• In collecting samples directly from a river, stream , lake,
reservoir, spring or shallow well, do not take samples too
near the bank or too far from the point of draw off, or at a
depth above or below the point of draw off.
• Start the bacteriological tests of water samples
immediately after taking samples in order to avoid
unpredictable changes. 72
 Water Born Diseases and their control

Water born disease are those diseases which spread mainly

through contaminated water . The various water borne
diseases may be caused by the following factors.
Presence of micro-organisms:
• Diseases caused by bacteria (Typhoid, Paratyphoid,
Cholera, Bacillary dysentery, Diarrhea of travellers).
• Diseases caused by viruses (Infectious hepatitis or
Jaundice, Gastroenteritis, Poliomyelitis)
• Diseases caused by protozoa (Amebic dysentery,
Giardiasis, Criptosporidiosis)
73
 Water Born Diseases and their control (contd.)

Presence of parasitic ova :

• The eggs or developed embryos of the eggs of round
worms and tape worms are generally carried by water and
cause entozoal diseases.
Presence of inorganic matter:
• Some disease may be caused because of the presence or
absence of some minerals in water. Some minerals may be
toxic even if they are present in small quanitities such as
lead and arsenic are the two of most toxic materials but
these are generally not found in water.

74
 Water Born Diseases and their control (contd.)

Presence of inorganic matter contd…:

• However, fluorides excess of 1.5 mg/l cause Fluorosis of
erupting teeth.
• Presence of excess sulphates of magnesium generally
cuases disorders of the alimentary tract leading to diarrhea.
Presence of organic matter:
• An excess amount of vegetable matter present in water, or
the entrance of sewage effluents into the water bodies may
lead to diarrhea and other gastric disturbances.

75
 Water Born Diseases and their control (contd.)

In order to prevent the spreading of water borne diseases, the

following measures may be taken.
• The water supplied to people must be thoroughly checked
and disinfected before supplying.
• The pipelines carrying water should be frequently tested,
checked and inspected so as to detect leakage and possible
source of contamination.
• While designing the water supply system and laying the
pipes attempt should be made to keep the sewers and water
pipes as far away as possible.

76
 Water Born Diseases and their control (contd.)

• In case of slightest doubts about the sources of water

supply being contaminated, people should be forewarned
and advised to use boiled water.
• It would be possible to control water borne diseases by
instituting an environmental health program which
incorporates personal and household hygiene.
Chlorination: For disinfection of water from pathogenic and
non-pathogenic bacteria in drinking water we can use
chlorine which forms hypochlorite acid in water which help
to killing bacteria and reacting with organic compounds.

77
 Visible effects

Visible effect Reasons

water turn black, smell waste water
acidic taste low pH
alkaline taste high pH
white deposits on boiling hardness

iron taste, change color when exposure iron

to atmosphere
soap not lathering hardness
growth of Algae Nitrate, phosphate
fish kills low pH
salty taste chloride

78
 Standards of Quality of Water Required For
Industries
Boiler feed water. The water to be used in boilers for generating steam
should be soft, not contain salts, calcium, and magnesium chlorides.
Paper Industry. For manufacturing paper of good quality, water must
be free from color and hardness and from every trace of iron and
manganese.
Textile Industry. For textile industries the water to be used should be
free from color, hardness and also from iron and manganese.
Cement concrete products. The water which is fit for drinking
purposes is considered suitable for manufacturing cement concrete
products. It should be clean and free from excess of sulphates and
chlorides which are detrimental to the setting and solidifying of
concrete.

79
 Standards of Quality of Water Required For
Industries (contd.)

Manufacture of Ice. The water should be free from color and

suspended matter and it should not contain iron and manganese.
Further it should also possess high degree of organic and bacterial
purity as required for drinking water.
Dairies and beverage industries. The bacterial purity of water is most
essential for its suitability for these industries. The water which is hard
and contain small amount of salts may be used in these industries.
Tanning Industry. The water must be absolutely free from iron, and
calcium salts should be present in the minimum possible amount.

80
 Standards of Quality of Water Required For
Industries (contd.)
Laundries, the water must be clear, soft and free from iron.
Photographic film making Industry. Water must be absolutely free
from color, suspended matter and metals such as iron, zinc and
manganese.
Steel rolling mills. In the case of these mills the chloride content of
water must be less than what is permissible in drinking water,
preferably be kept less than 150mg/l.

81
 Examples 1

In a water treatment plant the pH values of incoming and out going

waters are 7.3 and 8.5 respectively. Assuming a linear variation of pH
with time, determine the average pH value of water.
Solution 1:
By definition of pH we have;
𝑝𝐻 = log10 𝐻 + −1 or 𝑝𝐻 = −1log10 𝐻+
For incoming water; pH = 7.3 (given) 7.3 = − log10 𝐻 +
or 𝐻 + = 10−7.3
For out going water; pH = 8.5 (given) 8.5 = − log10 𝐻 +
or 𝐻 + = 10−8.5

82
 Solution 1 (contd.)

• Average value of 𝐻 +
10−7.3 + 10−8.5 101.2 + 1
= = 10−8.5
2 2
= 8.425 × 10−8.5
• Average value of pH
1
= log10
8.425×10−8.5
108.5
= log10 = 7.5744
8.425

83
 Examples 2

The analysis of water from a well showed the following results in mg/l:
Ca = 65, Mg = 51, Na = 101.5, K = 21.5, HCO3 = 248,
SO4 = 221.8 Cl = 79.2
Find the total hardness, carbonate hardness and non-carbonated
hardness.
Solution 2:
50 50
Total Hardness = 65 × + 51 × = 162.5 + 209.02
20 12.2
𝑚𝑔
= 371.52 ൗ𝑙 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
Total alkalinity as HCO3 in mg/l = {Bicarbonate alkalinity in mg/l}×1.22
248 = Bicarbonate alkalinity ×1.22;
248
Bicarbonate alkalinity = = 203.28 mg/l
1.22

84
 Solution 2 (contd.)

In this case,
Total hardness > Total alkalinity
Carbonate hardness = Alkalinity = 203.28 mg/l
Then
None-carbonate hardness
= Total hardness – Carbonate hardness
= (371.52 – 203.28)
= 168.24 mg/l

85
 Examples 3

Determine the total and individual alkalinity from the following

laboratory record.
Strength of titrant : N/40
Volume of sample : 50 ml
Phenolphthalein end point : 5.8ml
Methyl orange end point : 13.5 ml
Also estimate the pH value of the sample
Solution 3:
As the strength of titrant is N/40 ,
𝑃×1250 5.8×1250
Phenolphthalein alkalinity = = = 145
50 50
𝑇×1250 13.5×1250
Total alkalinity = = = 337.5; 0.5 T = 168.75
50 50
86
 Solution 3 (contd.)

As P < 0.5 T, from table 8.2, we obtain

OH alkalinity = 0
CO3 alkalinity = 2P = 290
HCO3 alkalinity = (T-2P) = (337.5 – 290) = 47.5

As CO3 and HCO3 alkalinities exist together, the pH value of

sample will be between 8.2 and 10.

87
TAHNK YOU!
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