AIM – To study working principle, component, efficiency,

types and applica on of Rankine Cycle

Let us look at history to define the cycle completely. William John Macquorn Rankine, a Sco sh
Engineer, con nued his study and developed a complete theory of the heat engines along with the
steam engine during 1859. The Rankine cycle was named a er him honouring his contribu on to this
subject.

The Rankine cycle is an ideal thermodynamic cycle involving a constant pressure heat engine which
converts heat into mechanical work. The heat is supplied externally in this cycle in a closed loop,
which uses either water or any other organic fluids (Pentane or Toluene) as a working fluid.

The Rankine cycle is a theore cal cycle on which the power plants work. This cycle, which is the basic
principle of Steam turbines, is also known as a modified Carnot cycle. The Carnot cycle is a
thermodynamic cycle that has maximum efficiency.

The drawbacks of the Carnot engine like its difficulty to operate prac cally or to work with
superheated steam are overcome by this cycle.

Components of the Rankine Cycle

(1) Pump: They can be centrifugal pumps in industrial applica ons. Water as saturated liquid enters
the pump and is compressed.

(2) Boiler: Boilers are generally heat exchangers as in thermal power plants. The compressed liquid
enters the boiler to be converted to superheated steam.

(3) Turbines: Turbines or steam turbines are machines that use pressurised steam to produce
mechanical work. The superheated steam entering the turbine expands and rotates the sha to
produce work which generates electricity.

(4) Condenser: Condenser has a set of tubes with a cooling medium surrounding it. The cooling
medium may be air or water depending upon the placement of the power plant. Steam, in a
saturated liquid-vapour state, is condensed at constant pressure and the heat is rejected to a cooling
medium.
The power plants are cooled by air in areas where the water supply is limited. This cooling method is
called ‘dry cooling’, which is used in car engines.

Working Principle of Rankine Cycle

The study of components in the cycle helps us understand that the cycle operates in a closed loop
where the working fluid is reused. Let us consider the Rankine cycle P-v and T-s diagrams with the h-s
diagram to understand the working.

Temperature-Entropy (T-s) Diagram

Pressure-Volume (P-v) Diagram

 Specific Enthalpy-Specific Entropy (h-s) Diagram

A typical Rankine cycle has four thermodynamic processes which are explained below referring to all
the diagrams. Let us assume that the cycle is opera ng at temperatures ranging from 0 °C to 400 °C.

o Process 1-2: The working fluid (saturated liquid) entering the pump, is pumped from a low to
high pressure. This is also known as isentropic compression. The input energy is needed at
this stage.

o Process 2-3: Liquid at a high pressure entering the boiler is heated by an external heat source
at a constant pressure. The liquid is converted to dry saturated steam by constant pressure
heat addi on in the boiler.

o Process 3-4: The dry saturated steam from the boiler expands as it enters the turbine. It is
also known as isentropic expansion. Due to this, the temperature and pressure of the steam
decrease.

o Process 4-1: The wet vapour entering the condenser at this stage is condensed at a constant
pressure. It is then converted to saturated liquid. This process is also known as constant
pressure heat rejec on in the condenser.This saturated liquid is again circulated back to the
pump, and the cycle con nues. The heat rejected or the exhaust heat a er the final stage is
represented as QoutQout.

Efficiency of Rankine Cycle

o Let us consider these terms that are essential to calculate the efficiency of the cycle.
o Q = Rate of heat flow in the system (towards or away)
o WTWT = Mechanical work done by the turbine
o WPWP = Mechanical work done by the pump
o h1h1, h2h2, h3h3, and h4h4 = Specific enthalpies of water at states 1, 2, 3, and 4
respectively referring to the T-s diagram in figure 2.
o hfhf = Specific enthalpy of water = h (In this cycle)
o Applying steady flow energy equation (SFEE) to pump, boiler, turbine, and condenser,
 o (1) For Pump: h2+WP=h1⟹WP=h2−h1h2+WP=h1⟹WP=h2−h1
o (2) For Boiler: h2+Qin=h3⟹Qin=h3−h2h2+Qin=h3⟹Qin=h3−h2
o (3) For Turbine: h3=WT+h4⟹WT=h3−h4h3=WT+h4⟹WT=h3−h4
o (4) For Condenser: h4=Qout+h1⟹Qout=h4−h1
o Now, the Rankine cycle efficiency with pump is given as,
o {\eta_{Rankine}}={\frac{W_{net}}{Q_{in}}}={\frac{{W_T}-{W_P}}{Q_{in}}\)
o = (h3−h4)−(h2−h1)(h3−h2)(h3−h4)−(h2−h1)(h3−h2).
o Similarly, the Rankine cycle efficiency without pump work is given as,
o ηRankine=1−QoutQin=1−(h4−h1)(h3−h2)ηRankine=1−QoutQin=1−(h4−h1)(h3−h2)
o In real applications, the calculation of this efficiency falls below the ideal efficiency of the
Rankine cycle. Let us see how the real cycle differs from the ideal cycle.
o

Real Rankine Cycle

A real Rankine cycle or non-ideal cycle used in actual power plants do not undergo isentropic
compression and expansion by pump and turbine respectively. These processes are irreversible
compared to the ideal cycle, and there is an increase in entropy as shown in the T-s diagram
below.

As seen from the above figure, the real cycle has pressure drops in the condenser and boiler while
there are irreversible processes in the pump and turbine compared to the actual cycle. These
condi ons increase the required power and decrease the generated power.

Let us now study the various types of ideal Rankine cycles commonly used.

Types of Rankine Cycle

The thermodynamic efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be increased by increasing the heat input to
the cycle. This can be done by increasing the temperature to change the phase of steam to
superheated steam. There are numerous varia ons like this that a empt to increase the
thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle.

Below are some of the cycles designed to increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Rankine Cycle with Reheat

Rehea ng removes the moisture carried by the steam during the final stages of the expansion
process in the cycle. With this cycle design, the steam turbines are kept in series to perform the
work. Here is a brief on how this cycle works.

1. The high-pressure steam from the boiler enters the first turbine

2. The steam is passed to the boiler and reheated again.

3. The second turbine is at low pressure to which this reheated steam flows.

The purpose of the Rankine cycle with reheat is to increase the average temperature of the steam in
the cycle. Rehea ng the steam through another stage improves the efficiency of the cycle only half
as much as the preceding stage.

Advantages of Reheat Rankine Cycle

o Improved the thermal efficiency of the cycle as steam condenses during expansion reducing
the damage to turbine blades

o Increases the total work output of the turbine considering the total work input.

Disadvantages of Reheat Rankine Cycle

o These cycles need a long piping setup. Hence, high ini al installa on costs are followed by
high maintenance costs

o As there is rehea ng, the size of the condenser may increase.

Regenera ve Rankine Cycle

In this cycle, the subcooled liquid from the condenser is heated by the steam trapped in the hot
por on of the cycle using a regenerator. This process is mixed with a fluid to convert it to a saturated
liquid. Thus, the process is known as ‘Regenera on’ and the cycle is called the ‘regenera ve Rankine
cycle’.

The regenera on process increases the heat input temperature of the cycle by elimina ng the heat
addi on from the boiler that usually exists in a normal Rankine cycle. As the heat flow into the cycle
occurs at a high temperature, the efficiency of the cycle is increased.
Advantages of Regenera ve Cycle
o As the range of working temperatures of steam in this cycle is decreased, the temperature
stresses are also decreased,

o The erosion of the turbine is reduced due to the nature of the working fluid.

Disadvantages of the Regenera ve Cycle

o Rate of steam is increased due to reduced work done in the boiler due to the presence of a
regenerator.

o High power plant cost due to larger components following the nature of the process of the
cycle.

Organic Rankine Cycle

The organic Rankine cycle, also known as ORC, is a thermodynamic cycle which uses organic fluids
like toluene or pentane instead of water and steam. These fluids have a high molecular mass with a
higher vaporiza on temperature than water. It allows heat extrac on from a low-temperature source
like a solar pond, biomass combus on, or geothermal heat.

Advantages of Organic Rankine Cycle

o There is no need for superhea ng, hence no water-treatment system of fluid

o The inlet temperature and pressure of the turbine will be low.

Disadvantages of Organic Rankine cycle

o ORCs generate less power than a regular cycle at the same opera ng condi ons.

o The organic fluids used for this cycle are combus ble. A small leakage can lead to
environmental hazards.

Supercri cal Rankine Cycle

In a supercri cal Rankine cycle, the heat is transferred to a high-pressure supercri cal fluid, which is
then converted to a supercri cal phase. Fluid in this phase is sent to a turbine where it expands and
helps in genera ng power. The steam u lised is sent back to be condensed into a liquid and recycled
back through the cycle.
A supercri cal fluid, commonly known as SCF, is a fluid at a temperature and pressure above its
cri cal point. This is the point where liquid and gas do not co-exist. These fluids are found on Earth
by black smokers (a type of hydrothermal vent).

Advantages of Supercri cal Rankine Cycle

o The efficiency of the cycle is greater than all other cycles.

o The ou low of the turbine is also of high quality.

Disadvantages of Supercri cal Rankine Cycle

o Regular boilers may not withstand high temperatures and pressure. Hence, a special boiler
must be manufactured.

o Due to this, there is an overall cost bump.

CARNOT VS RANKINE CYCLE

Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle is a theore cal cycle that sets the maximum possible efficiency for any heat engine
opera ng between two temperatures. It is an idealized model and involves two isothermal processes
and two adiaba c (isentropic) processes.

Advantages
 Maximum Efficiency: Provides the highest possible efficiency for a heat engine opera ng
between two temperatures, o en used as a benchmark.

 Theore cal Model: Useful for understanding the limits of thermodynamic processes and
establishing an efficiency ceiling.

Disadvantages
 Not Prac cal for Real Engines: Achieving the Carnot cycle condi ons is almost impossible in
real-world systems, due to idealized assump ons like no fric on and infinitely slow
processes.

 Slow Opera on: Requires very slow (quasi-sta c) processes to maintain isothermal and
adiaba c condi ons, making it imprac cal for high-power output applica ons.

 Ideal Components: Requires perfect thermal insula on and ideally reversible processes,
which are not achievable in real engines.
Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is a more prac cal thermodynamic cycle widely used in steam power plants. It
consists of four processes: two isentropic and two isobaric (constant pressure), involving steam
genera on, expansion, condensa on, and pumping.

Advantages
 Prac cal and Widely Used: Implemented in most steam power plants due to its rela vely
straigh orward process and components (boiler, turbine, condenser, and pump).

 Flexible with Modifica ons: Can be modified to increase efficiency (e.g., using reheat and
regenera ve techniques).

 Effec ve Use of Phase Change: U lizes water's phase change between liquid and steam,
making it efficient for power genera on.

Disadvantages
 Lower Efficiency than Carnot: Although prac cal, it has a lower efficiency than the Carnot
cycle because it cannot maintain the ideal condi ons.

 Condensa on Requirement: Needs a condenser to return steam to water, which limits its
temperature range and adds complexity.

 Dependent on Working Fluid Proper es: Efficiency is influenced by the proper es of the
working fluid (usually water), which can limit temperature and pressure ranges in real
applica ons.

Applica ons of the Rankine Cycle

Understanding the advantages and disadvantages makes us curious to know where these different
cycles are used. Let us learn the prac cal applica ons of these cycles.

1. The Rankine cycle with rehea ng is used in power plants working on fluids at supercri cal
pressure to generate power.

2. The regenera ve Rankine cycle with a small varia on is currently used in thermal power
sta ons like nuclear power plants.

3. ORC is u lized in various industries like the waste heat recovery plant, Biomass power plants,
Geothermal power plants, Solar thermal power plants, and Wind-thermal energy sta ons.

4. The supercri cal Rankine cycles are used in medium power applica ons like supercri cal
power plants (Eg. Philo Power Plant in Ohio, Most of the Chinese coal-fired power sta ons).
AIM – To study different types and classification of boilers
Boilers are the powerhouse of many industries and are responsible for the energy these industries
generate for all purposes. A boiler is a closed vessel in which heat generated by the combustion of
fuel is transferred to water to produce steam at the desired temperature and pressure.

Classification of Boilers
Now, there are several categories into which boilers can be classified which depend on various
factors like the content of the tubes, number of tubes, position of furnace, axis of the shell, water
and stream circulation method, and the purpose of use. This section helps you understand those
factors and learn the important classification and working of boilers.

According to the Contents of the Tubes

The classification of boilers starts with the content in the tubes, which is a part of the boiler,
responsible for the energy transfer. There are two types.

Fire Tube Boiler

A fire tube boiler has hot gas or fire inside the tubes, which are surrounded by water, hence the
name. The walls of these tubes transfer heat from the fire or hot gases entering through the tubes to
the water in the boiler. Cornish boiler, Lancashire boiler, Cochran boiler, Velcon boiler, Locomotive
boiler, and Scotch marine boiler are examples of fire tube boilers.

Water Tube Boiler

In a water tube boiler, the hot gases or fire are present inside the boiler while the water is passed
through the pipes. In other words, the water is surrounded by fire or hot gases. The water entering
through the pipe absorbs heat and flows out of the boiler. Babcock and Wilcox boiler, La-Mont boiler,
Benson boiler, Loeffler boiler, and Yarrow boiler.
 According to the Number of Tubes
We studied how the dependence of the content in the tubes of a boiler affects the heating.
Sometimes, only one tube is sufficient but other times several tubes are necessary. There are two
boilers under this classification of boilers.

Single Tube Boiler

If only one tube is used in the boiler to transfer heat from the fire or hot gas in the tubes, then it is
called a single tube boiler. Simple vertical boilers, Cornish boilers, and any fire tube boiler can be
examples.

Multitube Boiler
If several tubes are used in the boiler to either transfer heat or absorb, like a water tube boiler or fire
tube boiler, then the boiler is called a multitube boiler. Multitubular boilers include the Lancashire,
Locomotive, Cochran, and Babcock & Wilcox boilers.

According to the position of the Furnace

A furnace is used to heat the contents of a boiler. The furnaces are kept inside or outside the boilers
based on industrial needs. This classification of boilers has two types.

Internally Fired Boilers

The source of heat or the furnace is located inside the shell of the boilers in internally fired boilers.
All fire tube boilers are generally fired internally to pass hot gases efficiently throughout the boiler.

Externally Fired Boilers

If the furnace or the source of heat of the boilers is located outside the shell of the boilers, then they
are known as externally fired boilers. An example of this classification of boilers is the water tube
boilers as a whole.

According to the Axis of the Shell

After the furnace placement, the alignment of the boilers is considered. There are three types under
this classification of boilers which is based on the axis of the shell of the boiler.

Vertical Boilers
The boilers whose shell axis is vertical are referred to as vertical boilers which come under this
classification of boilers. Simple vertical boilers and Cochran boilers are examples of vertical boilers.

Horizontal Boilers
Under the classification of boilers, a boiler is referred to as a horizontal boiler if the axis of the shell is
horizontal. Horizontal boilers include the Babcock and Wilcox boiler, the Lancashire boiler, and
locomotive boilers
 According to the Water and Steam Circulation Methods
We understood the working of boilers based on the content in the tubes from the fire tube boiler or
water tube boilers. The circulation can be of two types based on the methods under this
classification of boilers.

Natural Circulation
Boilers In boilers with natural circulation, the convection currents that form during the heating of
water are responsible for the circulation. This can be seen in the majority of the boilers.

Forced Circulation Boilers

The water circulation in these boilers is accomplished through a centrifugal pump powered by an
outside source. In high-pressure boilers such as the La-Mont boiler, Loeffler boiler, and Benson boiler,
forced circulation is utilised.

According to Purpose
The purpose of these boilers is the last but not the least priority while studying the classification of
boilers. There are two boilers under this classification.

Stationary Boilers
The purpose of this is to place the boilers permanently at a desired location. This is done when the
boiler is continuously used for a specific purpose like power generation or power plants.

Mobile Boilers
The boilers under this category are generally steam boilers built to be transported from one place to
the desired location. An example can be locomotive boilers or marine boilers.

Types of Boilers
1. Industrial Steam Boilers
The first boiler type is industrial steam boiler that are large, powerful devices designed to
generate steam for various industrial processes—a heat exchanger that makes steam for outside
usage and has a combustion chamber and water container. These boilers typically use a
combination of water and heat-producing fuel to produce high-pressure steam. The steam
generated is then utilized to drive machinery or perform various industrial tasks requiring a
significant amount of power. Industrial steam boilers play a crucial role in manufacturing, power
generation, and other large-scale industries, providing the energy needed to drive engines,
turbines, and heating systems.

2. Industrial Hot Water Boilers

Industrial hot water boilers are robust heating systems designed to produce hot water for large-
scale applications and apply heat energy to water to create hot water and steam for various
industrial applications. These boilers use a combination of fuel and a heat exchanger to
efficiently heat water, meeting the substantial hot water demands of industrial processes. Unlike
steam boilers that produce steam for various uses, industrial hot water boilers specifically focus
on delivering hot water.

3. Water-tube Boilers
Water-tube boilers are a type of boiler that uses water that is circulated through tubes that are
surrounded by hot combustion gases and are distinguished by their structure and efficient heat
transfer mechanisms. In this boiler type, water circulates through tubes exposed to heat, often
generated by burning fuel. This design allows for quicker steam generation and efficient heat
transfer. Unlike fire-tube boilers where hot gases surround the tubes containing water, water-
tube boilers reverse this setup.

4. Waste Heat Recovery Boilers

Waste Heat Recovery Boilers are specialized systems designed to capture and utilize excess heat
generated in industrial processes. This device uses the heat from waste gases to generate steam
or hot water. In various industries, a considerable amount of heat is produced but often goes
unused. The boilers efficiently tap into this surplus heat, converting it into useful energy like
steam or hot water. By doing so, they enhance overall energy efficiency, reduce waste, and
contribute to a more sustainable industrial environment. Waste Heat Recovery Boilers are crucial
in harnessing untapped thermal energy.

5. Firetube Boilers
Fire Tube-type Boiler is a boiler type in which hot gases pass from a fire through one or (many)
more tubes running through a sealed container of water, known for their straightforward design
and efficient heat transfer. In these boilers, hot gases pass through water tubes, creating steam
for various applications. The combustion process occurs within the tubes, surrounded by water,
allowing for effective heat transfer. Fire Tube-type Boilers are commonly used due to their
simplicity and reliability. They find applications in both industrial and commercial settings,
providing a dependable steam source for heating or powering machinery.

6. Coal-fired Boilers
Coal-fired boilers are a type of boiler that uses coal and firewood as fuel, generating thermal
energy by burning pulverized coal. The coal is blown into the firebox, and these boilers usually
operate with 3-3.5% O2 (about 20% excess air). In these boilers, coal is burned to produce heat,
which is then used to generate steam or hot water for heating purposes. Coal-fired boilers have
been widely used for years, particularly in industrial settings. Despite advancements in cleaner
energy sources, coal-fired boilers remain in operation, especially in regions where coal is
abundant and cost-effective. However, concerns about environmental impact and emissions have
led to the development of cleaner and more sustainable alternatives in recent times.

7. Oil and Gas Boilers

Oil and gas boilers are heating systems that use oil or natural gas as fuel to generate heat,
making them common choices for residential and industrial heating needs. These boilers
function by burning the fuel to produce heat, which is then used to generate steam or hot water
for heating purposes. Oil and gas boilers are known for their efficiency and versatility, offering a
reliable and convenient solution for providing warmth and hot water in various applications,
catering to the diverse requirements of different users.
8. Biomass-fired Boilers
Biomass-fired boilers are a type of heating system that utilizes organic materials, such as wood
pellets or agricultural residues, as fuel. This machine converts biomass and industrial waste into
thermal energy. In these boilers, biomass undergoes combustion to produce heat, which is then
used to generate steam or hot water for heating purposes. Biomass-fired boilers are recognized
for their sustainability, as biomass is a renewable energy source. Biomass-fired boilers are vital in
promoting eco-friendly heating solutions, offering an alternative to traditional fossil fuels.

9. Electric Boilers
Electric boilers are heating systems that operate using electricity as their primary source of
power— compact devices that use electricity to heat water without burning fossil fuels. In these
boilers, electrical energy is converted into heat, which is then used to produce steam or hot
water for heating purposes. Electric boilers are known for their simplicity and ease of installation,
making them suitable for various applications. They are often chosen for their efficiency and
cleanliness, as they produce heat without the need for combustion.

10. Gas-fired Boilers

Gas-fired boilers are heating systems that use natural gas as their primary fuel source—a basic
three pass inside furnace smoke tubes model in which the flue gases are in the tubes, and water
is located outside the tubes within the shell. In this boiler type, natural gas undergoes
combustion, producing heat that generates steam or hot water for heating purposes. Gas-fired
boilers are widely adopted for their efficiency and convenience, providing reliable warmth in
residential and commercial settings. They are recognized for their effectiveness in heating spaces
and supplying hot water, making them a popular choice for various applications where natural
gas is readily available.

11. Oil-fired Boilers

The last boiler type is oil-fired boiler. Oil-fired boilers are heating systems that utilize oil as their
primary fuel source, used to generate steam by heating water using oil. In these boilers, oil
undergoes combustion to produce heat, which is then used to generate steam or hot water for
heating purposes. Oil-fired boilers are known for their reliability and effectiveness in providing
warmth in residential and commercial spaces. They are commonly chosen for their efficiency and
compatibility with existing heating systems.

Classification Based on Accessories

Accessories in boilers are supplementary devices that increase efficiency, improve the quality of
steam, and make operation smoother.

1. Superheater
o With Superheater: Increases steam temperature beyond saturation, suitable for
applications like turbines.

o Without Superheater: Produces saturated steam directly, used in processes where

superheating isn’t necessary.
2. Economizer
o With Economizer: Preheats feedwater using waste heat from flue gases, reducing
fuel consumption.

o Without Economizer: Lacks preheating, leading to higher fuel consumption for the
same steam output.

3. Air Preheater
o With Air Preheater: Preheats air before combustion, increasing combustion
efficiency.

o Without Air Preheater: No air preheating, often seen in lower-efficiency setups.

4. Feed Pump and Water Level Control

o Automatic Feed Control: Uses automated feed pumps and level controls, reducing
manual intervention and ensuring water levels are consistent.

o Manual Feed Control: Relies on manual water level management, typically for
simpler, smaller boilers.

5. Blowdown System
o With Blowdown System: Removes sludge and impurities from the boiler water,
helping to maintain quality and reduce scaling.

o Without Blowdown System: No automated impurity removal, which may lead to

faster scaling.

6. Draught System
o Induced Draught (ID): Utilizes an induced draught fan to evacuate flue gases,
improving air circulation.

o Forced Draught (FD): Uses a forced draught fan to push air into the combustion
chamber, enhancing combustion.

o Balanced Draught: Uses both ID and FD fans, balancing air and exhaust flow.

7. Water Treatment System

o With Water Treatment: Equipped with softeners, deaerators, and chemical injectors,
reducing scaling and corrosion.

o Without Water Treatment: Prone to scaling and corrosion, requiring regular

maintenance.

8. Soot Blower
o With Soot Blower: Clears soot buildup on heating surfaces, maintaining heat transfer
and efficiency.

o Without Soot Blower: Requires manual cleaning, which can lead to efficiency loss if
neglected.
Classification Based on Mountings
Mountings are essential components directly installed on the boiler to ensure safe and efficient
operation. These are legally required and ensure that the boiler operates within safe limits.

1. Safety Valves
o Prevent over-pressurization by releasing steam when the boiler pressure exceeds the
set limit.

2. Water Level Indicator

o Shows the water level in the boiler, essential for maintaining a safe water level to
avoid overheating or boiler damage.

3. Pressure Gauge
o Measures and displays the internal pressure of the boiler, helping operators monitor
and control pressure levels.

4. Steam Stop Valve

o Controls the flow of steam from the boiler to the steam pipe or process equipment.

5. Feed Check Valve

o Regulates the feedwater flow into the boiler and prevents backflow, protecting the
feed pump from high boiler pressures.

6. Blow-Off Valve
o Used to remove sediment and impurities from the boiler bottom, ensuring clean
water and avoiding sludge buildup.

7. Fusible Plug
o A safety device that melts if the water level falls too low, releasing steam to
extinguish the fire and prevent overheating.

8. Manhole and Handhole

o Openings in the boiler shell allowing maintenance personnel to inspect and clean the
boiler’s internal surfaces.

9. Air Vent Valve

o Allows trapped air to escape during the boiler start-up phase, ensuring efficient
filling and heating.

10. Drain Valve

 • Drains water when the boiler is shut down, preventing corrosion from residual water.

11. Anti-Priming Pipe

• Prevents water carryover in steam by separating water droplets, ensuring dry steam for
processes that require it.

Note:
By using both accessories and mountings, boilers can be made safer, more efficient, and suitable
for various operational requirements. While accessories are optional performance-enhancing
additions, mountings are mandatory for safe operation and are part of regulatory requirements for
boiler operation.

The Application of Boiler

1. Power Generation
In power generation, boilers are fundamental components of thermal power plants. The process
begins with the combustion of fuel, such as coal, natural gas, or oil, in the boiler’s furnace. The
heat produced transforms water into steam, and this high-pressure steam drives turbines
connected to generators. As the turbines spin, electricity is generated. Boilers are the heart of
this process, providing the crucial steam needed to turn the turbines and produce electricity on a
large scale.

2. Heating Systems
Boilers are essential for heating systems in various settings. In residential applications, boilers
provide hot water for heating homes, ensuring a comfortable living environment. In commercial
and industrial settings, boilers generate steam or hot water to heat large spaces efficiently. The
heated water or steam is then distributed through radiators, underfloor heating systems, or
other heat exchangers, providing warmth throughout the designated area.

3. Industrial Processes
Many industrial processes depend on boilers to generate steam for specific applications. For
instance, in manufacturing, steam is utilized for sterilization of equipment, drying processes, and
chemical reactions. Industries such as textiles, paper and pulp, and food processing rely on
boilers to ensure precise temperature control and facilitate various production stages. Boilers
contribute to the efficiency and consistency of these industrial processes.

4. Chemical Processing
Chemical plants utilize boilers for diverse purposes. Boilers provide the necessary heat for
chemical reactions and play a role in distillation processes. They are essential for maintaining
specific temperatures required for various chemical manufacturing processes. Additionally,
boilers assist in cooling processes, ensuring optimal conditions for chemical production and
contributing to the overall efficiency and reliability of chemical processing plants.

5. Oil Refineries
Boilers are integral in oil refineries, where crude oil undergoes various processes to produce
refined products. The high-temperature steam generated by boilers is used in distillation towers,
cracking units, and reforming processes. Boilers play a crucial role in maintaining specific
temperatures and creating the conditions necessary for refining crude oil into valuable products
such as gasoline, diesel, and other refined fuels.

6. Mining

In mining operations, boilers are employed for various tasks. Steam generated by boilers is often
used for power generation in remote mining sites. Boilers also play a role in ore processing,
where high-temperature steam is utilized for tasks like leaching, smelting, and refining.
Additionally, boilers contribute to the provision of heating for facilities in colder climates,
ensuring a suitable working environment for mining operations. Boilers in mining operations are
crucial for maintaining efficient and reliable processes in challenging conditions.
AIM: To study Fire Tube Boiler

Introduction: Fire-tube boilers have been in use since the late 18th century,
primarily for steam production in industrial applications, locomotives, and
river launches. However, they are now mostly limited to industrial settings,
as they are generally less efficient for large-scale power generation
compared to modern alternatives.

Types of FireTube Boilers

1. Externally Fired Boilers: Examples include locomotive-type boilers,

Lancashire boilers and Cochran boilers. These boilers have the
furnace located outside the main boiler shell.
2. Internally Fired Boilers: Examples include Scotch-marine boilers and
Package boilers, where the furnace is situated within the boiler shell
itself.

Locomotive Boiler

The Locomotive boiler is a multi-tubular, horizontal, internally fired firetube

boiler. It was widely used in railway locomotives due to its ability to produce
a large quantity of steam in a compact space. The locomotive boiler was
key to the development of steam-powered trains and remained popular until
the advent of diesel and electric engines.
Construction:

The locomotive boiler is a vital component of steam locomotives, designed

to generate steam efficiently for propulsion. Its construction includes several
key elements:

1. Shell: The outer cylindrical shell forms the main body of the boiler,
containing both water and steam. Typically constructed from steel
plates, the shell is either riveted or welded together to ensure durability
and safety.
2. Firebox: Located at one end of the boiler, the firebox is where the fuel,
usually coal, is combusted. It features a grate at the bottom for fuel
placement, an ashpan to collect ash, and firebricks lining the interior to
minimize heat loss.
3. Smokebox: Positioned at the opposite end from the firebox, the
smokebox collects exhaust gases that exit the boiler after passing
through the tubes. This chamber connects to the chimney, allowing the
gases to be released into the atmosphere.
4. Boiler Tubes: A network of small-diameter fire tubes runs from the
firebox to the smokebox. These tubes allow hot gases generated
during combustion to flow through, effectively heating the surrounding
water to produce steam.
5. Steam Dome: Mounted on the top of the boiler shell, the steam dome
acts as a collection point for steam. It houses the steam stop valve,
which regulates the steam flow to the locomotive’s cylinders, ensuring
efficient operation.
6. Superheater Tubes: Some locomotive boilers incorporate
superheaters, which further heat the steam to enhance thermal
efficiency. These superheater tubes are situated within the larger fire
tubes, allowing for optimal heat exchange.
7. Safety Valves: To prevent the dangerous buildup of pressure within
the boiler, safety valves are installed. These valves are crucial for
maintaining operational safety, as excessive pressure could lead to
catastrophic failure.
8. Feed Pump or Injector: A feed pump or injector is employed to
introduce water into the boiler, maintaining the necessary water level
during operation. This system is essential for continuous steam
generation and overall functionality.
Working Principle:
The locomotive boiler operates based on the fire-tube principle, generating
steam for propulsion in steam locomotives. Here’s how it works:
Fuel Combustion: Fuel, typically coal, is loaded into the firebox, where it is
ignited. Air is supplied from below the grate to support combustion,
producing hot gases.
Heat Transfer: The hot flue gases generated during combustion flow
through a series of fire tubes that run through the boiler. As these gases
travel through the tubes, they transfer heat to the surrounding water.
Steam Generation: The water in the boiler absorbs the heat from the flue
gases, gradually converting into steam. This steam rises to the top of the
boiler, accumulating in the steam dome.
Steam Discharge: The accumulated steam is drawn off through a steam
stop valve, which regulates the flow of steam to the locomotive's cylinders
or other systems.
Exhaust Gases: After passing through the fire tubes and transferring their
heat, the cooled exhaust gases exit the boiler through a smokebox and
chimney, releasing them into the atmosphere.
Safety Mechanisms: Throughout this process, safety valves monitor and
release excess pressure to prevent dangerous situations, while water level
indicators ensure that the water level remains safe for efficient operation.

Advantages:

1. High Steam Generation Rate: The multi-tubular design enables rapid

steam production, making it ideal for high-demand applications like
railway engines.
2. Compact Design: Its horizontal, cylindrical shape allows for efficient
use of space, fitting easily into the limited confines of a locomotive.
 3. Rapid Response to Load Changes: Locomotive boilers can quickly
adapt to fluctuations in steam demand, enhancing efficiency during
acceleration or deceleration.
4. Efficient Heat Transfer: The large surface area of the fire tubes
facilitates effective heat transfer from hot gases to water, leading to
swift steam generation.
5. Portability: Designed to be mounted directly on a chassis, locomotive
boilers are portable, making them suitable for mobile applications.

Disadvantages:

1. High Maintenance Requirements: The intricate system of tubes

requires regular cleaning and maintenance to prevent fouling and
maintain efficiency.
2. Limited Pressure Range: Operating typically at 15–20 bar, locomotive
boilers are not designed for high-pressure applications.
3. Limited Fuel Types: Primarily reliant on solid fuels like coal, they
struggle to accommodate alternative fuels such as oil or gas.
4. Inefficiency Compared to Modern Boilers: They have lower thermal
efficiency than modern water-tube boilers, with significant energy loss
through exhaust gases.
5. Slow Start-Up: The initial heat-up period to generate steam can be
lengthy compared to more advanced boiler designs.

Lancashire Boiler

The Lancashire boiler is a horizontal, internally fired, natural circulation fire-

tube boiler that gained prominence for industrial steam generation in the late
19th and early 20th centuries. Commonly used in industries like textiles and
breweries, it effectively produces large amounts of low-pressure steam.
Construction:

The Lancashire boiler consists of key components designed for durability

and efficiency:

1. Cylindrical Shell: This outer structure holds water and encompasses

two large fire tubes. Made of riveted or welded steel plates, the shell is
built to withstand internal steam pressure.
2. Furnaces (Fire Tubes): Two parallel fire tubes extend from the front to
the rear of the boiler, where solid fuel (usually coal) is combusted.
Each tube has a grate at the front for fuel loading, surrounded by water
that absorbs heat from the combustion gases.
3. Flue Gas Passage: After combustion, hot gases flow through the fire
tubes and exit via a bottom flue below the shell, enhancing heat
transfer. Some models feature a secondary flue for improved
efficiency.
4. Water Level Indicator: This device monitors water levels, preventing
potential accidents due to low water conditions.
5. Safety Valves: Essential for pressure control, these valves release
steam if pressure exceeds safe limits.
6. Steam Stop Valve: Located at the top, this valve regulates steam flow
to the distribution system.
7. Blow-Off Valve: Positioned at the bottom, it allows for the removal of
sludge and impurities from the water.
8. Manhole: Provides access for inspection and maintenance.
 9. Economizer (Optional): Some installations include an economizer to
preheat feedwater, boosting efficiency by utilizing exhaust heat.

Working Principle:

The Lancashire boiler operates on the fire-tube principle:

1. Combustion Process: Solid fuel is ignited on the grate, with air

supplied from below to aid combustion. This generates hot flue gases.
2. Heat Transfer: The gases flow through the fire tubes, transferring heat
to the surrounding water, which gradually converts to steam.
3. Flue Gas Flow: After passing through the fire tubes, the gases flow
through the bottom flue, continuing to heat the water as they exit.
4. Steam Formation: Steam rises to the top of the boiler, accumulating in
the steam space and is directed through the steam stop valve to
various applications.
5. Exhaust: The cooled gases exit through the chimney, releasing
exhaust into the atmosphere.

Advantages:

1. High Steam Generation Capacity: The design allows for substantial

steam production, catering to industrial demands.
2. Simple Construction and Maintenance: Its straightforward design
facilitates easy operation and maintenance.
3. Effective Heat Transfer: A large volume of water enhances heat
transfer efficiency.
4. Fuel Flexibility: Primarily using coal, the boiler can adapt to various
solid fuels.
5. Durability: Robust construction ensures a long service life with proper
maintenance.
6. Natural Circulation: The boiler's design promotes natural water
circulation, eliminating the need for external pumps.

Disadvantages:

1. Large Footprint: The size of the Lancashire boiler requires significant

floor space, making it unsuitable for confined areas.
 2. Slow Steam Generation: The large water volume results in longer
times to reach full steam pressure, reducing responsiveness to sudden
demand changes.
3. Lower Efficiency Compared to Modern Boilers: While effective
historically, it is less efficient than contemporary water-tube boilers.
4. Requires Skilled Operation: Operating the boiler necessitates skilled
personnel for managing fuel combustion and pressure control.
5. Low Operating Pressure: Typically functioning at low to medium
pressures, it is not suited for high-pressure applications prevalent in
modern industries.

Cochran Boiler

The Cochran boiler is a vertical, multi-tubular, fire-tube boiler designed for

small-scale steam generation. Known for its simplicity, compactness, and
efficiency, it is widely used in industries requiring low-to-medium pressure
steam.
Construction:

The Cochran boiler comprises several key components:

1. Shell: A hemispherical shell forms the main structure, providing

strength and ensuring even pressure distribution while containing
water for steam generation.
2. Furnace: Located at the bottom, the furnace burns fuel (such as coal)
on a grate, generating hot gases that rise through the system.
3. Fire Tubes: A set of horizontal fire tubes above the furnace allows hot
gases from combustion to flow through, heating the surrounding water.
4. Combustion Chamber: Lined with refractory bricks, this chamber
minimizes heat loss and protects the shell from high temperatures.
5. Chimney: Positioned at the top, it discharges exhaust gases after they
have transferred their heat to the water.
6. Manhole: This opening allows for inspection and maintenance.
7. Steam Space and Steam Stop Valve: The top of the shell acts as a
steam space where steam accumulates, which is released through a
stop valve.
8. Safety Valves and Pressure Gauge: Safety valves release excess
pressure, while a pressure gauge monitors steam levels.

Working Principle:

The Cochran boiler operates through the following steps:

1. Fuel Combustion: Fuel is ignited in the furnace, producing hot gases

that flow into the combustion chamber.
2. Heat Transfer: These gases pass through the horizontal fire tubes,
transferring heat to the water surrounding them.
3. Steam Generation: The heated water gradually turns into steam,
which collects in the steam space at the top.
4. Steam Discharge: Steam is drawn off through the steam stop valve,
with pressure controlled by safety valves and monitored by the
pressure gauge.
5. Exhaust Gases: After heat transfer, exhaust gases are released
through the chimney.

Advantages:
 1. Compact Size: The vertical design minimizes floor space
requirements, making it ideal for small facilities.
2. Easy Operation: Its straightforward design allows for easy installation,
operation, and maintenance.
3. Strong Construction: The hemispherical shell provides durability and
reduces the risk of structural failure.
4. Quick Steam Generation: Efficient heat transfer enables relatively
rapid steam production.
5. Low Initial Cost: Cochran boilers are economical compared to other
boiler types, making them suitable for small industries.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited Steam Capacity: Best suited for low to medium steam

production, they are not effective for large-scale industrial applications.
2. Low Efficiency: Their thermal efficiency is lower than that of water-
tube boilers, as heat transfer is less efficient in a fire-tube design.
3. Limited Pressure Range: These boilers cannot operate at very high
pressures, restricting their use in high-pressure applications.
4. Difficult to Clean: The compact design makes it challenging to clean
the internal fire tubes, leading to potential fouling and reduced
efficiency over time.

Package Boiler

Overview:

A package boiler is a compact, pre-assembled boiler system designed for

efficient steam or hot water generation. These boilers are factory-built and
delivered as a complete unit, making installation straightforward and
minimizing the need for extensive on-site assembly. Package boilers are
widely utilized in various industries, including manufacturing, healthcare,
food processing, and commercial applications, where reliable heating is
essential.
1. Construction of Package Boiler:

The construction of a package boiler typically includes the following major

components:

 Boiler Shell: The outer casing that houses all internal components. It
is usually cylindrical and made of durable steel to withstand high
pressure.
 Burner: A high-efficiency burner that atomizes the fuel (gas, oil, or
biomass) and mixes it with air for optimal combustion.
 Heat Exchanger: A component that facilitates heat transfer from the
combustion gases to the water, generating steam or hot water
efficiently.
 Combustion Chamber: The area where the fuel is burned. This
chamber is designed to maximize heat transfer while minimizing heat
loss.
 Control Panel: Contains the necessary controls and safety systems,
including pressure gauges, temperature sensors, and safety valves, to
monitor and manage boiler operations.
 Water and Steam Space: The sections of the boiler where water is
heated and steam is collected, ensuring efficient steam generation.
 Chimney or Flue: This component directs exhaust gases safely out of
the boiler to the atmosphere.
2. Working Principle of Package Boiler:

The operation of a package boiler involves several steps:

 Fuel Combustion: Fuel is supplied to the burner, where it is atomized

and ignited. This combustion produces hot gases.
 Heat Transfer: The hot gases flow through the heat exchanger,
transferring their heat to the water surrounding the tubes. As the water
absorbs this heat, it turns into steam.
 Steam Generation: The steam rises to the top of the boiler and
accumulates in the steam space, ready for use in various applications.
 Steam Discharge: The generated steam is released through a steam
stop valve, which directs it to the necessary processes or heating
systems.
 Exhaust Venting: After passing through the heat exchanger, the
exhaust gases exit the boiler through the chimney, ensuring proper
venting.

3. Advantages of Package Boiler:

 Space Efficiency: The compact design allows for easy placement in

facilities with limited space.
 Quick Installation: Factory assembly reduces installation time and
complexity, allowing for rapid deployment.
 High Efficiency: Many package boilers achieve significant thermal
efficiency, helping to lower fuel costs.
 Flexible Fuel Options: Capable of using various fuels, package
boilers can adapt to different operational needs.
 Safety Features: Equipped with advanced safety mechanisms,
including pressure relief valves and automated controls, to ensure safe
operation.

4. Disadvantages of Package Boiler:

 Limited Capacity: Package boilers may not be suitable for very high-
capacity steam demands or large industrial applications.
 Maintenance Needs: Regular maintenance is essential to ensure
efficient operation and prevent issues such as fouling or wear.
 Fuel Price Sensitivity: The operational costs can fluctuate based on
fuel prices, particularly if using oil or gas.
  Emissions Compliance: Depending on the fuel type and design,
package boilers may require additional equipment to meet
environmental regulations regarding emissions.

Limitations and Safety Considerations

Despite their benefits, fire-tube boilers have inherent limitations in pressure
and size due to their design. As pressure needs increase, so do the material
requirements and wall thickness of the boiler shell, making them cost-
prohibitive for high-pressure applications.

Safety Considerations:

1. Pressure Regulation: Safety valves must be installed to release

excess pressure, preventing over-pressurization that could lead to
boiler failure or explosions.
2. Water Level Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of the water level is
crucial to avoid low-water conditions, which can cause overheating and
damage to the boiler components.
3. Combustion Management: Proper management of fuel combustion is
essential to avoid incomplete combustion, which can produce
dangerous gases and reduce boiler efficiency.
4. Regular Inspections: Routine inspections and maintenance are
necessary to identify and address wear, corrosion, or other issues
before they lead to catastrophic failures.
5. Fire Safety Measures: Adequate fire safety measures, including
proper ventilation and clearances from flammable materials, are vital to
prevent fire hazards associated with fuel combustion.
6. Operator Training: Skilled personnel should operate and maintain the
boiler to ensure safe and efficient operation, as improper handling can
lead to accidents or equipment failure.
EXPERIMENT-4
AIM : TO STUDY THE WORKING AND CONSTRUCTION OF WATER TUBE BOILERS.

THEORY :

A boiler produces steam by heating water, which can be classified based on different machinery.
This steam rotates a turbine, driving a generator that transforms the motion into electrical
energy. This energy is then supplied to bus bars and distributed to various locations via
transmission lines. In this article, we will delve into water tube boilers, including their mountings
and accessories, different types, and their pros and cons

According to A.S.M.E, a boiler can be defined as a “combination of apparatus for producing or

recovering heat together with the apparatus for transferring the heat so made available to the
fluid being heated and vaporized”.

WATER TUBE BOILER

A water tube boiler is a high-efficiency steam-generating device used primarily in industrial and
power generation settings. In this type of boiler, water circulates in tubes that are exposed to the
heat of the combustion gasses. This design enables the generation of high-pressure steam at a
much faster rate compared to fire-tube boilers.
Water tube boilers are widely used for large-scale applications where high steam output and
high pressure are needed, such as in power plants, refineries, chemical plants, and ships.

The various water tube boilers are :

1. Babcock & Wilcox Boiler

2. Sterling Boiler
3. Lamont Boiler
4. Loeffler Boiler
5. Benson Boiler
6. Velox Boiler
Fig. 1 - Table Top Model of Watertube Boiler

BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES :

For efficient operation and maintenance of safety, the boiler is equipped with two categories of
components and elements.First categories include the fittings which are primarily indicated for
the safety of the boiler and for complete control of the process of steam generation. These units
are called mountings. The mounting from an integral part of the boiler and are mounted on the
body of the boiler itself, The following mountings are usually installed on the boiler.
1. Two safety valves
2. Two water level indicators
3. Pressure gauge
4. Fusible plug
5. Steam stop valve
6. Feed check valve
7. Blow-off cock
8. Man and mud hole
Second categories include the components which are installed to increase the efficiency of the
steam power plants and help in the proper working of the boiler unit, These fitting are
called-boiler accessories. Some common boiler accessories are given below.
1. Air pre-heater
2. Economizer
3. Super heater
4. Feed pump
5. Injector

FUNCTION, LOCATION AND WORKING OF MOUNTINGS AND

ACCESSORIES :

1) SAFETY VALVE :

A safety value is arranged at the top to ensure the safety of the boiler. Due to the high pressure
that is generated inside the boiler, the boiler cannot withstand the pressure beyond the
permissible value. So, to ensure the safety of the boiler a safety valve is mounted. This safety
valve is operated when this situation arises.
The safety valve operates on the principle that a valve is pressed against its seat through some
agency such as a screw or spring by external weight or force. when the steam force due to
boiler pressure acting under the valve exceeds the external force. the valve gets lifted off its
seat and some of the steam rushes out until normal pressure is restored again.

The commonly used safety valves are given below ;

i) Dead weight safety valve

ii) Lever safety valve
iii) Spring loaded safety valve
iv) High steam- low water safety valve

2) WATER LEVEL INDICATOR :

The function of the water level indicator is to ascertain constantly and exactly the level of water
in the boiler shell. It is fitted in the front of the boiler from where it is easily visible to the operator.

3) FUSIBLE PLUG :

The function of the fusible plug is to extinguish the fire in the event of the boiler shell falling
below a certain specified limit. We know that when the water on heating transforms into steam,
the level of water in the boiler falls down. If the water is not replenished and the steam
generation continues then the parts, which have been uncovered by water may get overheated
and subsequently are melted. To safeguard against this eventuality we use a fusible plug. The
fusible plug is inserted at the box crown or over the combustion chamber at the lowest
permissible water level.
4) PRESSURE GAUGE :

Each boiler has to be provided with a pressure gauge, which records the pressure at which the
steam is being generated in the boiler.
The gauge is usually mounted at the front top of the boiler shell of the drum. The gauge has to
be clearly visible to the attendant so that he can easily record the pressure reading.

5) BLOW OFF COCK :

The blow of cock serves to drain out the water from the boiler periodically for any one of the
following reasons :-
1) To discharge mud, scale and other impurities which settle down at the bottom of the boiler?
2) To empty the boiler for internal cleaning and inspection.
3) To lower the water level rapidly if the level becomes too high.
The unit is fitted at the lowest portion of the boiler. It may be mounted directly to the boiler shell
or through a boiler elbow pipe, which is fitted to the boiler shell.

6) FEED CHECK VALVE :

The feed check valve has the following two functions to perform :-
1. To allow the feed water to pass into the boiler.
2. To prevent the backflow of water from the boiler in the events of the failure of the feed pump.

7) STOP VALVE :

The function of the steam stop valve is to shut off or regulate the flow of steam from the boiler to
the steam pipe or from the steam pipe to the turbine. When used for the former purpose, it is
called a junction valve. Usually the junction valve means a regulating valve of larger size and a
stop valve refers to a regulating valve of smaller size.
The junction valve is mounted on the highest part of the steam space of the boiler and is
connected to the steam pipe, which carries the steam to the turbine.

8) MAN HOLES :

These are doors to allow men to enter inside the boiler for the inspection and repair.

9) AIR HEATER

Air heater or air pre-heater are waste heat recovery device in which the air on its way to the
furnace is raised in temperature by utilizing the heat of the exhaust gasses. Air pre-heater are
classified into the following two categories.
● Recuperative Air heater
● Regenerative Air heater
10) ECONOMISER :

The economizer is a device, which serves to recover some of the heat being carried by exhaust
flue gasses. The heat thus recovered is utilized in raising the temperature of the feedwater
being supplied to the boiler. The economizer unit is installed in the path of the flue gasses
between the boiler and the chimney.

11) STEAM SUPER HEATER :

The steam generated by a simple boiler in generally wet or at the most dry saturated. Steam
superheater is a surface heat exchanger in which the wet steam is first dried at the same
temperature and pressure and then raised to temperature above the saturation temperature at
constant pressure.
Heat of flue gasses utilized in super heating the steam and as the super heater is placed in the
path of the flue gasses. Superheating results in the increased efficiency and economy of the
steam plant.

12) FEED WATER EQUIPMENT :

The pressure inside a steaming boiler is high and so the feed water has to be raised in pressure
before its entry can be affected in the boiler. Feed pump is a device which raises the pressure of
water and forces it into the boiler.

TYPES OF WATER TUBE BOILER

Some different water tube boilers are :

1. Babcock & Wilcox Boiler

2. Loeffler Boiler
3. Benson Boiler

BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOILER

CONSTRUCTION

1. The unit features a high-pressure drum made of welded steel, positioned at the top.
Connections run from each end of the drum to the uptake and downtake headers,
respectively. These headers are linked by numerous straight, solid-drawn steel water
tubes, which are set at a 15-degree angle to the horizontal and expanded into the bored
 holes of the headers. The serpentine shape of the headers causes the tubes to be
staggered, allowing the entire heating surface to be exposed to flue gasses.
2. Below the uptake header is the furnace, which has a grate for fuel combustion equipped
with a chain grate stoker. Coal is fed into the chain grate stoker through the fire door,
with the speed adjusted to ensure complete combustion by the time the coal reaches the
other end of the grate. Ash residues fall into the ashpit.

3. Baffles are placed across the water tubes, acting as reflectors for the flue gasses and
creating gas passages.

4. The mud box is located at the bottom of the rear header, collecting foreign particles in
the water. These can be periodically blown off. Access to the boiler’s interior is granted
by doors, allowing for tube cleaning and soot removal. Draught control is managed by a
damper in the black chamber.
5. For superheated steam, superheater tubes are installed in the combustion chamber
above the water tubes. The unit includes vents for accessories and mountings such as
safety valves, pressure gauge, water level indicator, fusible plug, and feed check valve.
The entire water tube assembly is suspended along with the drum from the steel girder
frame by steel rods called slings, within a masonry brick room lined with fire bricks.

Fig : Layout of babcock and wilcox Boiler

WORKING :

Water fills the boiler drum shell via a feed valve, maintaining a consistent level at about
two-thirds of the shell's capacity. Water travels from the drum through inclined tubes via the
downtake header, returning to the shell as both water and steam through the uptake header.
This circulation is driven by convective currents.
The hottest water in the steam rises through the tubes to the uptake header and then enters the
boiler drum through the riser. Steam vapors rise through the water to the upper half of the drum,
while the cooler water flows back to the drum via the rear header, completing the water circuit.
Hot combustion gasses from the burning fuel on the grate ascend towards the water drum and
then descend. They move up and down between the baffles, which ensure the gasses stay in
contact with the inclined water tubes for a longer period. During this process, the gasses
transfer their heat to the water, forming steam. Finally, the hot gasses escape to the chimney
through the smoke chamber.
The steam collected in the water drum is directed to the superheater tubes via an anti-priming
pipe. As the superheater tubes are exposed to hot gasses, the steam passing through them
becomes superheated. When starting a cold boiler, the superheater should be filled with water
to prevent burning. The superheated steam is then extracted through the stop valve and
supplied to the engine as needed.
Capacity and utility-wise, the evaporative capacity ranges from 20,000 to 40,000 kg/hr, with
operating pressures between 11.5 to 17.5 bar. Such boilers are primarily used to run steam
turbines and generate electric power.

ADVANTAGES :
1. the unit has the capacity to quickly cope with high peak loads which are generally
needed at thermal power stations.
2. The inspection of the boiler can be carried out even when the boiler is in operation.
drought loss is minimum.
3. the replacement of defective tubes can be made readily.
4. further since the boiler unit (except furnace) is suspended any expansion or
5. contraction of the boiler has no harmful effects on the masonry work enclosing the
furnace and the boiled.

LOEFFLER BOILER

The Loeffler boiler is a high-pressure, water tube boiler that employs forced circulation.

1. Feedwater from the hot well is pumped through an economizer, where it gains heat from
the exhaust gasses, before being directed into the boiler drum located outside the
furnace.
 2. A set of nozzles receives a portion of the superheated steam and sends it to the
evaporating drum, where it mixes with the feedwater. This combination generates steam
with a high dryness fraction, as the flow rates of the feedwater and superheated steam
are finely controlled.
3. Steam from the evaporating drum is drawn by a steam circulating pump and passed
through two superheaters. One is a horizontal convection superheater in the exhaust
flue gas path, and the other is a radiant superheater above the furnace, receiving
intense radiant heat.
4. About one-third of the superheated steam is directed to the steam turbine for expansion
work, while the remaining two-thirds returns to the evaporator through nozzles,
transferring its superheat to the water and creating additional saturated steam.
5. A blower draws in cold air and passes it through an air preheater in the exhaust flue gas
path, enhancing combustion efficiency.

The Loeffler boiler exclusively uses superheated steam to evaporate water. Furnace heat is
applied only to the economizer and superheater, making steam the primary medium for both
heat transfer and absorption. As the evaporating tubes carry only superheated steam,
poor-quality feedwater does not cause scale formation, making these boilers ideal for marine
power generation. They are compact and capable of producing up to 1 lakh kg/hr of steam at
operating pressures up to 150 bar.

Fig : Layout of a Loeffler Boiler

BENSON BOILER

Construction

The Benson boiler is a high-pressure, drumless, supercritical water tube steam boiler with
forced circulation
The main parts include:
1. Air Preheater: Preheats the air before entering the furnace
2. Economizer: Heats the water to a certain temperature
3. Radiant Superheater: Heats the water with radiation produced by the burnt fuel
4. Convection Evaporator: Evaporates the superheated water and converts it into steam
5. Convection Superheater: Superheats the steam to the desired temperature
6. Furnace: The place where the fuel is burnt
7. Feed Pump: Supplies the water inside the boiler at supercritical pressure

Working Principle

The Benson boiler operates at supercritical pressure, eliminating the formation of bubbles and
directly converting feedwater into steam. The feedwater, preheated in an economizer using
exhaust gas heat, enters the system at supercritical pressure and is first heated in the radiant
superheater within the combustion chamber. The superheated water then moves to the
convection evaporator, transforming into steam, which is further heated in the convection
superheater. This highly efficient cycle ensures rapid and consistent steam generation.

The superheated steam drives a turbine to generate electricity. Spent steam is condensed and
recirculated, while a blower preheats incoming air to enhance combustion efficiency. Without a
steam drum, the Benson boiler reduces weight and cost, and its design minimizes scale
formation, making it ideal for marine applications. It’s a powerhouse of efficiency and innovation.

Advantages
● No Drum: The absence of a steam drum reduces the weight and cost of the boiler
● High Efficiency: Operates at high pressures, leading to improved thermodynamic
efficiency
● Quick Start-Up: Can be started quickly due to welded joints
● Space-Saving: Occupies less space compared to traditional boilers
● Safety: Reduced risk of explosion hazards
Disadvantages
● Salt Deposition: Can experience salt deposition in the transformation zone, requiring
periodic cleaning
● Complex Maintenance: Requires specialized maintenance due to its high-pressure
operation
● Initial Cost: Higher initial cost compared to conventional boilers
PURPOSE OF BOILER STEAM DRUM

In a modern boiler , steam drum can serve many purposes :

1. Steam-Water Separation: The primary purpose is to separate steam from the water
mixture. It collects the steam generated in the water tubes and ensures that it is properly
separated.
2. Steam Storage: Acts as a storage area for steam before it is sent to the superheater or
to the process/usage area. This ensures there is a steady supply of steam.
3. Water Level Management: Helps in maintaining an adequate water level in the boiler.
Proper water level management is critical to prevent overheating and ensure efficient
boiler operation.
4. Purity and Quality Control: Ensures that the steam delivered to the superheater is of the
correct purity and quality, minimizing the risk of impurities damaging the boiler or
downstream equipment.
5. Pressure Regulation: Aids in maintaining and regulating the pressure within the boiler,
contributing to the safe operation of the entire system.

SEPARATION OF STEAM AND WATER

At low pressures, steam naturally rises due to its lower density and separates from the water in
the steam drum without needing mechanical separators. But as pressure increases, mechanical
devices become essential. The dry pipe alters the flow direction of the steam and water mixture,
causing most of the water to fall back into the drum, allowing drier steam to exit. This early
separator type is still used in some low-pressure boilers.
In modern boiler drums, steam separation from the riser portions happens in three steps. The
primary and secondary stages remove nearly all the water, preventing steam recirculation. The
third stage, steam scrubbing, reduces contaminants in the steam that exits the drum.

PRIMARY SEPARATORS

Primary separators are the first step in the steam-water separation process within a boiler drum.
They use mechanical means to separate the bulk of the water from the steam-water mixture.
They are crucial for efficiently removing most of the water from the steam, ensuring that the
steam sent to the next stage of separation or to the superheater is relatively dry and of high
quality.

Cyclone separators :
When the steam-water mixture enters the cyclone separator, it is introduced tangentially into the
separator's chamber. This tangential entry creates a cyclonic or spinning motion within the
chamber. As the mixture spins rapidly, centrifugal force comes into play. The denser water
droplets, being heavier than the steam, are pushed outward toward the walls of the separator.
This separation occurs because centrifugal force acts more strongly on the denser water
particles than on the lighter steam.

Once the water droplets are forced to the outer walls, they coalesce and form a continuous film
of water along the walls of the cyclone separator. Gravity then causes this film to descend to the
bottom of the separator, where it is collected and returned to the boiler drum or reservoir. This
ensures that the water is efficiently removed from the steam, enhancing the steam quality.

Meanwhile, the lighter steam, now free from most of the water droplets, moves towards the
center of the cyclone separator. It follows an upward path and exits through the top or the center
of the separator. This dry steam is then directed towards the superheaters or turbines, where it
performs work without the risk of carrying over water droplets that could damage the equipment
or reduce efficiency.

Fig : general layout of a gas-liquid cyclone separator

The effectiveness of cyclone separators in improving steam quality makes them indispensable
in high-pressure boiler systems. Their ability to handle large volumes of steam and efficiently
separate water ensures the reliability and efficiency of the entire power generation process. By
removing moisture and maintaining steam purity, cyclone separators help in reducing
maintenance costs, preventing turbine blade erosion, and ensuring smooth and efficient boiler
operation.
AIM: To Study working principles, types, components and
application of Superheater,Reheater and Desuperheater

In the field of thermal power generation, several key components play a critical role in
ensuring efficient and effective energy production.
These components include the superheater, reheater, and desuperheater. Each
of these devices serves a unique purpose in optimizing the thermodynamic cycle,
helping to regulate steam properties for various stages of the energy conversion
process.
Superheaters increase the temperature of steam beyond the boiling point to improve
efficiency and prevent condensation in turbines.
Reheaters reheat partially expanded steam, enhancing cycle efficiency and
preventing moisture formation in later turbine stages. Desuperheaters control the
temperature of superheated steam by reducing it to a safe and stable level for
downstream applications.
Superheaters Superheaters are heat exchange devices that raise the temperature of
steam.

Superheater
Superheaters are heat exchange devices that raise the temperature of steam above its
saturation point, resulting in dry steam. This is essential for preventing turbine damage
caused by moisture.
Superheaters are generally divided into three types:

• Radiant superheaters: Radiant superheaters are located in the furnace

chamber of the boiler, where they are directly exposed to the radiant heat from the
flames. Radiant superheaters are typically used to superheat steam to high
temperatures.
• Convection superheaters: Convection superheaters are located in the
flue gas path of the boiler, where they are heated by the hot flue gases.
Convection superheaters are typically used to superheat steam to lower
temperatures than radiant superheaters.

• Separately fired superheaters: Separately fired superheaters are

external to the boiler and have their own furnace. Separately fired superheaters
are typically used to superheat steam to very high temperatures.
Superheaters offer advantages such as enhanced thermal efficiency and improved
power output.

Use of Superheaters in Industrial Boilers

Superheaters are used where only dry steam is required in a process/machine such
as Turbines. Any moisture content in a steam in such cases happens to degrade or
corrode the machine thereby affecting its average operating life. So, the superheater
converts low-quality steam to high-quality for end users. Sometimes, a superheater is
also needed when we need to transport steam to far-off places as there are some
temperature losses during its transportation. Superheaters can be used in a steam
engine where absolute dry steam is needed to prevent wear and tear of engine parts.
In the case of water tube boilers, hot gases will provide the required temperature to
produce superheated steam, and superheaters may be an additional part of the
furnace area. In other cases, separately fired superheaters may be required because
gas turbine produced gases are relatively cool.
Superheaters in packaged steam generators and HRSGs-general
features

Packaged steam generators generate up to 300,000 lb/h steam, while a few gases
turbine HRSGs generate even more depending on the gas turbine size. Steam
pressure in cogeneration and combined cycle plants typically ranges from 150 to 1,500
psig and temperature from saturation to 1,000°F Seamless alloy steel tubes are used in
superheater construction. Tube sizes vary from 1.25 to 2.5 in.
Commonly used materials are shown. Allowable stress values depend on actual
tube wall temperatures. Tube thickness is determined based on these using
formulae discussed in the ASME Code, Sections 1 and 8. Different designs are
available for superheaters depending on gas/steam parameters and space
availability. The inverted loop design is widely used in packaged boilers, while
the vertical finned tube design is common in HRSGs. The horizontal tube design
with vertical headers is used in both.

Bare tubes are generally used in packaged steam generators, where gas temperatures
are high (typically 1,500- 2,200°F) and tube wall temperature is a concern. However,
in gas turbine HRSGs, finned superheaters are used. Gas inlet temperature is
generally low, on the order of 900-1,400'F, which requires a large surface area. Use of
finned tubes makes their design compact. Superheaters can be of convective or
radiant design or a combination of these in packaged boilers. Final steam temperature
may or may not be controlled. In unfired and supplementary fired HRSGs, the
superheaters are or convective design only.

Steam temperature control methods insuperheaters

Generally, steam temperature is maintained constant from about 60% to 100% load.
Interstage attemperator or spray water injection is done to achieve the desired final
steam temperature. Water injected should be demineralized since solids contained in
feed water can get carried into the superheater and turbine and selective deposition
can occur. Salt deposits in the superheater can result in tube overheating. Turbine
blade deposition is a big concern with turbine maintenance engineers since it reduces
power output, restricts flow passages, causes corrosion and can damage the blades.
Hence, high steam purity on the order of 20-50 ppb is generally desired in high steam
temperature applications. Good steam drum internals using a combination of baffles
and Chevron separators can achieve the desired steam purity. In case demineralized
water is not available for spray, some of the steam may be condensed using a heat
exchanger as shown, and the condensate is sprayed into the desuperheater. Steam
flow through the exchanger and superheater should be balanced in the parallel paths
either by using flow restrictions, control valves in each parallel path or by raising the
exchanger level to provide additional head for control. Feed water from the economizer
cools andcondenses steam used for desuperheating.
In Fig. 4b, the feed water is directly injected into the steam between the stages.
Desuperheating beyond the superheater is not recommended since moisture can be
carried to the steam turbine along with the steam ifdownstream mixing is not good.

Also, this method permits steam temperature in the superheater to increase beyond the
desired final steam temperature and, hence, the premium on materials used for
superheater construction will be high. There are several other methods used for steam
temperature control such as varying excess air, tilting burners, recirculating flue gases,
etc., but in packaged boilers and HRSGs, interstage attemperator is generally used.
Superheaters in HRSGs.

The basic difference in superheater design used in steam generators and HRSGs is
that in HRSGs, as mentioned earlier, finned tubes may be used to make the design
compact. The large duty and large gas-to steam flow ratio coupled with the low LMTD
necessitates this.
However, while selecting finned tubes, a low fin density should be used consider ring
the low steam side heat transfer coefficient inside the tubes. The heat transfer
coefficient due to superheated steam flow is small, on the order of 150- 300 Btu/ft2h°F,
depending on steam flow, pressure, temperature and tube size. A large fin area would
only increase heat flux inside the tubes, tube wall temperature and possibly gas
pressure drop as discussed in an earlier article.' Note that the gas side heat transfer
coefficient is lower with higher fin density or surface area. Hence, it is misleading to
evaluate finned superheater designs based on surface areas.' In large gas turbines,
steam after expanding from the steam turbine is again reheated in the HRSG to
generate additional power.

Applications of Superheater:
Superheaters are used for:
1.Power plant steam engines
2. Locomotive use
3. Damper and shifting valve
Advantages and Disadvantages:
The main advantages of using a superheater are reduced fuel and water
consumption but there is a price to pay in increased maintenance costs. In most
cases the benefits outweighed the costs and superheaters were widely used. An
exception was shunting locomotives(switchers). British shunting locomotives were
rarely fitted with superheaters. In locomotives used for mineral traffic the advantages
seem to have been marginal. For example, the North
Eastern Railway fitted superheaters to some of its NER Class P mineral locomotives
but later began to remove them. Without careful maintenance superheaters are prone
to a particular type of hazardous failure in the tube bursting at the U-shaped turns in the
superheater tube. This is difficult to both manufacture, and test when installed, and a
rupture will cause the superheated high-pressure steam to escape immediately into the
large flues, then back to the fire and into the cab, to the extreme danger of the
locomotive crew.

A reheater is a critical component in various industrial applications, particularly in

thermal power plants, where it plays a vital role in enhancing efficiency and
performance. Its primary function is to reheat steam that has already passed through a
turbine, ensuring that the steam maintains a high temperature and pressure as it
returns to the boiler for further energy extraction.

Functionality and Design

In a thermal power plant, steam is generated in a boiler at high pressure and
temperature. This steam is then directed to a turbine, where it expands and does work,
converting thermal energy into mechanical energy to drive the generator. However, as
steam expands in the turbine, it loses temperature and pressure, which can
reduce the overall efficiency of the system. This is where the reheatercomes in.

The reheater is typically situated between the high-pressure and

low-pressure turbines. After the steam exits the high-pressure turbine, it enters the
reheater, where it is subjected to additional heat, often sourced from flue gases or the
boiler. The reheating process allows the steam to regain some of its lost thermal
energy, increasing its temperature before it enters the low-pressure turbine. By raising
the steam temperature, the reheater improves the overall efficiency of the cycle,
enabling the plant to extract more energy from the same amount of fuel.
Reheaters
Reheaters play a vital role in re-energizing steam that has partially expanded in the
high-pressure turbine stage. By reheating the steam before it enters the lower-
pressure turbine stages, reheaters prevent condensation and maximize energy output.
In a typical power plant, reheaters are located between the high-pressure and low-
pressure turbines, ensuring that the steam temperature remains consistent
throughout. This contributes to better fuel efficiency and turbine
longevity, especially in large power plants.

Types of Reheaters
Reheaters can be classified based on their design and operational principles:

Gas-Fired Reheaters: These reheaters utilize hot flue gases from the
combustion process to transfer heat to the steam. They are often used in combined
cycle power plants, where the efficiency of the cycle is maximized by recovering
waste heat.
1. Heat Exchangers: Some reheaters function as heat exchangers, where
hot water or steam from the boiler is used to reheat the steam. This type is
common in plants that employ co-generation or combined heat and power
(CHP) systems.
2. Electrical Reheaters: In some cases, electrical heating elements are used
to reheat steam. This method is less common due to cost but can provide
flexibility in operations.
Advantages of Reheating
The integration of reheaters into thermal systems offers severaladvantages:

● Increased Efficiency: By reheating steam, the overall thermal efficiency of

the power cycle is improved, leading to better fuel utilization and reduced
emissions.
● Reduced Moisture Content: Reheating helps maintain the steam in a
superheated state, which minimizes the risk of turbine blade erosion caused by
moisture, enhancing equipment
longevity.
● Operational Flexibility: Reheaters allow for better load management
and can accommodate varying demand levels without significant efficiency
losses.

Challenges and Considerations

Despite their benefits, reheaters also pose certain challenges. The design and
materials must withstand high temperatures and pressures, which can lead to
issues such as thermal fatigue and corrosion. Additionally, proper maintenance is
crucial to ensure reliability and performance, as any failure in the reheating
process cansignificantly impact overall plant efficiency.

Conclusion
In summary, reheaters are essential components in enhancing the efficiency of
thermal power plants. By reheating steam between turbine stages, they allow for
greater energy extraction and reduced emissions. Their design and implementation
play a vital role in the operational success of power generation systems, contributing
to more sustainable and efficient energy production.
 Desuperheater
Desuperheaters reduce the temperature of superheated steam or gas by injecting a
cooling medium, typically water. This helps control the steam temperature to meet the
specific requirements of downstream equipment, protecting sensitive components from
overheating

Purpose of Desuperheaters

Superheated steam has higher thermal energy compared to saturated steam, which is
beneficial for certain applications. However, superheated steam’s high temperature can
damage sensitive equipment, reduce efficiency in heat exchangers, and complicate
precise temperature control in some processes. By desuperheating or cooling the
superheated steam to a temperature slightly above its saturation point, plants can use
the steam more effectively and protecttheir equipment.

Functionality and Design

Superheated steam is steam that has been heated beyond its saturation temperature at
a given pressure. While this state can enhance turbine efficiency by preventing
condensation, it can also pose challenges. For instance, turbine blades are designed to
operate within specific temperature and pressure ranges. If the steam temperature is
too high, it can lead to mechanical stress and wear, reducing the turbine's lifespan.
A desuperheater works by injecting water into the superheated steam flow, which
absorbs heat from the steam and converts into vapor. This process lowers the steam
temperature while ensuring that the steam remains in a gaseous state, preventing
condensation. The design typically involves mixing mechanisms, where water is
atomized into fine droplets, allowing for efficient heat exchange with the steam.

Types of Desuperheaters
Desuperheaters can be classified into several types based on their operating
principles:
1. Direct Contact Desuperheaters: These devices mix water directly with
superheated steam. The water droplets absorb heat from the steam, causing
them to evaporate, which cools the steam. This type is often favored for its
simplicity and efficiency.
2. Indirect Contact Desuperheaters: In this design, steam flows through
a heat exchanger where it is cooled by a separate water circuit. The steam does
not directly contact the cooling water, making this type suitable for applications
where contamination isa concern.
3. Variable Nozzle Desuperheaters: These desuperheaters utilize
variable nozzles to control the flow of water injected into the steam. By adjusting
the water flow based on the steam temperature, they provide precise control
over the desuperheating process.

Advantages of Desuperheating
Desuperheaters offer several benefits in thermal systems:

● Enhanced Efficiency: By ensuring that steam enters turbines at optimal

temperatures, desuperheaters contribute to improved turbine efficiency and
overall system performance.
● Protection of Equipment: By controlling steam temperatures,
desuperheaters help protect turbine blades and other components from thermal
stress and erosion, thereby extendingtheir operational life.
● Process Control: In industrial applications, maintaining specific steam
temperatures is crucial for various processes.
Desuperheaters allow for precise temperature management, ensuring
consistent product quality.
Challenges and Considerations
While desuperheaters are beneficial, they also come with challenges. The injection of
water can lead to fluctuations in steam quality if not managed carefully. This can result
in inconsistent steam conditions that may affect downstream processes. Additionally,
the materials used in desuperheaters must be resistant to high temperatures and
corrosion, as they are often exposed to harsh operating conditions.

Applications
Desuperheaters are commonly found in:

● Power Plants: Used in steam turbines to manage steam

temperatures and improve efficiency.
● Chemical Processing: In processes requiring precise
temperature control of steam for reactions or heating.
● HVAC Systems: Employed in district heating systems to regulate
steam temperatures supplied to buildings.

Conclusion

In summary, desuperheaters play a crucial role in thermal systems by managing the

temperature of superheated steam. Their ability to enhance efficiency, protect
equipment, and ensure precise temperature control makes them indispensable in power
generation and various industrial applications. As technology evolves, innovations in
desuperheater design and operation will continue to enhance their effectiveness and
reliability in modern systems.
AIM-To study working principle, types,
components, compounding and
application of steam turbine

Introduction –
A steam turbine is a type of heat engine that converts the energy of
steam into mechanical energy. It is a key component in many power
plants, including thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, and
combined cycle power plants.

How does a steam Turbine work ?

1.Steam Generation: High-pressure steam is generated in a boiler by

heating water.
2.Steam Expansion: The high-pressure steam is directed onto the
blades of the turbine, causing them to rotate. As the steam expands,
it loses pressure and temperature.
3.Mechanical Energy: The rotational energy of the turbine is
transferred to a generator, which converts it into electrical energy.
 Working of steam turbine
Types of steam turbines
1. Impulse Turbine: Steam expands through nozzles before
striking the blades, imparting momentum to them.
• High-pressure steam is expanded through nozzles,
converting its thermal energy into kinetic energy.
• The high-velocity steam jet strikes the blades of the rotor,
imparting momentum to them and causing the rotor to
rotate.
• The steam then exits the turbine at a lower pressure.

2. Reaction Turbine: Steam expands both through nozzles and

over the blades, imparting both momentum and reaction force
to the blades.
• High-pressure steam enters the turbine and expands
gradually the blades, imparting both
momentum and reaction force to them.
• The blades are shaped to guide the steam flow, further
expanding it and increasing the rotational speed of the
rotor.
• The steam exits the turbine at a lower pressure.
 Reaction and Impulse turbine
Components of steam turbine –
• Nozzles: These convert the thermal energy of the steam into
kinetic energy.
• Blades: These are mounted on a rotor and are struck by the
high-velocity steam, causing them to rotate.
• Rotor: This is the rotating shaft to which the blades are
attached.
• Stator: This is the stationary part of the turbine that houses the
nozzles and directs the steam flow.
• Generator: This converts the mechanical energy of the turbine
into electrical energy.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Turbines -

Advantages-
• High Efficiency: Steam turbines can achieve high thermal
efficiency, especially when used in conjunction with other
power generation technologies.
• Reliability: They are highly reliable and can operate
continuously for long periods.
• Scalability: Steam turbines can be built in various sizes to meet
different power demands.
• Environmental Benefits: Modern steam power plants are
becoming increasingly efficient and environmentally friendly,
with lower emissions of pollutants.

Disadvantages:
• High Initial Cost: The initial cost of building a steam power plant
can be high.
• Large Footprint: Steam power plants require a large amount of
land.
• Water Consumption: Steam power plants require a significant
amount of water for cooling.
Compounding of steam turbines –
Compounding of steam turbines is a technique employed to
extract energy from high-pressure steam in multiple stages, rather
than a single stage.
Types of Compounding -
There are primarily two types of compounding used in steam
turbines:
1.Pressure Compounding:
• In this method, the steam pressure is reduced in stages.
• High-pressure steam is expanded through a series of nozzles,
each feeding a separate stage of the turbine.
• Each stage extracts a portion of the steam's energy, reducing its
pressure before it enters the next stage.
• This approach is commonly used in large, high-power turbines.

2. Velocity Compounding:
 • In this method, the steam velocity is reduced in stages.
• High-velocity steam is directed onto the blades of the first
stage, where a portion of its kinetic energy is transferred to the
rotor.
• The remaining steam, with reduced velocity, is then directed to
the next stage, and so on.
• This method is suitable for smaller turbines and those operating
at lower pressures.

Benefits of Compounding -
• Increased Efficiency: Compounding enables more efficient
extraction of energy from the steam, reducing energy losses.
• Reduced Rotor Speed: By dividing the expansion process into
multiple stages, the rotor speed can be controlled, preventing
excessive stresses and improving reliability.
• Improved Blade Design: Compounding allows for the design of
blades optimized for specific pressure and velocity conditions,
further enhancing efficiency.
• Enhanced Reliability: Lower rotor speeds and more balanced
load distribution contribute to increased turbine reliability.
• By understanding the principles of compounding, engineers
can design and operate steam turbines that are highly
efficient, reliable, and environmentally friendly.
Applications of Steam Turbines
• Power Generation: Steam turbines are widely used in power
plants to generate electricity.
• Marine Propulsion: They are used to power ships and
submarines.
• Industrial Applications: They are used in various industrial
processes, such as driving pumps, compressors, and other
machinery.
 AIM – To study working principle of Regenerative Feed
Heating System

Introduction
The Regenerative Cycle starts from turbine. The regenerative feed heating system cycle
starts from the condenser at L.P end and ends at economizer inlet H.P end. Various
auxiliaries like condenser, pump, main ejectors, gland steam condenser, drain cooler,
H.P heaters etc. are situated in the system. The L.P heaters drain cooler, main ejectors,
and gland steam condenser are located in the condensate cycle between condensate
pump & in the deaerator. The H.P heaters are located in the feed water cycle between
deaerator and the boiler. The six extractions from the turbine are provided to 3 horizontal
L.P heaters, deaerator and 2 Horizontal H.P heaters.
Regenerative feed heating, where steam is drawn off the turbine between stages to
preheat the feed water, is a well-established practice in steam power plant.

Direct Contact Regenerative Feed Heating

Indirect Contact Regenerative Feed Heating

Basic feed heating system
For the basic feed heating system for each process in vapor power cycle. it is possible
to assume a hypothetical (or)ideal process which represents the basic intended
operation. For basic feed system we used Rankin cycle in this when all these four
processes are ideal, the cycle is an ideal cycle called Rankin cycle. For the purpose if
analysis, the Rankin cycle is assumed to be carried out in a steady flow operation,
applying steady flow engineering equation (SFEE) to each of the process on the basis of
the process on the basis of unit mass of fluid, and neglecting changes in kinetic and
potential energy. The work and heat quantities can be evaluated in terms of the
properties of the fluid. Usually, the pump work is small compared to the turbine work,
and is sometimes neglected then h4=h3 and the cycle efficiency approximately
becomes η = (h1-h2)/ (h1-h4) In the direction opposite to the steam flow. In turbine, the
steam is thus headed before entering into the boiler; such a system is known as
Regenerative heating. The ideal regenerative cycle has efficiency equal to that efficiency
of Carnot cycle with same heat supply and heat rejection temperatures. All the heat
added from an external source (1) is at constant temperature (T1), and all the heat
rejected (2) is at the constant temperature (T2) both being reversible then

1=h1-h4 I =T1 (s1-s4)

2=h2-h3=T2 (s2-s3)
S4-s3=s1–s2
S1-s4 =s2-s3
?=1- 2/1=1-T2/T
The efficiency of the ideal regenerative cycle is equal to Carnot cycle efficiency writing
the steady flow energy equation for the turbine.
H1-Wt-h2+h4-h4=0
Wt= (h1-h2)- (h4-h4)
The pump work remains the same as in the Rankin cycle
Wp=h4-h3
The network output of the ideal regenerate cycle is thus less, and hence its steam rate
will be move. Although it is more efficient when compared with the Rankin cycle.
Rankine Cycle with Regeneration
The regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by extracting (or
bleeding) steam from turbine at various stages and feed that steam in heat exchanger
where the feedwater is heated. These heat exchangers are called regenerator or
feedwater heater (FWH). FWH also help in removing the air that leaks in at the
condenser (deaerating the feedwater).
FWH are an integral portion of the power plant thermodynamic cycle. Normally, there
are multiple stages of feedwater heating. Each stage corresponds to a turbine extraction
point. These extraction points occur at various stages of the expansion of steam through
the turbines.
The presence of the heaters in the cycle enhances the thermal efficiency of the
powerplant, the greater the number of extraction stages, the lower the amount of
thermal energy required to generate a given amount of electrical energy.

FWH TERMINOLOGY
A feed water heater is a heat exchanger designed to preheat boiler feed water by means
of condensing steam extracted (or bled ) from the steam turbine. They are unfired since
the heat transfer within the vessel does not occur by means of combustion, but by
convection and condensation.
The steam extraction process in a closed feedwater is referred to as uncontrolled
extraction. The flow rate of steam into a feedwater heater is not limited by the amount
of available steam (as opposed to a surface condenser).
The shell side operating pressure in a feedwater heater is determined by the pressure of
the steam supplied to it, not by the amount of heat transfer surface.

Two types of FWHs

Open (Direct- Contact) Feedwater Heaters – An open is basically a mixed where the
steam extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting pump. Ideally, the
mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.
Closed Feedwater Heaters- In closed FWH, heat is transferred from the extracted
steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. Thus, two steams can be at
different pressures, since they don’t mix.
Advantages Of Regenerative Feed Heating System
It improves the cycle efficiency. The metal temperature of boiler tube reduces by taking
feed heaters in service and hence increases the boiler tube life and reduces the outage
due to tube leakages. Extractions from last stages of turbine also act as moisture
extractor and hence reduce the blade damage due to water droplets impact. Cost per
unit of electrical power reduces by using with feed heaters.

Disadvantages Of Regenerative Feed Heating System

Increase cost of pipe frame work and also increase mechanical losses with the some
steam input less work is achieved. Strength of turbine decreases due to the holes
provided for extraction of steam from different stages. The temperature of the flue gases
may reach to dew point temperature Decreases the extent of heat extraction from the
gases economizer, Regenerative feed heating involves the process of improving the
efficiencies of turbine and to produce move work.
AIM: To study about calorimetry
Calorimetry
Calorimetry, the science of measuring heat changes during chemical reactions or
physical changes, plays a critical role in thermal power plants. In these plants, energy
production is based on the controlled combustion of fuels in steam boilers, which heat
water to create steam. This steam drives turbines, generating electricity. By applying
calorimetric principles, engineers can accurately measure the amount of heat generated
and used in these processes, allowing for precise adjustments to optimise energy
efficiency. The calorimetric data gathered is essential not only for improving the
efficiency of steam boilers but also for understanding and reducing energy losses within
the plant.

Fundamentals of Calorimetry
Calorimetry provides a foundation for understanding how heat energy is transferred,
conserved, and lost. There are two main types of calorimetry: constant-pressure
calorimetry and constant-volume calorimetry. Constant-pressure calorimetry is
particularly relevant to boiler operations, where changes in enthalpy at a steady
pressure are more common. Calorimetry relies on fundamental equations such as
q=mcΔT, where q represents the heat absorbed or released, mmm is the mass of the
substance, c is the specific heat capacity, and ΔT is the change in temperature.
Through these calculations, engineers can assess the efficiency of the steam
generation process and identify where energy losses occur.
Steam Boilers in Thermal Power Plants
Steam boilers are the heart of thermal power plants, converting water into steam
through the combustion of fuels like coal, natural gas, or biomass. There are various
types of boilers, including fire-tube and water-tube boilers, each with distinct designs
suited for different scales of operation. The Rankine cycle, a thermodynamic cycle, is
used in these systems to describe the process of heat transfer and work done by the
steam. This cycle includes four main stages: heating water, vaporizing it to create
steam, expanding the steam through a turbine, and then condensing it back to water.
Through this cycle, steam boilers continuously convert thermal energy into mechanical
energy, with calorimetry helping optimize each phase.

Types of Calorimetry
Direct calorimetry: It detects the heat change of a chemical reaction by directly
measuring the temperature change it creates.

Indirect Calorimetry: It is a way of evaluating an organism’s heat change by

monitoring either its intake of oxygen or its production of carbon dioxide or nitrogen.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry: Differential scanning calorimetry is a technique for

determining the amount of energy required to elevate the temperatures of a sample and
a reference substance by the same amount. It is frequently used to determine the
specific heat capacity of different proteins and other biological components, as well as
to explore their reaction to heating.

These techniques are most applicable in biology for the study of heat transfer in
organisms.

Principle of Calorimetry
When a hot body and a cold body are combined, the heat lost by the hot body and the
heat acquired by the cold body are equal.

Heat gain = Heat lost

i.e., the rule of conservation of thermal energy governs the principle of calorimetry.
Using the following formula, the heat transfer in a system is determined.

q = mc∆t

where;

q = measure of heat transfer

m = mass of the body

c = specific heat of the body

Δt = change in the temperature

If two substances have masses m1 and m2, specific heats c1 and c2 at temperatures
T1 and T2 (T1 >T2) are mixed.

Hence, the temperature of the mixture at equilibrium is Tmix.

Then,
m1c1 (T1 – Tmix) = m2c2 (Tmix – T2)

The exchange of heat occurs when two bodies with different surface temperatures
come into thermal contact. At higher temperatures, the body emits heat, and at lower
temperatures, the body receives heat. This back-and-forth will continue until they reach
thermal equilibrium. Heat is released by the body at higher temperatures, whereas heat
is absorbed by the body at lower temperatures. The concept of heat energy as a
measurement of change in body temperature evolved much later after a series of
studies were carried out using calorimeters.

Application of Calorimetry in Boilers

Calorimetry is extensively used in steam boilers to assess the heat output and monitor
the efficiency of fuel combustion. By measuring the heat transferred to the water,
engineers can calculate the boiler’s overall thermal efficiency. One critical application of
calorimetry here is to calculate the calorific value of the fuel, which indicates how much
energy can be produced by a specific quantity. Additionally, calorimetry helps measure
the quality of steam, which can affect turbine performance and plant efficiency.
Parameters such as superheat (the temperature of steam beyond its boiling point) and
dryness fraction (the ratio of steam to water content) are essential for ensuring
high-quality steam production and minimizing wastage.
Energy Loss and Calorimetric Analysis
In steam boiler operations, not all the heat produced from fuel combustion is converted
into usable energy; a significant amount is lost in various ways. These losses can occur
through flue gases, incomplete combustion, and radiation from the boiler surface. By
applying calorimetric analysis, engineers can quantify these losses and create a thermal
balance that highlights inefficiencies. For example, if a high percentage of energy is lost
through exhaust gases, calorimetric measurements can identify the exact heat loss,
allowing operators to install heat recovery systems to recapture this waste energy. This
calorimetric balance is crucial for increasing the plant’s fuel efficiency and reducing
emissions.

Instrumentation and Methods in Calorimetry for Boilers

In industrial applications, calorimetry relies on specialized instruments to collect
accurate data in harsh environments. Common devices include flowmeters for
measuring water and steam flow, thermocouples to record temperature, and advanced
calorimeters capable of handling high temperatures and pressures typical in boilers.
These instruments help gather real-time data on energy inputs and outputs. The data is
then analyzed to calculate efficiency and inform operational adjustments. However,
implementing and maintaining calorimetric equipment in thermal plants is not without
challenges; these devices require regular calibration and maintenance to ensure
reliability and accuracy over long periods of operation.

Improving Boiler Efficiency Through Calorimetry

Calorimetric measurements provide valuable insights that can be used to adjust
operational parameters, improving the efficiency of steam boilers. For instance, by
analyzing calorimetric data, operators can fine-tune the air-to-fuel ratio to achieve
complete combustion, thereby maximizing energy output. Another strategy is to
optimize the feedwater temperature and control steam flow rates based on the heat
demand. Calorimetry also helps in identifying waste heat sources, allowing plants to
install waste heat recovery systems that redirect otherwise lost heat into productive
uses, such as preheating feedwater. These adjustments not only increase efficiency but
also contribute to cost savings and lower environmental impact.
Case Studies and Practical Applications
Real-world examples of thermal plants utilizing calorimetry illustrate the practical
benefits of this science. For instance, in a coal-fired power plant, calorimetric data might
reveal substantial energy loss through flue gases, prompting the installation of
economizers to preheat the feedwater using exhaust heat. In another case, calorimetry
may help optimize the combustion process in a biomass plant, ensuring a stable heat
output that matches demand. Such case studies demonstrate how calorimetric analysis
can directly improve efficiency, reduce fuel consumption, and decrease emissions,
serving as valuable references for similar facilities aiming to enhance their energy
performance.

Conclusion
Calorimetry is integral to the efficient operation of steam boiler thermal plants, providing
critical data that supports the optimization of energy conversion processes. By enabling
precise heat measurement, calorimetry allows engineers to improve boiler efficiency,
minimize waste, and implement cost-effective adjustments. Looking forward advances
in calorimetric technology promise to further enhance the operational performance of
thermal plants, potentially supporting a more sustainable approach to energy
generation. The continued development and application of calorimetry will be essential
as thermal plants seek to balance high efficiency with environmental responsibility.