UNIT-1 COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS

1 INTRODUCTION

Two important area of application of thermodynamics is power generation.

Actual Cycle
The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyse because of the presence of
complicating effects, such as friction and the absence of sufficient time for establishment of the
equilibrium conditions during the cycle.
Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle is composed of 4 totally reversible processes :
(a) Isothermal heat addition at high temperature (TH).
(b) Isentropic expansion from high temperature to low temperature.
(c) Isothermal heat rejection at low temperature (TL).
(d) Isentropic compression from low temperature to high temperature.

Thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle =

The Carnot Vapor Cycle

(a) A steady-flow Carnot cycle executed with the saturation dome of a pure substance is shown
in Figures 2.1(a) and (b). The fluid is heated reversibly and isothermally in a boiler (process
1-2), expanded isentropically in a turbine (process 2-3), condensed reversibly and
isothermally in a condenser (process 3-4) and compressed isentropically by a compressor to
the initial state (process 4-1).
(b) The Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for vapor power cycle because it cannot be
approximated in practice.
T

1 2

4 3

s
(a)
T 1 2

4 3

s
(b) Figure 1 : Carnot Cycle
Rankine Cycle : The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycle
(a) The impracticalities associated with Carnot cycle can be eliminated by superheating the
steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser. This cycle that results is
the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The construct of power
plant and T-s diagram is shown in Figures 2.2(a) and (b).
qin

Boiler
3
2 W turb,out

Turbi
wpump,in ne
Pump 4 qout

1 Condenser

(a)
T

3
qin
W turb,out

1
qout 4’
wpunp,in

s
(b)
Figure 2 : Rankine Cycle

(b) The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibility
(c) The Rankine cycle consists of the following four processes :
1-2 : Isentropic compression in pump (compressors)
2-3 : Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
3-4 : Isentropic expansion in turbine
4-1 : Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
Process 1-2
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically to the
operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature increases somewhat during this
isentropic compression process due to slight decrease in the specific volume of the water.
The vertical distance between state 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated for
clarity.
Process 2-3
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a superheated vapor at
state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from
combustion gases, is transferred to the water essentially at constant pressure. The boiler
together with the section where the steam is superheated (the superheater), is often called the
steam generator.

22
 Process 3-4
The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically and
produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an electric generator. The pressure and the
temperature of the steam drops during this process to the values at state 4, where steam
enters the condenser
Process 4-1
At this state, the steam is usually a saturated liquid-vapor mixture with a high quality. Steam
is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser which is basically a large heat exchanger,
by rejecting heat to a cooling medium from a lake, or a river. Steam leaves the condenser as
saturated liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle.
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump, boiler, turbine and condenser)
are steady-flow devices, and thus all four processes that make up the Rankine cycle can be
analyzed as steady-flow process.

The steady flow equation per unit mass of steam reduces to :-

Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycle from Idealized Ones

The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as a result of irreversibility in
various components. Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common sources of
irreversibility.
 Fluid friction causes pressure drop in the boiler, the condenser and the piping between various
components. Also the pressure at the turbine inlet is somewhat lower than that at the boiler exit due
to the pressure drop in the connecting pipes.
To compensate for these pressure drops, the water must be pumped to a sufficiently higher pressure
than the ideal cycle. This requires a large pump and larger work input to the pump, are shown in
Figures 2.3(a) and (b).
T
IDEAL CYCLE

Pressure drop in
Pressure drop the boiler
in the pump

2 Irreversibility in
the turbine
ACTUAL CYCLE
4

1 Pressure drop in
the condenser
s
(a)
T

2a
2s

1
4s 4a

s
(b) Figure 3 : Vapour Power Cycle

The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the surrounding as the
steam flows through various components.
Particular importance is the irreversibility occurring within the pump and the turbine. A pump
requires a greater work input, and a turbine produces a smaller work output as a result of
irreversibility. Under the ideal condition the flow through these devices is isentropic.
The deviation of actual pumps and turbine from the isentropic ones can be accurately accounted by
isentropic efficiencies, define as :

24
How can We Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
Then Rankine cycle efficiency can be increased by increasing average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler or decreasing the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the working fluid in the condenser. That is, the average fluid temperature should be
as high as possible during heat addition and as low as possible during heat rejection.
The three ways by which efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be increased are :
(a) Lowering the condenser pressure (Lowers Tlow, av).
(b) Superheating the steam to high temperatures (Increases Thigh, av).
(c) Increasing the boiler pressure (Increases Thigh, av).
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow, av)
Steam exists as a saturated mixture in the condenser at the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure inside the condenser. Therefore, lowering the operating
pressure of the condenser automatically lower the temperature of the steam, and thus the
temperature at which heat is rejected. The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the
Rankine cycle efficiency is illustrated in below Figure 2.4.
T

2
2’
4
1
P’4 < P4
1’ 4’
Increase in wnet

s
Figure 4 : Rankine Cycle

Drawback of lowering the condenser pressure is increase in the moisture content of the steam
at the final stages of the turbine. The presence of large quantities of moisture is highly
undesirable in turbines because it decreases the turbine efficiency and erodes the turbine
blades.
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh, av)
The average temperature at which heat is added to the steam can be increased without
increasing the boiler pressure by superheating the steam to high temperatures. The effect of
superheating on the performance of vapor power cycle is illustrated on a T-s diagram as
shown in Figure 2.5.
Superheating the steam to higher temperatures has very desirable effect : It decreases the
moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit as can be seen in T-s diagram as shown in
Figure 2.6.
The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited by metallurgical
consideration.
 T

Increase in wnet
3’
3

1 4 4’

Figure 5 : Vapour Power Cycle

T

Increase 3’ 3
in w net
Increase
in wnet

2’
2

1 4’ 4

s
Figure 6 : Vapour Power Cycle

Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh, av)

The average temperature during the heat addition process is to increase the operating pressure of the
boiler, which automatically raises the temperature at which boiling take place. This, in turn, raises
the average temperature at which heat is added to the steam and thus raises the thermal efficiency of
the cycle.
The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can increase by expanding the steam in the turbine in two stages,
and reheating it in between. Reheating is a practical solution to the excessive moisture problem in
turbines, and it is commonly used in modern steam power plants.
The schematic and T-s diagram of the ideal reheat Rankine cycle is shown in Figures 2.7(a) and (b).
The ideal reheat Rankine cycle differs from the simple ideal Rankine cycle in that the expansion
process take place in two stages. In first stage (the high-pressure turbine), steam is expanded
isentropically to an intermediate pressure and sent back to the boiler where it is reheated at constant
pressure, usually to the inlet temperature of the first turbine stage. Steam then expands isentropically
in the second stage (low-pressure turbine) to the condenser pressure.

26
 3

High - p Low p
Boiler turbine trine
Reheater 4

P4 = P5 =
P 6
5
Condenser
2 Pump

(a) Reheating

T High-pressure
turbine 3 4

2’

Low pressure
4

1 6

(b) Figure 7 : Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

Thus the total heat input and the total work output for a reheat cycle become :

The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle

As shown in Figure 8, T-s diagram for the Rankine cycle shows that heat transferred to the working
fluid during process 2-2 at a relatively low temperature. This lowers the average heat-addition
temperature and thus the cycle efficiency.
To remedy this shortcoming, the temperature of the liquid leaving the pump (called feedwater) before
it enters the boiler need to be increased.
 T Steam exiting
Low- boiler
temperature
heat addition
2’

Steam
entering boiler
2

1 4

s
Figure 8 : Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle

Another way of increasing the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is by regeneration. During a
regeneration process, liquid water (feedwater) leaving the pump is heated by steam bled off the turbine at
some intermediate pressure in devices called feedwater heaters.
There are two type of feedwater Heaters :
(a) Open Feedwater Heater
(b) Closed Feedwater Heater
Open Feedwater Heater
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where the steam
extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure. The schematic of a steam power plant with
one open feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of the cycle are shown in the Figure 2.9.
The heat and work interaction of a regenerative Rankine cycle with one feedwater heater can be
expressed per unit mass of steam flowing through the boiler as follows :

28
 5

Boiler Turbine

y
Open 6-y 1-y
FWH
4

2
Condenser
Pump II
Pump 1
(a)
T

4
6
3
3

1
7

s
(b)
Figure 9 : Steam Power Plant

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result of regeneration. This is because
regeneration raises the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler
by raising the temperature of the water before it enters the boiler.
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater used is steam power plants is the closed feedwater heater in
which heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking
place. The two streams now can be at different pressure, since they do not mix. The schematic of
a steam power plant with one closed feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of the cycle are shown
in Figure 10.

Boiler Turbine

Mixing 7
chambe 8
Closed
r 9 FWH
5
2
4 3 Condenser

Pump II Pump 1
 (a)
T

4
5
9 7
2
3

1
8

(b) Figure 10 : Steam Power Plant

STEAM GENERATOR
Steam is an important medium of producing mechanical energy. Steam has the advantage that, it can be
raised from water which is available in abundance it does not react much with the materials of the
equipment of power plant and is stable at the temperature required in the plant. Steam is used to drive
steam engines, steam turbines etc. Steam power station is most suitable where coal is available in
abundance.
Thermal electrical power generation is one of the major methods. Out of total power developed in India
about 60% is thermal. For a thermal power plant the range of pressure may vary from 10 kg/cm2 to super
critical pressures and the range of temperature may be from 250°C to 650°C.
Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment
A steam power plant must have following equipment :
(a) A furnace to burn the fuel.
(b) Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to
convert water into steam.
(c) Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and perform
work.
(d) Piping system to convey steam and water.
In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories depending upon
the availability of water, fuel and the service for which the plant is intended.
The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits :
(a) Feed water and steam flow circuit.
(b) Coal and ash circuit.
(c) Air and gas circuit.
(d) Cooling water circuit.
A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine cycle.
Steam is generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the condenser and fed into
the boiler again.
The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as follows :
(a) High pressure boiler
30
 (b) Prime mover
(c) Condensers and cooling towers
(d) Coal handling system
(e) Ash and dust handling system
(f) Draught system
(g) Feed water purification plant
(h) Pumping system
(i) Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters.
Figure 11 shows a schematic arrangement of equipment of a steam power station. Coal received in coal
storage yard of power station is transferred in the furnace by coal handling unit. Heat produced due to
burning of coal is utilized in converting water contained in boiler drum into steam at suitable pressure and
temperature. The steam generated is passed through the superheater. Superheated steam then flows
through the turbine. After doing work in the turbine the pressure of steam is reduced. Steam leaving the
turbine passes through the condenser which is maintained the low pressure of steam at the exhaust of
turbine. Steam pressure in the condenser depends upon flow rate and temperature of cooling water and on
effectiveness of air removal equipment. Water circulating through the condenser may be taken from the
various sources such as river, lake or sea. If sufficient quantity of water is not available the hot water
coming out of the condenser may be cooled in cooling towers and circulated again through the condenser.
Bled steam taken from the turbine at suitable extraction points is sent to low pressure and high pressure
water heaters.

Figure 11 : Steam Power Plant

Air taken from the atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is heated by flue gases.
The hot air then passes through the furnace. The flue gases after passing over boiler and superheater
tubes, flow through the dust collector and then through economiser, air pre-heater and finally they are
exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.
Steam condensing system consists of the following :
(a) Condenser
(b) Cooling water
(c) Cooling tower
 (d) Hot well
(e) Condenser cooling water pump
(f) Condensate air extraction pump
(g) Air extraction pump
(h) Boiler feed pump
(i) Make up water pump.

Classification
Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by combustion of fuel is transferred to
water, which vaporizes and gets converted into steam at the desired temperature and pressure. The steam
produced is used for :
(a) Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or steam turbine.
(b) Heating the residential and industrial buildings.
(c) Performing certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile industries.
Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam by the application of heat. Usually boilers
are coal or oil fired.
A boiler should fulfil the following requirements :
(a) Safety : The boiler should be safe under operating conditions.
(b) Accessibility : The various parts of the boiler should be accessible for repair and
maintenance.
(c) Capacity : The boiler should be capable of supplying steam according to the requirements.
(d) Efficiency : To permit efficient operation, the boiler should be able to absorb a maximum
amount of heat produced due to burning of fuel in the furnace.
(e) It should be simple in construction and its maintenance cost should be low.
(f) Its initial cost should be low.
(g) The boiler should have no joints exposed to flames.
(h) The boiler should be capable of quick starting and loading.

Types of Boilers
The boilers can be classified according to the following criteria.
According to flow of water and hot gases : (a) Water tube (b) Fire tube.
In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot products of combustion flow over these
tubes. In fire tube boiler the hot products of combustion pass through the tubes, which are surrounded, by
water. Fire tube boilers have low initial cost, and are more compacts. But they are more likely to
explosion, water volume is large and due to poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the change in
steam demand. For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger than the shell of
water-tube boiler. Water tube boilers require less weight of metal for a given size, are less liable to
explosion, produce higher pressure, are accessible and can respond quickly to change in steam demand.
Tubes and drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than that of fire-tube boilers and due to smaller size of
drum higher pressure can be used easily. Water-tube boilers require lesser floor space. The efficiency of
water-tube boilers is more.
Water tube boilers are classified as follows :
Horizontal Straight Tube Boilers (a) Longitudinal drum (b) Cross-drum.

32
Bent Tube Boilers
(a) Two drum
(b) Three drum
(c) Low head three drum (d) Four drum.
Cyclone Fired Boilers
Various advantages of water tube boilers are as follows :
(a) High pressure can be obtained.
(b) Heating surface is large. Therefore steam can be generated easily.
(c) Large heating surface can be obtained by use of large number of tubes.
(d) Because of high movement of water in the tubes the rate of heat transfer becomes large
resulting into a greater efficiency.
Fire tube boilers are classified as follows :
External Furnace
(a) Horizontal return tubular
(b) Short fire box (c) Compact.
Internal Furnace
Horizontal Tubular
(a) Short firebox
(b) Locomotive (c) Compact (d) Scotch. Vertical
Tubular
(a) Straight vertical shell, vertical tube
(b) Cochran (vertical shell) horizontal tube.
Various advantages of fire tube boilers are as follows :
(a) Low cost
(b) Fluctuations of steam demand can be met easily (c) It is compact in size.
According to position of furnace :
(a) Internally fired
(b) Externally fired
In internally fired boilers the grate combustion chamber are enclosed within the boiler shell
whereas in case of extremely fired boilers and furnace and grate are separated from the boiler shell.
According to the position of principle axis :
(a) Vertical
(b) Horizontal (c) Inclined.
According to application :
(a) Stationary
(b) Mobile, (Marine, Locomotive).
According to the circulating water :
(a) Natural circulation (b) Forced circulation.
According to steam pressure :
(a) Low pressure (b) Medium pressure
(c) Higher pressure.
Major Components and Their Functions
Economizer
The economizer is a feed water heater, deriving heat from the flue gases. The justifiable cost of the
economizer depends on the total gain in efficiency. In turn this depends on the flue gas temperature
leaving the boiler and the feed water inlet temperature. A typical return bend type economizer is
shown in the Figure 11.
Air Pre-heater
The flue gases coming out of the economizer is used to preheat the air before supplying it to
the combustion chamber. An increase in air temperature of 20 degrees can be achieved by
this method. The pre heated air is used for combustion and also to dry the crushed coal before
pulverizing.
Soot Blowers
The fuel used in thermal power plants causes soot and this is deposited on the boiler tubes,
economizer tubes, air pre heaters, etc. This drastically reduces the amount of heat transfer of the
heat exchangers. Soot blowers control the formation of soot and reduce its corrosive effects. The
types of soot blowers are fixed type, which may be further classified into lane type and mass type
depending upon the type of spray and nozzle used. The other type of soot blower is the retractable
soot blower. The advantages are that they are placed far away from the high temperature zone, they
concentrate the cleaning through a single large nozzle rather than many small nozzles and there is
no concern of nozzle arrangement with respect to the boiler tubes.
Condenser
The use of a condenser in a power plant is to improve the efficiency of the power plant by
decreasing the exhaust pressure of the steam below atmosphere. Another advantage of the
condenser is that the steam condensed may be recovered to provide a source of good pure feed
water to the boiler and reduce the water softening capacity to a considerable extent. A condenser is
one of the essential components of a power plant.
Cooling Tower
The importance of the cooling tower is felt when the cooling water from the condenser has to be
cooled. The cooling water after condensing the steam becomes hot and it has to be cooled as it
belongs to a closed system. The Cooling towers do the job of decreasing the temperature of the
cooling water after condensing the steam in the condenser.
The type of cooling tower used in the Columbia Power Plant was an Inline Induced Draft Cross
Flow Tower. This tower provides a horizontal air flow as the water falls down the tower in the form
of small droplets. The fan centered at the top of units draws air through two cells that are paired to
a suction chamber partitioned beneath the fan. The outstanding feature of this tower is lower air
static pressure loss as there is less resistance to air flow. The evaporation and effective cooling of
air is greater when the air outside is warmer and dryer than when it is cold and already saturated.
Superheater
The superheater consists of a superheater header and superheater elements. Steam from the main
steam pipe arrives at the saturated steam chamber of the superheater header and is fed into the
superheater elements. Superheated steam arrives back at the superheated steam chamber of the
superheater header and is fed into the steam pipe to the cylinders. Superheated steam is more
expansive.
Reheater
The reheater functions similar to the superheater in that it serves to elevate the steam temperature.
Primary steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine. After passing through the high pressure
turbine, the steam is returned to the steam generator for reheating (in a reheater) after which it is
sent to the low pressure turbine. A second reheat cycle may also be provided.
Questions
(a) Describe the various types of power cycles.
(b) What is steam generator? Describe the components of steam power plant.
34
 (c) What is a boiler? Discuss about different types of boilers, its components and functions.

SUPER HEATER

One of the most important accessories of a boiler is a super heater. It effects improvement and economy
in the following ways :
• The super heater increases the capacity of the plant.
• Eliminates corrosion of the steam turbine.
• Reduces steam consumption of the steam turbine.
Types of Super Heater Plate Super heaters.
• Pendant Super heaters.
• Radiant Super heaters.
• Final Super heaters.

Steam Temperature Control

The nominal control of reheat steam temperature is by tilting the burners. The super heater steam
temperature is controlled by spraying water.
Other control methods that are according to the need and design are :
(a) Excess Air Control
(b) Flue Gas Recirculation
(c) Gas by-pass Control
(d) Control of Combination Superheaters
(e) Adjustable Burner Control

Excess Air Control

The steam outlet temperature of a convection superheater may be increased at partial load by
increasing the excess air supply. The reduced gas temperature decreases the furnace heat absorption
for the same steam production. The increased gas mass flow with its increased total heat content
serves to increase the degree of superheat.
 Radiant superheater Convection

superheater

Economizer

Combustion zone

Increased
combustion air

Tempering
air (alternate)

Figure 12 : Superheat control by increased excess air

Flue Gas Recirculation

The recirculation of some percentage of the combustion gases serves to control steam temperature
in the same manner as does an increase in excess air. By introducing the hot gases below the
combustion zone, relatively high efficiency may be maintained.
Radiant superheater

Convection
superheater

Increased Economizer
combustion air

Combustion zone
Air heater

Flue gas
recirculating fan

Figure 13 : Superheat Control by Flue Gas Recirculation

Gas By-pass Control

The boiler convection banks can be arranged in such a manner that portion of the gases can be by-
passed around the superheater elements. The superheater is oversized so that it will produce the
required degree of superheat at partial load conditions. As the load increases, some of the flue gases
are by-passed.

36
 By-pass clamper

Figure.14 : Superheat Control using Flue Gas By-pass

Control of Combination Superheaters

The control of combination radiant-convection superheaters is relatively simple because of their
compensating characteristics. An increase in excess air reduces the radiant heat transfer but
increases the convection heat transfer. The reduction in excess air has the opposite effect. Thus the
combination superheaters can be operated over the entire control range without additional
equipment.
Adjustable Burner Control
With a multiple burner furnace it is possible to distribute the burners over a considerable burner
wall height. This control is obtained by selective firing.
Tiltable furnace may be adjusted to shift the position of the combustion zone.
Convection
superheater
.

High superheat

Low superheat
 Figure 15 : Superheat Control by Burner Tilt

FEED WATER HEATER

Low pressure feed water heaters are used in the condensate system between the condensate pump
discharge and boiler feed pumps, and utilize low pressure turbine extraction or auxiliary turbine exhaust
steam for heating the condensate.
High pressure feed water heaters are used in the feed water system between the boiler feed pump
discharge and the boiler, and utilize high pressure turbine extraction steam for heating the feed water. The
condensate or feed water temperature increase for each feed water heater will be in the range of 28 to 56
degrees C with the actual value determined by turbine manufacturers stage location of steam extraction
nozzles. Depending on turbine size, some turbines offer alternate number of extraction nozzles with
usually a choice of using the highest-pressure extraction nozzle. The selection, in this case, of the total
number of feed water heaters to use should be based on economic evaluation.
Low Pressure Heater(s)
Use one or more low pressure feed water heaters to raise the temperature of condensate from
condensate pump discharge temperature to the de-aerator inlet temperature. The heater drains are
cascaded from the higher pressure heater to the next lower pressure heater with the lowest pressure
heater draining to the condenser.
High Pressure Heater(s)
Use one or more high pressure feed water heaters to raise the temperature of feed water from de-
aerator outlet temperature to the required boiler economizer inlet temperature. The heater drains are
cascaded from heater to heater, back to the de-aerator in a fashion similar to the heater drain system
for the low pressure heaters.

Advantages
(a) Fuel economy.
(b) Longer life of the boiler.
(c) Increase in steaming capacity.
A feedwater heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to a steam generating
boiler. Preheating the feedwater reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam generation and therefore
improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces plant operating costs and also helps
to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feedwater is introduced back into the steam cycle.
In a steam power plant (usually modeled as a modified Rankine cycle), feedwater heaters allow the
feedwater to be brought up to the saturation temperature very gradually. This minimizes the inevitable
irreversibilities associated with heat transfer to the working fluid (water).

Cycle Discussion and Explanation

It should be noted that the energy used to heat the feedwater is usually derived from steam extracted
between the stages of the steam turbine. Therefore, the steam that would be used to perform expansion
work in the turbine is not utilized for that purpose. The percentage of the total cycle steam mass flow used
for the feedwater heater must be carefully optimized for maximum power plant thermal efficiency since
increasing this causes a decrease in turbine power output.

38
 5
High Low
pressure pressure Generator
turbine turbine
7
Boiler
6

Condenser
4
3 2
Feed 1
water
heater
Feed pump 2 Feed pump 1

Boiler HPT
4
FP 2 6
3 Feed water heater
2 LPT
FP 1 Condenser
7 7

Entropy
FP1 = Feed pump 1
FP2 = Feed pump 2
HPT = High pressure turbine
LPT = Low Pressure turbine

Figure 16 : Rankine Cycle with Two Steam Turbines and a Single Open Feedwater Heater

Feedwater heaters can also be open and closed heat exchangers. An open feedwater heater is merely a
direct-contact heat exchanger in which extracted steam is allowed to mix with the feedwater. This kind of
heater will normally require a feed pump at both the feed inlet and outlet since the pressure in the heater
is between the boiler pressure and the condenser pressure. A deaerator is a special case of the open
feedwater heater which is specifically designed to remove non-condensable gases from the feedwater.
Closed feedwater heaters are typically shell and tube heat exchangers where the feedwater passes
throughout the tubes and is heated by turbine extraction steam. These do not require separate pumps
before and after the heater to boost the feedwater to the pressure of the extracted steam as with an open
heater. However, the extracted steam must then be throttled to the condenser pressure.
Many power plants incorporate a number of feedwater heaters and may use both open and closed
components.
Feedwater heaters are used in both fossil- and nuclear-fuelled power plants. Smaller versions have also
been installed on steam locomotives, portable engines and stationary engines. An economiser serves a
similar purpose to a feedwater heater, but is technically different. Instead of using actual cycle steam for
heating, it uses the lowest-temperature flue gas from the furnace to heat the water before it enters the
boiler proper. This allows for the heat transfer between the furnace and the feedwater occurring across a
smaller average temperature gradient. System efficiency is therefore further increased when viewed with
respect to actual energy content of the fuel.

Air Preheaters
An air preheater or air heater is a general term to describe any device designed to heat air before another
process (for example, combustion in a boiler) with the primary objective of increasing the thermal
efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system or to replace a
steam coil.
In particular, this article describes the combustion air preheaters used in large boilers found in thermal
power stations producing electric power from e.g. fossil fuels, biomasses or waste
The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases the thermal
efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a consequence, the flue gases
are also sent to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower temperature, allowing simplified design of the
ducting and the flue gas stack. It also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the stack (to
meet emissions regulations, for example).

Steam Superheated steam Reheated steam Drum

Reheater
High pressure
turbine exhaust
Steam
Blowdow
n Economiser
Deaerated boiler
Boiler feedwater

Coal Flue gas

Coal-air
mix Hot air
AHP Ambient air
Pulverizer Fan

Hot air Ash

Figure 17 : Coal-fired Power Plant Steam Generator Highlighting the Air Pre-heater Location (Radiant Section
Tubing is Not Shown)

Types
There are two types of air preheaters for use in steam generators in thermal power stations : One is
a tubular type built into the boiler flue gas ducting, and the other is a regenerative air preheater.
These may be arranged so the gas flows horizontally or vertically across the axis of rotation.
Tubular Type
Construction Features
Tubular preheaters consist of straight tube bundles which pass through the outlet ducting of
the boiler and open at each end outside of the ducting. Inside the ducting, the hot furnace
gases pass around the preheater tubes, transferring heat from the exhaust gas to the air inside
the preheater. Ambient air is forced by a fan through ducting at one end of the preheater
tubes and at other end the heated air from inside of the tubes emerges into another set of
ducting, which carries it to the boiler furnace for combustion.
Problems
The tubular preheater ductings for cold and hot air require more space and structural supports than
a rotating preheater design. Further, due to dust-laden abrasive flue gases, the tubes outside the
ducting wear out faster on the side facing the gas current. Many advances have been made to
eliminate this problem such as the use of ceramic and hardened steel.
Many new circulating fluidized bed (CFB) and bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) steam generators are
currently incorporating tubular air heaters offering an advantage with regards to the moving parts of
a rotary type.
Dew Point Corrosion
Dew point corrosion occurs for a variety of reasons. The type of fuel used, its sulfur content and
moisture content are contributing factors. However, by far the most significant cause of dew point
corrosion is the metal temperature of the tubes. If the metal temperature within the tubes drops
below the acid saturation temperature, usually at between 88°C and 110°C, but sometimes at
temperatures as high as 127°C, then the risk of dew point corrosion damage becomes considerable.

40
Regenerative Air Pre-heaters
There are two types of regenerative air pre-heaters: the rotating-plate regenerative air preheaters
and the stationary-plate regenerative air preheaters.
Rotating-plate Regenerative Air Pre-heater
The rotating-plate design consists of a central rotating-plate element installed within a casing that is
divided into two (bi-sector type), three (tri-sector type) or four (quad-sector type) sectors
containing seals around the element. The seals allow the element to rotate through all the sectors,
but keep gas leakage between sectors to a minimum while providing separate gas air and flue gas
paths through each sector.

Figure 18 : Typical Rotating-plate Regenerative Air Pre-heater (Bi-sector Type)

Tri-sector types are the most common in modern power generation facilities. In the tri-sector
design, the largest sector is connected to the boiler hot gas outlet. The hot exhaust gas flows over
the central element, transferring some of its heat to the element, and is then ducted away for further
treatment in dust collectors and other equipment before being expelled from the flue gas stack. The
second, smaller sector, is fed with ambient air by a fan, which passes over the heated element as it
rotates into the sector, and is heated before being carried to the boiler furnace for combustion. The
third sector is the smallest one and it heats air which is routed into the pulverizers and used to carry
the coal-air mixture to coal boiler burners. Thus, the total air heated in the air preheater provides:
heating air to remove the moisture from the pulverised coal dust, carrier air for transporting the
pulverised coal to the boiler burners and the primary air for combustion.
Stationary-plate Regenerative Air Preheater
The heating plate elements in this type of regenerative air preheater are also installed in a casing,
but the heating plate elements are stationary rather than rotating. Instead the air ducts in the
preheater are rotated so as to alternatively expose sections of the heating plate elements to the
upflowing cool air.
Air
Top FG FG
rotating Hood
air ducts
Stationar
y section
(stator)

FG
Air

FG = Flue Gas rotating Bottom

= hot flue gas

air ducts
== cool air Cooled flue gas

== Heating plate elements Heater air

 Figure 19 : Typical Stationary-plate Regenerative Air Preheater

As indicated in the figure, there are rotating inlet air ducts at the bottom of the stationary plates
similar to the rotating outlet air ducts at the top of the stationary plates.

FURNACES

Types and Classification of Different Furnaces

Based on the method of generating heat, furnaces are broadly classified into two types namely
combustion type (using fuels) and electric type. In case of combustion type furnace, depending upon the
kind of combustion, it can be broadly classified as oil fired, coal fired or gas fired.
• Based on the mode of charging of material, furnaces can be classified as (i) Intermittent or
Batch type furnace or Periodical furnace and (ii) Continuous furnace.
• Based on mode of waste heat recovery as recuperative and regenerative furnaces.
• Another type of furnace classification is made based on mode of heat transfer, mode of
charging and mode of heat recovery as shown in the figure below

Open fire place furnace

According to
Mode of heat
transfer
Heated through medium

Forging

Fe-rolling (batch/
Furnace Batch continuous) Pusher
According to
Classification Mode of heat
transfer Continuous Pot

Glass tank melting

According to Recuperative (regenerative
Mode of heat /recuperative)
transfer
Regenerative

Figure 20 : Furnace Classification

Characteristics of an Efficient Furnace

Furnace should be designed so that in a given time, as much of material as possible can be heated to a
uniform temperature as possible with the least possible fuel and labour. To achieve this, the following
parameters can be considered.
• Determination of the quantity of heat to be imparted to the material or charge.
• Liberation of sufficient heat within the furnace to heat the stock and overcome all heat losses.
• Transfer of available part of that heat from the furnace gases to the surface of the heating
stock.
• Equalization of the temperature within the stock.
• Reduction of heat losses from the furnace to the minimum possible extent.

42
Pulverised Coal Systems
Pulverised coal firing is done by two systems :
(a) Unit System or Direct System.
(b) Bin or Central System.
Unit System
In this system the raw coal from the coal bunker drops on to the feeder
Secondary air Furnace

Primary Air
coal
Raw coal
Banker
Burner

Pulverising
Mill
Feeder
Fan

Hot Air

Figure .21 : Unit or Direct System

Hot air is passed through coal in the feeder to dry the coal. The coal is then transferred to the
pulverising mill where it is pulverised. Primary air is supplied to the mill, by the fan. The mixture
of pulverised coal and primary air then flows to burner where secondary air is added. The unit
system is so called from the fact that each burner or a burner group and pulveriser constitutes a unit.
Advantages
(a) The system is simple and cheaper than the central system.
(b) There is direct control of combustion from the pulverising mill.
(c) Coal transportation system is simple.
Bin or Central System
Crushed coal from the raw coal bunker is fed by gravity to a dryer where hot air is passed through the coal
to dry it. The dryer may use waste flue gases, preheated air or bleeder steam as drying agent. The dry coal
is then transferred to the pulverizing mill. The pulverised coal obtained is transferred to the pulverised
coal bunker (bin). The transporting air is separated from the coal in the cyclone separator. The primary air
is mixed with the coal at the feeder and the mixture is supplied to the burner.

Return air
Raw coal
burner Cyclone separator
Exhaust
fan
Pulverised
Vent coal burner
Mill Conveyor Feeder
Fan
Primary Air
Hot air for Dryer fan
coal drying Burner

Secondary air

Figure 22 : Bin or Central System

Advantages
(a) The pulverising mill grinds the coal at a steady rate irrespective of boiler feed.
 (b) There is always some coal in reserve. Thus any occasional breakdown in the coal supply will
not affect the coal feed to the burner.
(c) For a given boiler capacity pulverising mill of small capacity will be required as compared to
unit system.
Disadvantages
(a) The initial cost of the system is high.
(b) Coal transportation system is quite complicated.
(c) The system requires more space.
To a large extent the performance of pulverised fuel system depends upon the mill performance.
The pulverised mill should satisfy the following requirements :
(a) It should deliver the rated tonnage of coal.
(b) Pulverised coal produced by it should be have satisfactory fineness over a wide range of
capacities.
(c) It should be quiet in operation.
(d) Its power consumption should be low.
(e) Maintenance cost of the mill should be low.

Figure 23 shows the equipment for unit and central system of pulverised coal handling plant.
Raw coal

Primary crusher

Magnetic separator

Coal drier

Coal bunkers
Unit system Central system

Scale Scale

Pulveriser
Pulveriser

Central bin

Burners
Feeder

Furnace Burners

Figure .23 : Equipment for Central and Unit System

Draft System
Most boilers now depend on mechanical draft equipment rather than natural draft. This is because natural
draft is subject to outside air conditions and temperature of flue gases leaving the furnace, as well as the
44
chimney height. All these factors make proper draft hard to attain and therefore make mechanical draft
equipment much more economical.
There are three types of mechanical draft :
Induced Draft
This is obtained one of three ways, the first being the “stack effect” of a heated chimney, in which
the flue gas is less dense than the ambient air surrounding the boiler. The denser column of ambient
air forces combustion air into and through the boiler. The second method is through use of a steam
jet. The steam jet oriented in the direction of flue gas flow induces flue gasses into the stack and
allows for a greater flue gas velocity increasing the overall draft in the furnace. This method was
common on steam driven locomotives which could not have tall chimneys. The third method is by
simply using an induced draft fan (ID fan) which removes flue gases from the furnace and forces
the exhaust gas up the stack. Almost all induced draft furnaces operate with a slightly negative
pressure.
Forced Draft
Draft is obtained by forcing air into the furnace by means of a fan (FD fan) and ductwork. Air is
often passed through an air heater; which, as the name suggests, heats the air going into the furnace
in order to increase the overall efficiency of the boiler. Dampers are used to control the quantity of
air admitted to the furnace. Forced draft furnaces usually have a positive pressure.
Balanced Draft
Balanced draft is obtained through use of both induced and forced draft. This is more common with
larger boilers where the flue gases have to travel a long distance through many boiler passes. The
induced draft fan works in conjunction with the forced draft fan allowing the furnace pressure to be
maintained slightly below atmospheric.

2.6.5 High Pressure Boilers

In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally used as they offer the
following advantages. In order to obtain efficient operation and high capacity, forced circulation of water
through boiler tubes is found helpful. Some special types of boilers operating at super critical pressures
and using forced circulations are described in this chapter.
(a) The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of steam is
required for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used.
(b) The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the arrangement of
furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the heat exchange area.
(c) The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.
(d) The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
(e) The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the
possibility of gas and air leakages.
(f) Some special types of high pressure supercritical boilers are described in this chapter.

2.6.6 LA MONT Boiler

A forced circulation boiler was first introduced in 1925 by La Mont. The arrangement of water circulation
and different components are shown in the figure. The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage
and separating drum (boiler) through the economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed
water passing through the economizer. A pump circulates the water at a rate 8 to 10 times the mass of
steam evaporated. This water is circulated through the evaporator tubes and the part of the vapour is
separated in the separator drum. The large quantity of water circulated (10 times that of evaporation)
prevents the tubes from being overheated.
 Chimney

Fan
Air preheater
Air

Feed water

Feed
Economise
water
r
Heater
Main
steam
Storage
And Evaporator
Separator (convective)
drum Preheated
Down Combustion
comer Chamber
Fire gate Evaporator
Circulating Fuel Ash pan (radiant)
Pump Distributing
header
Figure 24 : LA MONT Boiler
The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above the drum pressure.
The distribution headers distribute the water through the nozzle into the evaporator. The steam separated
in the boiler is further passed through the super-heater.
Secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the parallel boiler circuits a choke is fitted entrance
to each circuit. These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 50 tonnes of superheated steam at a
pressure of 120 bars and temperature of 500°C.
Recently forced circulation has been introduced in large capacity power

2.6.7 Benson Boiler

The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment of bubbles on the
inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles reduce the heat flow and steam generation as it
offers higher thermal resistance compared to water film :
(a) If the boiler pressure was raised to critical pressure (225 atm), the steam and water would
have the same density and therefore the danger of bubble formation can be completely
avoided.
(b) Natural circulation boilers require expansion joints but these are not required for Benson as
the pipes are welded. The erection of Benson boiler is easier and quicker as all the parts are
welded at site and workshop job of tube expansion is altogether avoided.
(c) The transport of Benson boiler parts is easy as no drums are required and majority of the
parts are carried to the site without pre-assembly.
(d) The Benson boiler can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area. The space problem
does not control the size of Benson boiler used.
(e) The furnace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using small diameter and
close pitched tubes.
(f) The superheater in the Benson boiler is an integral part of forced circulation system,
therefore no special starting arrangement for superheater is required.
(g) The Benson boiler can be started very quickly because of welded joints.
(h) The Benson boiler can be operated most economically by varying the temperature and pres-
sure at partial loads and overloads. The desired temperature can also be maintained constant
at any pressure.

46
 (i) Sudden fall of demand creates circulation problems due to bubble formation in the natural
circulation boiler which never occurs in Benson boiler. This feature of insensitiveness to load
fluctuations makes it more suitable for grid power station as it has better adaptive capacity to
meet sudden load fluctuations.
(j) The blow-down losses of Benson boiler are hardly 4% of natural circulation boilers of same
capacity.
(k) Explosion hazards are not at all severe as it consists of only tubes of small diameter and has
very little storage capacity compared to drum type boiler.
During starting, the water is passed through the economiser, evaporator, superheater and back to the feed
line via starting valve.
During starting, first circulating pumps are started and then the burners are started to avoid the overheating
of evaporator and superheater tubes.

Loeffler Boiler
The major difficulty experienced in Benson boiler is the deposition of salt and sediment on the inner
surfaces of the water tubes. The deposition reduced the heat transfer and ultimately the generating capacity.
This further increased the danger of overheating the tubes due to salt deposition as it has high thermal
resistance. The difficulty was solved in Loffler boiler by preventing the flow of water into the boiler tubes.
Most of the steam is generated outside from the feed water using part of the superheated steam coming-out
from the boiler.
The pressure feed pump draws the water through the economizer and delivers it into the evaporator drum.
About 65% of the steam coming out of super heater is passed through the evaporator drum in order to
evaporate the feed water coming from economizer.
The steam circulating pump draws the saturated steam from the evaporator drum and is passed through the
radiant superheater and then convective superheater. About 35% of the steam coming out from the
superheater is supplied to the H.P. steam turbine. The steam coming out from H.P. turbine is passed through
reheater before supplying to L.P. turbine. The amount of steam generated in the evaporator drum is equal
to the steam tapped (65%) from the superheater. The nozzles which distribute the superheated steam
through the water into the evaporator drum are of special design to avoid priming and noise.
This boiler can carry higher salt concentration than any other type and is more compact than indirectly
heated boilers having natural circulation. These qualities fit it for land or sea transport power generation.
Loffler boilers with generating capacity of 94.5 tones/hr and operating at 140 bar have already been
commissioned.

SCHMIDT-HARTMANN Boiler
The operation of the boiler is similar to an electric transformer. Two pressures are used to affect an
interchange of energy. In the primary circuit, the steam at 100 bar is produced from distilled water. This
steam is passed through a submerged heating coil which is located in an evaporator drum. The high pressure
steam in this coil possesses sufficient thermal potential and steam at 60 bars with a heat transfer rate of
2.5 kW/m2-°C is generated in the evaporator drum. The steam produced in the evporator drums from impure
water is further passed through the superheater and then supplied to the prime-mover. The high pressure
condensate formed in the sub- merged heating coil is circulated through a low pressure feed heater on its
way to raise the feed water temperature to its saturation temperature. Therefore, only latent heat is supplied
in the evaporator drum. Natural circulation is used in the primary circuit and this is sufficient to effect the
desired rate of heat transfer and to overcome the thermo-siphon head of about 2 m to 10 m. In normal
circumstances, the replenishment of distilled water in the primary circuit is not required as every care is
taken in design and construction to prevent leakage. But as a safeguard against leakage, a pressure gauge
and safety valve are fitted in the circuit.
VELOX-Boiler
When the gas velocity exceeds the sound-velocity, the heat is transferred from the gas at a much higher rate
than rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. The advantages of this theory are taken to obtain the large heat
transfer from a smaller surface area in this boiler. Air is compressed to 2.5 bars with the help of a
compressor run by gas turbine before supplying to the combustion chamber to get the supersonic velocity
of the gases passing through the combustion chamber and gas tubes and high heat release rates. The burned
gases in the combustion chamber are passed through the annulus of the tubes. The heat is transferred from
gases to water while passing through the annulus to generate the steam. The mixture of water and steam
thus formed then passes into a separator which is so designed that the mixture enters with a spiral flow. The
centrifugal force thus produced causes the heavier water particles to be thrown outward on the walls. This
effect separates the steam from water. The separated steam is further passed to superheater and then
supplied to the prime-mover. The water removed from steam in the separator is again passed into the water
tubes with the help of a pump.
The gases coming out from the annulus at the top are further passed over the superheater where its heat is
used-for superheating the steam. The gases coming out of superheater are used to run a gas turbine as they
carry sufficient kinetic energy. The power output of the gas turbine is used to run the air-compressor. The
exhaust gases coming out from the gas turbine are passed through the economiser to utilize the remaining
heat of the gases. The extra power required to run the compressor is supplied with the help of electric motor.
Feed water of 10 to 20 times the weight of steam generated is circulated through the tubes with the help of
water circulating pump. This prevents the overheating of metal walls.

STEAM TURBINES
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts
it into rotary motion. It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine primarily
because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Because the turbine generates
rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator – about 80% of all electricity
generation in the world is by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives
much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion
of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process.
Types
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75 kW units (rare) used as
mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500,000 kW turbines
used to generate electricity. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines.
Steam Turbine Classification
Steam Turbines have been classified by :
(a) Details of stage design as
(i) impulse
(ii) reaction
(b) Steam supply and exhaust conditions as (i) Condensing
(ii) Back Pressure (Non Condensing)
(iii) Mixed Pressure
(iv) Reheat
(v) Extraction type (Auto or Controlled)

48
 Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust
steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well below
atmospheric to a condenser.
Non-condensing or backpressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications. The
exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure.
These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and
desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are available.
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine,
steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where
additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the
turbine and continues its expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is
released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler
feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a
valve, or left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional
power.
(c) Casing or shaft arrangement as
(i) Single Casing
(ii) Tandem compound
(iii) Cross Compound
Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are coupled to a
generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more casings are directly coupled together to
drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features two or more shafts not in
line driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross compound
turbine is typically used for many large applications.

Figure 27 : Impulse Main Propulsion Turbine

(d) Number of Exhaust Stages in Parallel
(e) Direction of steam flow
(f) Steam supply – Superheated or saturated.

Principle of Operation and Design

An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant entropy process, in which the
entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine. No
steam turbine is truly “isentropic”, however, with typical isentropic efficiencies ranging from 20%-90%
based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades, or
“buckets” as they are more commonly referred to. One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing
and one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum
clearances, with the size and configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at
each stage.

Turbine Efficiency
To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, generating work, in a number of stages. These
stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as either impulse or
reaction turbines. Most steam turbines use a mixture of the reaction and impulse designs : each stage
behaves as either one or the other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, higher pressure sections
are impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type.

Figure 28 : Schematic Diagram Outlining the difference between an Impulse and a

Reaction Turbine

Impulse Turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets. These jets contain
significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert into shaft rotation as the
steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net increase
in steam velocity across the stage.
As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure
(atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this higher ratio of expansion of
steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving
blades is a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of
energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the “carry over velocity” or “leaving loss”.

Reaction Turbines
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type
of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed
by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator as a jet

50
that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed
relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam
accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity
across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in
the driving of the rotor.

Advantages of the Steam Turbine over Reciprocating Engine

(a) Thermal Efficiency of a Steam Turbine is higher than that of a Reciprocating Engine.
(b) The Steam Turbine develops power at a uniform rate and hence does not require Flywheel.
(c) No internal lubrication is required for Steam Turbine as there are no rubbing parts inside.
(d) No heavy foundation is required for Turbine because of the perfect balancing of the different
parts.
(e) If the Steam Turbine is properly designed and constructed then it is the most durable Prime
Mover.
(f) Much higher speed may be developed and a far greater range of speed is possible than in the
case of Reciprocating Engine.
(g) There are some frictional losses in Reciprocating Engine as some arrangements are required
for conversion of Reciprocating Motion into circular motion. But in Steam Turbine no
friction losses are there.
(h) Steam Turbines are quite suitable for large Thermal Power Plant as they can be built in size
from few Horse Powers to over 200000 HP in single unit.
Advantages of Steam Turbines
(a) High efficiency at full load.
(b) Mechanical simplicity and hence potential reliability.
(c) Conventional reciprocating steam locomotives give a varying torque through the cycle,
resembling a sine characteristic. This makes wheel slip at starting much more likely.
(d) Conventional steam locomotives have substantial reciprocating masses such as connecting
rods and valve gear. This creates fore-and-aft forces that cannot be completely balanced
without unacceptably increasing the up-and down forces on the track. Disadvantages of
Steam Turbines
(a) High efficiency is only obtained at full-load. Naval vessels very often had cruising turbines
which could be run at full output while the main turbines were shut down.
(b) High efficiency is only obtained when the turbine exhausts into a near vacuum, generated by
a condenser. These are very large pieces of equipment to carry around.
(c) Turbines cannot run in reverse. Ships carried separate turbines solely for reversing, and
locomotives had to do the same.
Performance Analysis of Steam Turbines
Need for Performance Analysis
(a) To increase availability and reliability.
(b) To reduce operating cost and maximize production.
(c) To assess the effect of blade washes.
(d) To identify optimum range of throttle loading rates.
(e) To maintain power demand to the plant or grid.
 (f) To avoid catastrophic shutdowns.
(g) To reduce maintenance expenditure.
(h) To determine the underlying causes of operating deviations
Parameters to be Monitored in Performance Analysis
Isentropic Efficiency
Used to determine machine performance trends and effects of maintenance activities.
Power Characteristics
The power generation, actual or implied, together with expected generation at design or
clean conditions.
Efficiency/Power Deviation
Load independent comparison relative to design.
Pressure Ratios
Used together with the efficiency curves to determine optimum stage performance selection.
Steam Velocities
Used as an indicator of the amount of energy removed from the steam feedstock, from each
stage.
Steam Rates
Illustrates changes in performance deviation, relative to isentropic expansion.
Power Vs Steam
Scatter plot identifies turbine degradation and optimum control regions.
Operating Loss Cost
Tracks current and historical „lost opportunity‟ – both instantaneous and cumulative.
Thermal Efficiency
The overall thermal efficiency of a steam turbine plant can be represented by the ratio of the
net mechanical energy available to the energy within the fuel supplied.

Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical Efficiency of a turbine is the ratio of the brake output to the internal input. The
Mechanical efficiency is an index of the external losses.
Steam Rate
Heat Rate Units and Definitions
The economy or efficiency of a steam power plant cycle is expressed in terms of heat rate, which is
total thermal input to the cycle divided by the electrical output of the units.
Actual Steam Rate
The actual steam rate of a turbine can be determined by dividing the actual throttle steam flow rate
by the actual corresponding kilowatts, at the generator terminals, produced by that amount of
steam. The actual steam rate can also be determined by dividing the theoretical steam rate by the
engine efficiency of the turbine generator.

52
CONDENSER
Functions of Condensers
The main purposes of the condenser are to condense the exhaust steam from the turbine for reuse in the
cycle and to maximize turbine efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum. As the operating pressure of the
condenser is lowered (vacuum is increased), the enthalpy drop of the expanding steam in the turbine will
also increase. This will increase the amount of available work from the turbine (electrical output). By
lowering the condenser operating pressure, the following will occur :
(a) Increased turbine output
(b) Increased plant efficiency
(c) Reduced steam flow (for a given plant output)
It is therefore very advantageous to operate the condenser at the lowest possible pressure (highest
vacuum).

2.9.2 Condenser Types

There are two primary types of condensers that can be used in a power plant :
(a) Direct Contact
(b) Surface
Direct contact condensers condense the turbine exhaust steam by mixing it directly with cooling water.
The older type Barometric and Jet-Type condensers operate on similar principles.
Steam surface condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern power plants. The exhaust
steam from the turbine flows on the shell side (under vacuum) of the condenser, while the plant‟s
circulating water flows in the tube side. The source of the circulating water can be either a closed-loop
(i.e. cooling tower, spray pond, etc.) or once through (i.e. from a lake, ocean, or river). The condensed
steam from the turbine, called condensate, is collected in the bottom of the condenser, which is called a
hotwell. The condensate is then pumped back to the steam generator to repeat the cycle.

Surface Condenser
The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the
tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted
to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the diagram. Such condensers use steam
ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to
maintain vacuum.

Figure 34 : Diagram of a Typical Water-cooled Surface Condenser

For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve
the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always
be kept significantly below 100oC where the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric
pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensable air into the closed
loop must be prevented.
The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject waste heat to
the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.

Note : Tubes are brass, cupro nickel, titanium or stainless steel. The tubes are expanded or rolled and bell mouthed at the ends in
the tube sheets.
Figure 35 : Typical Power Plant Condenser

The diagram depicts a typical water-cooled surface condenser as used in power stations to condense the
exhaust steam from a steam turbine driving an electrical generator as well in other applications
Condenser Components and their Functions
Shell
The shell is the condenser's outermost body and contains the heat exchanger tubes. The shell is
fabricated from carbon steel plates and is stiffened as needed to provide rigidity for the shell. When
required by the selected design, intermediate plates are installed to serve as baffle plates that
provide the desired flow path of the condensing steam. The plates also provide support that help
prevent sagging of long tube lengths.
For most water-cooled surface condensers, the shell is under vacuum during normal operating
conditions.
Hotwell
At the bottom of the shell, where the condensate collects, an outlet is installed. In some designs, a
sump (often referred to as the hot well) is provided. Condensate is pumped from the outlet or the
hot well for reuse as boiler feedwater.
Vacuum System
For a steam ejector, the motive fluid is steam.
For water-cooled surface condensers, the shell's internal vacuum is most commonly supplied by
and maintained by an external steam jet ejector system. Such an ejector system uses steam as the
motive fluid to remove any non-condensable gases that may be present in the surface condenser.
The Venturi effect, which is a particular case of Bernoulli's principle, applies to the operation of
steam jet ejectors.
Motor driven mechanical vacuum pumps, such as the liquid ring type, are also popular for this
service.
Motive fluid nozzle
54
 Diverging outlet
Converging
diffuser
inlet nozzle

Motive fluid Outlet

Diffuser throat

Inlet gas, liquid,

or other

Figure 36 : Diagram of a Typical Modern Injector or Ejector

Tube Sheets
At each end of the shell, a sheet of sufficient thickness usually made of stainless steel is provided,
with holes for the tubes to be inserted and rolled. The inlet end of each tube is also bell mouthed for
streamlined entry of water. This is to avoid eddies at the inlet of each tube giving rise to erosion,
and to reduce flow friction. Some makers also recommend plastic inserts at the entry of tubes to
avoid eddies eroding the inlet end. In smaller units some manufacturers use ferrules to seal the tube
ends instead of rolling. To take care of length wise expansion of tubes some designs have
expansion joint between the shell and the tube sheet allowing the latter to move longitudinally. In
smaller units some sag is given to the tubes to take care of tube expansion with both end water
boxes fixed rigidly to the shell.
Tubes
Generally the tubes are made of stainless steel, copper alloys such as brass or bronze, cupro nickel,
or titanium depending on several selection criteria. The use of copper bearing alloys such as brass
or cupro nickel is rare in new plants, due to environmental concerns of toxic copper alloys. Also
depending on the steam cycle water treatment for the boiler, it may be desirable to avoid tube
materials containing copper. Titanium condenser tubes are usually the best technical choice;
however the use of titanium condenser tubes has been virtually eliminated by the sharp increases in
the costs for this material. The tube lengths range to about 17 m for modern power plants,
depending on the size of the condenser. The size chosen is based on transportability from the
manufacturers‟ site and ease of erection at the installation site.
Waterboxes
The tube sheet at each end with tube ends rolled, for each end of the condenser is closed by a
fabricated box cover known as a waterbox, with flanged connection to the tube sheet or condenser
shell. The waterbox is usually provided with man holes on hinged covers to allow inspection and
cleaning.
These waterboxes on inlet side will also have flanged connections for cooling water inlet butterfly
valves, small vent pipe with hand valve for air venting at higher level, and hand operated drain
valve at bottom to drain the waterbox for maintenance. Similarly on the outlet waterbox the cooling
water connection will have large flanges, butterfly valves, vent connection also at higher level and
drain connections at lower level. Similarly thermometer pockets are located at inlet and outlet pipes
for local measurements of cooling water temperature.

Condensate Pumps
Condensate pumps are those kinds of pumps that are used to collect and transport condensate back into a
steam system for reheating and reuse, or to remove unwanted condensate.
Condensate pumps have a tank in which condensate can accumulate. The tank size varies depending on
the application. The accumulating liquid raises a float switch which energizes the pump. The pump then
runs until the level of liquid in the tank is substantially lowered. Some pumps contain a two-stage switch.
As the liquid rises to the trigger point of the first stage, the pump starts working. If the liquid continues to
rise, the second stage will be triggered. This stage may switch off the HVAC equipment, which is,
preventing the production of further condensate, trigger an alarm or both.
Types of Condensate Pump
Boiler Feed Pump
This pump closes the boiler, steam and condensate loop by returning the condensate back
into the system for reuse.
Sump Pump
This pump is installed in compartments to remove the unwanted build-up of water.
In a steam power plant, the condensate pump is normally located adjacent to the main condenser hotwell
often directly below it. This pump sends the water to a make-up tank closer to the steam generator or
boiler. If the tank is also designed to remove dissolved oxygen from the condensate, it is known as a De
aerating feed tank (DFT). The output of the DFT supplies the feed booster pump which, in turn, supplies
the feed pump (feedwater pump) which returns the feedwater to the boiler so the cycle can start over. Two
pumps in succession are used to provide sufficient Net Positive Suction Head to prevent cavitation and
the subsequent damage associated with it.
Circulating Pumps
Condenser circulating pumps are used to pump cooing water through the condenser. The source of
the cooling water can be the sea, lake, river or a cooling tower. Low speed –horizontal-double
suction-volute centrifugal pumps are used for this application. This pump has a simple but rugged
design that allows ready access to interior for examination and rapid dismantling if repairs are
required.
Atmospheric Relief Valves
Atmospheric relief valves provide automatic protection of costly condenser equipment. These
valves are as important as trip throttle valves, over speed governors, and other devices for power
plant protection. Atmospheric relief valves are designed and manufactured with the finest materials
and the highest quality workmanship.
Atmospheric relief valves open and close automatically. Each valve needs to be installed vertically
and properly leveled for smooth operation. Special ring seals and a water seal is provided for zero
leakage in full vacuum conditions. Each valve opens immediately when pressure increases slightly
above atmospheric pressure. Higher than atmospheric set pressures can be provided with internally
spring loaded discs. During regular maintenance and as many times as possible, each atmospheric
valve should be opened by turning the hand wheel clockwise then closing the valves by turning
counter clockwise. This process ensures nonbinding and self-cleaning valve action.
Requirements of a Good Condensing System
The requirements of ideal surface condenser used for power plants are as follows :
(a) The steam entering the condenser should be evenly distributed over the whole cooling
surface of the condenser vessel with minimum pressure loss.
(b) The amount of cooling water being circulated in the condenser should be so regulated
that the temperature of cooling water leaving the condenser is equivalent to saturation
temperature of steam corresponding to steam pressure in the condenser. This will help
in preventing under cooling of condensate.
(c) The deposition of dirt on the outer surface of tubes should be prevented. Passing the
cooling water through the tubes and allowing the steam to flow over the tubes achieve
this.
(d) There should be no air leakage into the condenser because presence of air destroys the
vacuum in the condenser and thus reduces the work obtained per kg of steam. If there

56
 is leakage of air into the condenser air extraction pump should be used to remove air
as rapidly as possible.

COOLING TOWER
Functions
Cooling Towers have one function :
Remove heat from the water discharged from the condenser so that the water can be discharged to the
river or recirculated and reused.

What is a Cooling Tower

A cooling tower extracts heat from water by evaporation. In an evaporative cooling tower, a small portion
of the water being cooled is allowed to evaporate into a moving air stream to provide significant cooling
to the rest of that water stream.
Cooling Towers are commonly used to provide lower than ambient water temperatures and are more cost
effective and energy efficient than most other alternatives. The smallest cooling towers are structured for
only a few litres of water per minute while the largest cooling towers may handle upwards of thousands
of litres per minute. The pipes are obviously much larger to accommodate this much water in the larger
towers and can range up to 12 inches in diameter.

How Cooling Towers Work

When water is reused in the process, it is pumped to the top of the cooling tower and will then flow down
through plastic or wood shells, much like a honeycomb found in a bee‟s nest. The water will emit heat as
it is downward flowing which mixes with the above air flow, which in turn cools the water. Part of this
water will also evaporate, causing it to lose even more heat.
Types of Cooling Towers
One way to distinguish between cooling towers is how the air and water interact, open cooling towers or
closed cooling towers. Open cooling towers, also called direct cooling towers, allow the water to come
into contact with outside air. If cooled water is returned from the cooling tower to be used again, some
water must be added to replace the water that has been lost. Pollutants are able to enter into the water used
in these processes and must be filtered out. Another method of combating the excess minerals and
pollutants is some means of a dissolved solid control, such as a blow down. With this, a small percentage
of the flow is drained off to aid in the removal of these contaminants. This is fairly effective, but not as
efficient as filtration.
Closed loop (or closed circuit) cooling tower systems, also called indirect cooling tower systems, do not
allow the water to come into contact with any outside substance, therefore keeping the water more pure
due to the lack of foreign particles introduced.
Another classification of cooling towers is made between field assembled towers and factory assembled
towers. Field assembled towers are shipped in pieces and assembled on site by a highly qualified and
certified installation team. Factory assembled towers typically only require the fan motor to be mounted.
Natural Draft Towers
Natural draft towers are typically about 120 m high, depending on the differential pressure between the
cold outside air and the hot humid air on the inside of the tower as the driving force. No fans are used.
Whether the natural or mechanical draft towers are used depends on climatic and operating requirement
conditions.
The green flow paths show how the warm water leaves the plant proper, is pumped to the natural draft
cooling tower and is distributed. The cooled water, including makeup from the lake to account for
evaporation losses to the atmosphere, is returned to the condenser.
Mechanical Draft
Mechanical draft towers uses fans (one or more) to move large quantities of air through the tower.
They are two different classes :
(a) Forced draft cooling towers
(b) Induced draft cooling towers
The air flow in either class may be cross flow or counter flow with respect to the falling water.
Cross flow indicates that the airflow is horizontal in the filled portion of the tower while counter
flow means the air flow is in the opposite direction of the falling water.
The counter flow tower occupies less floor space than a cross flow tower but is taller for a given
capacity. The principle advantages of the cross flow tower are the low pressure drop in relation to
its capacity and lower fan power requirement leading to lower energy costs.
All mechanical towers must be located so that the discharge air diffuses freely without recirculation
through the tower, and so that air intakes are not restricted. Cooling towers should be located as
near as possible to the refrigeration systems they serve, but should never be located below them so
as to allow the condenser water to drain out of the system through the tower basin when the system
is shut down.
Forced Draft
The forced draft tower, has the fan, basin, and piping located within the tower structure. In
this model, the fan is located at the base. There are no louvered exterior walls. Instead, the
structural steel or wood framing is covered with paneling made of aluminum, galvanized
steel, or asbestos cement boards.

Figure 37 : Mechanical Draft

During operation, the fan forces air at a low velocity horizontally through the packing and then
vertically against the downward flow of the water that occurs on either side of the fan. The drift

58
 eliminators located at the top of the tower remove water entrained in the air. Vibration and noise
are minimal since the rotating equipment is built on a solid foundation. The fans handle mostly dry
air, greatly reducing erosion and water condensation problems.
Induced Draft
The induced draft tower show in the following picture has one or more fans, located at the top of
the tower, that draw air upwards against the downward flow of water passing around the wooden
decking or packing. Since the airflow is counter to the water flow, the coolest water at the bottom is
in contact with the driest air while the warmest water at the top is in contact with the moist air,
resulting in increased heat transfer efficiency.

Figure 38 : Induced Draft

Hybrid Draft
They are equipped with mechanical draft fans to augment airflow. Consequently, they are also
referred to as fan-assisted natural draft towers. The intent of their design is to minimize the power
required for the air movement, but to do so with the least possible stack cost impact. Properly
designed fans may need to be operated only during periods of high ambient and peak loads.
Air ou t

Water in

Air in

Outflow

Figure 2.39 : Hybrid Draft

THE SUPERCRITICAL-PRESSURE CYCLE

In Fig. the feedwater is pressurized at 8 to a pressure beyond the critical pressure of the vapor (3208
psia for steam). The feedwater heating curve shows a gradual
change in temperature and density but not in phase the steam temperature at 1. Such heating can be
made to be closer to the heat source temperature than a subcritical cycle with the same steam temperature
that shows an abrupt change in temperature within the two-phase region. Looking at it another way, the
supercritical-pressure cycle receives more of its heat at higher temperatures than a subcritical cycle with the
same carbine inlet steam temperature.
 Because of the gradual change in density, supercritical-pressure cycles use once-through steam
generators instead of the more common drum-type steam generators
(Chap. 3).
A disadvantage of the supercritical-pressure cycle, however, is that expansion from point 1 to the
condenser pressure would result in very wet vapor in the latter stages of the turbine. Hence,
supercritical-pressure cycles invariably use reheat and often double reheat. A popular base design for a
supercritical powerplant used 3500 psia and initial 1000°F steam with reheats to 1025°F and 1050°F
(3500/1000/1025/ 1050). The higher temperatures after reheat were tolerated by the reheater tubes because
of the much lower pressures in them.

Types of Cogeneration
There are two broad categories of cogeneration:
I. The topping cycle, in which primary heat at the higher temperature end of the Rankine cycle is used
to generate high-pressure and -temperature steam and electricity in the usual manner. Depending on
process requirements, process steam at low-pressure and temperature is either (a) extracted from the
turbine at an intermediate stage, much as for feedwater heating, or (b) taken at the turbine exhaust, in
which case it is called a back-pressure turbine. Process steam pressure requirements vary widely,
between 0.5 and 40 bar.
2. The bottoming cycle, in which primary heat is used at high temperature directly, for process
requirements. An example is the high-temperature cement kiln. The process low-grade (low temperature
and availability) waste heat is then used to generate electricity, obviously at low efficiency. The
bottoming cycle thus has a combined efficiency that most certainly lies below that given by Eq. (2-30),
and therefore is of little thermodynamic or economic interest.
Only the topping cycle, therefore, can provide true savings in primary energy. In addition, most process
applications require low grade (temperature, availability) steam. Such steam is conveniently produced in a
topping cycle. There are several arrangements for cogeneration in a topping cycle. Some are:
60
 (a) Steam-electric powerplant with a back-pressure turbine.
(b) Steam-electric powerplant with steam extraction from a condensing turbine (Fig. 2-27).
(c) Gas-turbine powerplant with a heat-recovery boiler (using the gas turbine exhaust to generate
steam).
(d) Combined. steam-gas-turbine-cycle powerplant (Secs. 8-8 and 8-9). The steam turbine is either of the
back-pressure type (a) or of the extraction-condensing type (b), above.
The most suitable electric-to-heat generation ratios vary from type to type. The back-pressure steam
turbine plant (a) is most suitable only when the electric demand is tow compared with the heat demand. The
combined-cycle plant (d) is most suitable only when the electric demand is high, about comparable to the heat
demand or higher,though its range is wider with an extraction-condensing steam turbine than with a back-
pressure turbine. The gas-turbine cycle (c) lies in between. Only the extraction-condensing plant (b) is
suitable over a wide range of ratios.

Safety Valve:
A Safety valve which automatically discharges steam, gases or vapours so as to prevent a
predetermined safe pressure being exceeded. Such valves usually have a rapid opening
Safety Relief Valve:
A valve which automatically discharges liquid so as to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being
exceeded. Here the lift is proportional to the increase in pressure above the set pressure.
Description
Working Pressure :
The working pressure of vessel is the pressure in pounds per square inch gauge or [Kg/cm2 (g)],
to which the vessel is usually subjected in service. In process vessel the working pressure should
be less by 10% or 25 psig than the maximum allowable working pressure.
Set Pressure :
The inlet gauge pressure of a Safety Relief Valve at which the valve pops or starts discharging.
Over - Pressure :
Pressure increase over the set pressure of the relief valve is called over - pressure; usually the
over-pressure will be either 10% or 25% of the set pressure.
Back Pressure :
The gauge pressure on the discharge side of a Relief Valve.
 Accumulation :
Pressure increase over the maximum allowable working pressure of the vessel during
discharge through the pressure relief valve expressed as a per cent of that pressure or
pounds per square inch is called accumulation.
Blow Down:
Blow down is the difference between set pressure and the Re-seating pressure of Safety
Relief Valve expressed as percentage of the set pressure or pounds per square inch.
Sizing of Safety Relief Valve :
It is necessary to calculate the orifice area to relieve the predetermined quantity of liquid or
vapor. Once the orifice area is determined it is very easy to get the required size of the
valve from the manufacturer's list.
Higher size valve can be given as per party’s requirement considering the capacity and
orifice area.
Pipes and tubes for boiler pressure parts

Boiler Pipe Material Specification and Application

Boiler steel pipes includes medium pressure boiler pipe and high pressure boiler pipe, it is often
manufactured in seamless procedures, welded steel pipe is not applicable.
It has been widely used at heat exchanger pipe and tubing services, tube exchanger bundle, high
pressure boiler, economizer, super heater, petrochemical industry pipes, etc.
Boiler pipe materials and standards
Standards and material for steel pipe is available at carbon, alloy, and stainless steel material.
Carbon steel: ASTM/ASME A/SA 106, ASTM A179, ASTM A192, ASTM/ASME A/SA 210,
ASTM A333 Gr 1, 6,7 to Gr 9,
Alloy steel: ASTM/ASME A/SA 213 T1, T2, T5, T9, T11, T12, T22, T91, T92; ASTM A335 P1,
P2, P5, P9, P11, P12, P22, P91, P92
Stainless Steel: ASTM A268, ASTM A213, TP304/L, TP316/L, 310S,309S,317,317L,321,321H,
and duplex stainless steel material etc.
Common Sizes: OD from 6mm to 1240mm, thickness from 1mm to 50mm
Types: Straight boiler pipe, and U boiler steel pipe for tube exchanger bundle.
These standards specify the classification, size, shape, weight and allowable deviation, technical
requirements, inspection and test, packaging, marking and quality certificate of seamless steel
tubes for boiler.
Medium and high pressure boiler pipe differences
Based on different working temperature, the medium or high pressure boiler pipe shall be used.
Normally classified as below cases:
a. The operation temperature of general boiler pipe is lower than 450℃. The medium pressure
boiler pipeline mainly adopts hot rolling process or cold drawing process.
b. High pressure boiler pipes are often used in high temperature and high pressure conditions.
Under the action of high temperature flue gas and steam, the pipe will occur oxidation and
corrosion. It is required high pressure boiler pipe that has high durable strength, high oxidation
corrosion resistance and good tissue stability.
Boiler Pipe Manufacturing methods
62
The manufacturing method of medium and high pressure boiler steel pipe is same with the
seamless steel pipe, but there are some key manufacturing processes shall be noted:
Fine drawing, surface bright, hot rolling, cold drawn, heat expansion.