CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF

LIFE

Anthonio R. Wong
•Gregor Mendel conducted his experiments in the 1860s,
but the biological mechanism behind hereditary
transmission was not yet understood.

•During Mendel’s time, the role of the nucleus in

reproduction and the process of cell division were
unknown.

•Improved microscopy technology eventually allowed

scientists to observe chromosomes.

•It was later discovered that chromosomes carry genes,

leading to rapid advancements in the understanding of
heredity.
• In the 1840s, it was observed that the nucleus divides
first during cell division, hinting at its importance.

• By the 1870s, nuclear division was recognized as a

universal feature of cell division.

• The role of the nucleus in inheritance was further

supported by the discovery that two gamete nuclei
fuse during fertilization.

• In the 1880s, chromosomes were discovered, made

visible through staining with basic dyes and light
microscopy.

• Chromosomes were later found to segregate in an

orderly manner into daughter cells during cell division
and into gametes during reproductive cell division.
 Three important regularities were observed about the chromosome complement (the complete set of
chromosomes) of plants and animals

1. The nucleus of each somatic cell contains a fixed number of

chromosomes typical of the particular species.

2. The chromosomes in the nuclei of somatic cells are usually present in

pairs. Cells with nuclei of this sort, containing two similar sets of
chromosomes, are called diploid.

3. The germ cells, or gametes, contain only one set of chromosomes,

consisting of one member of each of the pairs. The gamete nuclei are said
to be haploid.
 CELL DIVISION
Cell division is the process by which a single cell divides
into two or more daughter cells, each with the potential
to grow, develop, and carry out specific functions.

It is a fundamental process in biology that is essential

for the growth, repair, and reproduction of living
organisms.

Cell division can occur through two main mechanisms:

mitosis, which produces two identical daughter cells,
and meiosis, which produces four genetically diverse
daughter cells.
 MITOSIS
Mitosis is the process by which a single
cell divides into two identical daughter
cells. This type of division is essential for
growth and repair in multicellular
organisms, as well as for asexual
reproduction in some single-celled
organisms.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MITOSIS

Mitosis produces two The major purpose of Mitosis occurs only in There is no reduction
genetically identical mitosis is for growth somatic cells, which in the number of
daughter cells from a and to replace are all the cells in the chromosomes during
single parent cell. worn-out cells. body except for the mitosis.
reproductive cells.
STAGES OF
MITOSIS
INTERPHASE
G1 Phase
Duration and Function: This is the first phase of interphase, lasting the longest in
most cells. During G₁, the cell undergoes significant growth, synthesizing proteins
and producing organelles necessary for cellular functions.

Cell Activity: Metabolic processes are highly active here. The cell increases in size
and begins to perform its specialized functions, depending on its type. For
example, nerve cells might transmit signals, while muscle cells contract. The cell is
also gathering the materials needed for DNA replication.

Cellular Checkpoint: At the end of G₁, the cell must pass a checkpoint before
entering the next phase. If the cell doesn't meet the necessary conditions (e.g.,
adequate size, nutrients, and absence of DNA damage), it can enter a resting state
called G₀ where it ceases to divide.
S Phase
Duration and Function: The S phase is when DNA replication occurs. The
genetic material of the cell is duplicated to ensure that both daughter cells
will receive identical copies of the DNA during division.

DNA Replication: Each chromosome duplicates itself, creating two identical

sister chromatids held together at the centromere. This ensures that during
mitosis, each daughter cell will receive the same genetic information.

Centrosome Duplication: Alongside DNA replication, the centrosome, a key

structure involved in organizing the mitotic spindle during cell division, is
also duplicated.
G2 phase
Duration and Function: After DNA replication, the G₂ phase is a
period of further cell growth and preparation for mitosis (M phase).
The cell continues to produce proteins and other necessary
components for cell division.

Cellular Checkpoint: Before proceeding to mitosis, the cell checks for

DNA errors. This is critical to ensure the genetic material has been
correctly replicated and is undamaged. If errors are found, they are
repaired, or the cell may undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death)
to prevent passing mutations to daughter cells.
MITOSIS:
PROPHASE
During prophase, the chromatin in the nucleus condenses
into visible chromosomes, which become visible under a
microscope.
The centrosomes, which are responsible for organizing the
spindle fibers, move to opposite poles of the cell.

The nuclear envelope breaks down, allowing the spindle

fibers to attach to the chromosomes.
 Spindle Fibers

MITOSIS:
METAPHASE
During metaphase, the chromosomes line up
along the equator of the cell, called the
metaphase plate.

The spindle fibers, which are attached to the

centromeres of each chromosome, ensure that
Metaphase Plate the chromosomes are properly aligned and can
be separated correctly.
Centrosome
 Spindle Fibers

MITOSIS:
ANAPHASE
During this stage, the sister chromatids of each
replicated chromosome separate and are pulled
towards opposite poles of the cell by the spindle
fibers.
This results in the formation of two identical sets of
chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell.

Sister Chromatids
Chromosome

MITOSIS:
TELOPHASE
During telophase, the chromosomes reach the
opposite poles of the cell, and the nuclear envelope
begins to reform around each set of chromosomes.

The chromosomes begin to uncoil and return to their

normal, diffuse form. The spindle fibers disassemble,
and the cell begins to prepare for cytokinesis.

Centrosome
MITOSIS:
CYTOKINESIS
Cytokinesis is the process by which the cell divides into two
daughter cells.

In animal cells, a contractile ring of actin and myosin

filaments forms around the cell, contracting and pinching
the cell membrane until the cell is divided into two separate
cells.
In plant cells, a structure called the cell plate forms along
the equator of the cell, eventually dividing the cell into two
separate daughter cells. Contractile Ring
STAGES OF
Meiosis
PROPHASE 1

This is a crucial stage where homologous chromosomes

pair up and exchange genetic material through a process
called crossing over. This phase is longer and more
complex than the prophase in mitosis, and it is divided into
five sub-stages
leptotene
Description: Chromosomes begin to condense
and become visible as long, thread-like
structures.

Key Events:
• Chromosomes, each consisting of two sister
chromatids, start to condense and attach to the
nuclear membrane through regions called
telomeres.

• The homologous chromosomes begin to

search for each other, but pairing has not yet
occurred.
zygotene
Description: Homologous chromosomes start
pairing up through a process called synapsis.

Key Events:
• Synapsis begins, where homologous
chromosomes (chromosomes that carry the
same genes, one from each parent) pair up.
• The paired homologues form structures
called bivalents (or tetrads, since each pair
consists of four chromatids).
• This pairing is facilitated by the
synaptonemal complex, a protein structure
that holds the homologs together.
pachytene
Description: Crossing over occurs.

Key Events:
• The synapsis between homologous
chromosomes is complete.
• Crossing over (or recombination) takes
place, where homologous
chromosomes exchange segments of
genetic material. This increases genetic
diversity by mixing genetic
information between the homologs.
• The exchange occurs between
non-sister chromatids at points called
chiasmata (singular: chiasma).
diplotene
Description: Homologous chromosomes start to
separate but remain attached at chiasmata.

Key Events:
• The synaptonemal complex disassembles, and the
homologous chromosomes begin to pull apart
slightly.
• The chiasmata, points where crossing over
occurred, remain visible and hold the homologous
chromosomes together temporarily.
• The chromosomes are still condensing and are now
more distinguishable under a microscope.
Diakinesis
Description: Chromosomes condense further,
and the cell prepares for metaphase I.

Key Events:
• The chromosomes are fully condensed and
are shorter and thicker.
• The chiasmata move toward the ends of the
chromosomes (terminalization).
• The nuclear envelope begins to break down,
and the spindle apparatus starts to form.
• The homologous chromosomes are still
attached at the chiasmata but are now ready
to be aligned at the metaphase plate.
 Metaphase 1
Description: Homologous chromosomes align at
the metaphase plate.

Key Events:

• The nuclear membrane has completely dissolved.

• The spindle fibers, which extend from the
centrosomes, attach to the kinetochores of
homologous chromosomes.
• The paired homologous chromosomes (each
consisting of two sister chromatids) align along
the metaphase plate (the cell's equator) as
bivalents or tetrads.
• This alignment is random, leading to independent
assortment of maternal and paternal
chromosomes, another source of genetic variation.
 ANAPHASE 1
Description: Homologous chromosomes are
pulled apart to opposite poles.

Key Events:
• The homologous chromosomes (each consisting
of two sister chromatids) are separated by the
shortening of spindle fibers and are pulled
toward opposite poles of the cell.
• Unlike in mitosis, sister chromatids remain
attached to each other at their centromeres, while
homologous chromosomes are separated.
• The chiasmata that held homologous
chromosomes together at points of crossing over
dissolve.
• This step reduces the chromosome number by
half, as each pole now has only one chromosome
from each homologous pair, making the cell
haploid.
Telophase 1
Description: Chromosomes reach the poles,
and the cell prepares to divide.

Key Events:
• The separated homologous chromosomes
arrive at opposite poles of the cell.
• In some species, the nuclear envelope
reforms around the chromosomes at each
pole, though this step may be incomplete
or skipped in some organisms.
• The chromosomes may slightly
decondense, but usually, they remain
condensed in preparation for the second
meiotic division (meiosis II).
• Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm,
begins at this point, although it’s more
associated with the following step,
Interkinesis.
Cytokinesis
Description: The cytoplasm divides, creating two cells.

Key Events:
• The cell membrane pinches in (in animal cells)
• Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes as the
original cell (haploid), but each chromosome still consists of two
sister chromatids.
• The result is two haploid cells, though the sister chromatids are
still connected and have not yet been separated.
INTERKiNESIS
Description: A brief resting phase between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.

Key Events:
• No DNA replication occurs in interkinesis because the chromosomes are already
duplicated (sister chromatids).
• The cell may enter a short interphase-like state, but it's generally much shorter
than the regular interphase of the cell cycle.
• In some species, the nuclear membrane may reform briefly, and chromosomes
may decondense slightly. However, in many cells, this step is skipped or
minimized, and the cell quickly enters Prophase II.
• Interkinesis allows the cell to prepare for the second division (meiosis II), during
which the sister chromatids will finally be separated.
PROPHASE 2
Description: Chromosomes condense, and the cell prepares for the second
division.

Key Events:
• Chromosomes, each still composed of two sister chromatids, condense
and become visible again (if they had decondensed after meiosis I).
• The nuclear envelope (if it had reformed during interkinesis) breaks down.
• The centrosomes (which duplicated during interkinesis) move to opposite
poles of the cell.
• Spindle fibers start to form and extend from the centrosomes.
• Unlike prophase I, there is no crossing over or synapsis since homologous
chromosomes have already been separated.
Metaphase 2
Description: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.

Key Events:
• The spindle fibers attach to the kinetochores of each chromosome at the
centromeres.
• The chromosomes (each consisting of two sister chromatids) align along the
metaphase plate in the center of the cell, similar to what occurs in mitosis.
• Unlike metaphase I, this time it is individual chromosomes (not homologous
pairs) that line up.
ANAPHASE 2
Description: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of
the cell.

Key Events:
• The centromeres split, and the sister chromatids (which are now
considered individual chromosomes) are separated.
• The spindle fibers shorten, pulling the chromatids toward opposite
poles of the cell.
• This is similar to anaphase in mitosis, except that the cells are
haploid, and each chromatid is now a separate chromosome.
Telophase 2
Description: Chromosomes reach the poles, and the cell prepares for
final division.

Key Events:
• The chromosomes, now single chromatids, reach the opposite
poles of the cell.
• A nuclear envelope begins to reform around each set of
chromosomes.
• The chromosomes start to decondense, becoming less visible.
• The spindle fibers disassemble, and the nucleolus reappears in
each newly forming nucleus.
• Telophase II leads into the final division of the cytoplasm.
Cytokinesis
Description: The cytoplasm divides, resulting in four haploid cells.

Key Events:

• The cytoplasm of each cell divides, forming two distinct cells from each of
the two cells produced by meiosis I.
• In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms, pinching the cell membrane
inwards to split the cell. Each of the four daughter cells formed is haploid (n)
and contains a unique set of genetic material due to the independent
assortment of chromosomes and the crossing over that occurred during
prophase I.
• These four cells will become gametes (sperm or eggs in animals), or spores
in plants and fungi.