All organisms start their life from a single cell

Growth and reproduction are characteristics of cells,

indeed of all living organisms
Cycles of growth and division occur continuously
Cell division, DNA replication, and cell growth, are
coordinated
The sequence of these events makes cell cycle
Cytoplasmic increase is a continuous process
DNA synthesis occurs in a specific stage
Chromosomes and DNA are then distributed
These events are themselves under genetic control.
G phase
Cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but
does not replicate its DNA
S phase
the amount of DNA per cell doubles
no increase in the chromosome number
centriole duplicates
G phase
proteins are synthesized
cell growth continues
Some cells in the adult animals do not appear to
exhibit division. e.g., heart cells and many other cells
divide only occasionally
These cells enter an inactive stage called quiescent
stage called G of the cell cycle.
Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no
longer proliferate
In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the
diploid somatic cells. Against this, the plants can
show mitotic divisions in both haploid and diploid
cells.
Most dramatic period involving a major
reorganization of virtually all components of the cell
equational division
four stages of nuclear division karyokinesis
very clear cut lines cannot be drawn
first stage of karyokinesis
In the S and G phases the new
DNA molecules formed are not
distinct but intertwined
marked by the initiation of
condensation of chromosomal
material untangling
Centrosome begins to move
towards opposite poles of cell.

The completion of prophase is

marked by:
Chromosomal material condenses to form compact
mitotic chromosomes.
Centrosome begins to move towards opposite poles
and radiates out microtubules called asters. The two
asters together with spindle fibers forms mitotic
apparatus.

End of prophase: when viewed under the microscope, do

not show GC, ER, nucleolus and the nuclear envelope.
nuclear envelope’s complete
disintegration marks the start of
metaphase.
Condensation of chromosomes is
completed.
Chromosomal Structure and
mataphasic plate formation

key features of metaphase are:

Spindle fibres attach to
kinetochores
Chromosomes are moved to
spindle equator and get aligned
along metaphase plate through
spindle fibres to both poles
each chromosome split
simultaneously and the two
daughter chromatids, now
referred to as daughter
chromosomes of the future
daughter nuclei, begin their
migration towards the two
opposite poles.

anaphase stage is characterized

by
Centromeres split and
chromatids separate.
Chromatids move to opposite
poles.
At the beginning of telophase, the
chromosomes decondense and lose
their individuality.
The individual chromosomes can no
longer be seen and each set of
chromatin material tends to collect
at each of the two poles

Telophase shows the following key

events: Chromosomes cluster at
opposite spindle poles and their
identity is lost as discrete elements.
Nuclear envelope develops around
the chromosome clusters at each pole
forming two daughter nuclei.
Nucleolus, GC and ER reform.
In an animal cell: furrow forms
Plant cells however Cell plate is
formed

In some organisms karyokinesis is not

followed by cytokinesis
usually restricted to the diploid cells only.
However, in some lower plants and in some social
insects haploid cells also divide by mitosis.

The growth of multicellular organisms is due to

mitosis.
Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
cell repair.
continuous growth of plants throughout their life.
usually restricted to the diploid cells only.
However, in some lower plants and in some social
insects haploid cells also divide by mitosis.

The growth of multicellular organisms is due to

mitosis.
Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
cell repair.
continuous growth of plants throughout their life.
Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in
the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms

The key features of meiosis are as follows:

Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and
cell division called meiosis and meiosis but only
a single cycle of DNA replication.
Meiosis is initiated after the parental chromosomes
have replicated to produce identical sister
chromatids at the S phase. Meiosis involves pairing
of homologous chromosomes and recombination
between non sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes.
Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis .
Prophase :
typically longer and more complex
It has been further subdivided into the following five
phases based on chromosomal behavior
Leptotene:
chromosomes become gradually visible under the light
microscope.
The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout
leptotene.
Zygotene:
chromosomes start pairing together by synapsis.
Such paired chromosomes are called homologous
chromosomes.
Electron micrographs of this stage indicate that
chromosome synapsis is accompanied by the formation
of complex structure called synaptonemal complex.
The complex formed by a pair of synapsed homologous
chromosomes is called a bivalent or a tetrad.
Pachytene:
The first two stages of prophase I are relatively
short lived compared to pachytene.
During this stage, tetrads becomes clearly visible.
characterized by the appearance of recombination
nodules, the sites at which crossing over occurs
between non sister chromatids of the homologous
chromosomes.
Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material
between two homologous chromosomes. Crossing over
is also an enzyme mediated process and the enzyme
involved is called recombinase.
Diplotene:
is recognized by the dissolution of the synaptonemal
complex
Chiasmata
In oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene can last for
months or years.
Diakinesis:
terminalization of chiasmata.
During this phase the chromosomes are fully condensed
and the meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the
homologous chromosomes for separation.
By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus disappears and
the nuclear envelope also breaks down.
Metaphase I:
The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial
plate
The microtubules from the opposite poles of the
spindle attach to the kinetochore of homologous
chromosomes.
Anaphase I:
The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister
chromatids remain associated at their centromeres
Telophase I:
The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear,
cytokinesis follows and this is called as dyad of cells
Although in many cases the chromosomes do undergo
some dispersion, they do not reach the extremely
extended state of the interphase nucleus.
interkinesis and is short lived.
There is no replication of DNA during interkinesis.
Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a much
simpler prophase than prophase I.
Prophase II:
Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis,
usually before the chromosomes have fully elongated.
In contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a normal
mitosis.
The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of
prophase II
The chromosomes again become compact.
Metaphase II:
At this stage the chromosomes align at the equator
and the microtubules from opposite poles of the
spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister
chromatids.
Anaphase II:
It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the
centromere of each chromosome which was holding the
sister chromatids together, allowing them to move
toward opposite poles of the cell by shortening of
microtubules attached to kinetochores.
Telophase II:
Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which the two
groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a
nuclear envelope; cytokinesis follows resulting in the
formation of tetrad of cells i.e., four haploid
daughter cells
 Significance of
MEIOSIS
conservation of specific chromosome number of each
species is achieved across generations
results in reduction of chromosome number by half
also increases the genetic variability in the population
of organisms from one generation to the next.
Variations are very important for the process of
evolution.