- **Functions of Managers**:

- Planning: Setting missions and objectives, decision-making.

- Organizing: Structuring for objectives, staffing to fill the structure.

- Leading: Influencing people to achieve objectives.

- Controlling: Measuring and correcting activities.

- **Management: Art or Science?**:

- Management is a specialized knowledge body that can be learned

outside formal programs.

- It is considered to be between art and science.

- **Advantages of Understanding Technology in Top Management**:

- Deep business understanding.

- Appreciation of current and future technology impacts.

- Viewing R&D as investment, not expense.

- Strategic thinking.

- Customer problem dedication.

- Emphasis on innovation.

- **Learning Objectives for Teamwork in Projects**:

- Understand the need for teamwork.

- Work effectively together to solve problems.

- **What is a Team?**:

- A group working towards a common goal, not necessarily doing the

same tasks.

- Used in development to leverage diverse disciplines.

- **Team Success Factors**:

- Common Goal.
 - Member Contribution and Communication.

- Resource Utilization.

- Leadership.

- Team Harmony.

- **Leadership Attributes**:

- Focus on Purpose.

- Team Building.

- Effective Planning and Meetings.

- Communication.

- Promoting Harmony and Performance.

- **Member Attributes**:

- Attendance and Responsibility.

- Completing Work on Time.

- Sharing Abilities and Positive Contribution.

- **Team Development Stages**:

- Forming: Assessing each other, agreeing on goals.

- Storming: Conflict, frustration, cliques.

- Norming: Appreciating differences, focusing on tasks.

- Performing: Agreeing on goals, creative brainstorming.

- **Planning in Engineering Management**:

- Importance of planning to avoid failure.

- Establishing requirements, resources, and management approval.

- **Planning Processes**:
 - Scope planning, WBS, scheduling, resource planning, budgeting,
procurement, risk management, quality planning, communication
planning.

- **Product Scope**:

- Refers to the features and functions that are to be included in a product

or service.

- It defines what the final product will look like, how it will function, and
what it will include.

- **Project Scope**:

- Encompasses the work that must be done to deliver a product with the
specified features and functions.

- It includes the planning, execution, and delivery of the project to

achieve the product scope.

- **In summary, the product scope is about the characteristics and

capabilities of the product itself, while the project scope is about the work
required to create that product. The project scope includes all the
processes and documentation necessary to manage and complete the
project successfully.

- **Project Documentation**:

- Business Case, Project Charter, Project Management Plan, Project

Schedule, RAID Log, Status Reports, Budget Tracker, Lessons Learned
Review, Project Closure Document.

- **Business Case**:

- Justifies the project’s existence, detailing the problem it solves and the
investment it requires.

- **Project Charter/Scope**:

- Transforms the project from an idea into a work program, with owners
and funding agreed upon.

- **Project Management Plan**:

 - Covers all aspects of project management, including tolerances,
variances, change control, and quality assessment.

- **Project Schedule**:

- Outlines tasks, responsibilities, and timelines for project activities.

- **Project RAID Log**:

- Tracks Risks, Assumptions, Issues, and Dependencies throughout the

project.

- **Project Status Reports**:

- Provide regular updates on project progress, performance, and any

deviations from the plan.

- **Project Budget Tracker**:

- Monitors and controls the project’s financial resources and

expenditures.

- **Lessons Learned Review**:

- Captures knowledge gained during the project for future improvements.

- **Project Closure Document**:

- Formally concludes the project, summarizing achievements, and

ensuring all deliverables are accepted.

These documents are essential for effective project management,

providing structure, communication, and a basis for decision-making
throughout the project lifecycle.

- **Planning Techniques**:

- Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).

 - Gantt Chart (bar chart).

- Critical Path Analysis (PERT charts).

- **Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)**:

- Importance: Provides a hierarchical decomposition of the project into

smaller, manageable components.

- Use: Helps in identifying all necessary tasks, ensuring completeness,

and aiding in project estimation and control.

- **Gantt Chart (Bar Chart)**:

- Importance: Offers a visual representation of the project timeline,

showing the sequence and duration of tasks.

- Use: Facilitates resource scheduling, tracking progress, and managing

dependencies between tasks.

- **Critical Path Analysis (PERT Charts)**:

- Importance: Identifies the sequence of tasks that determines the

shortest time to complete the project.

- Use: Helps in understanding task dependencies, managing project

schedule, and determining the tasks that have the least amount of slack
(critical path).

These planning techniques are crucial for project managers to effectively

plan, monitor, and control project activities, ensuring that the project is
completed on time, within budget, and to the satisfaction of stakeholders.

- **Decision-Making Process**:

- Recognizing problems or opportunities.

- Formulating decision models.

- Developing and evaluating alternatives.

- Implementing and reviewing effectiveness.

- **Foundation for Planning:**

- Vision, Purpose, Mission are essential for long-term success.

- Vision is the basic purpose (e.g., service for Mobile Networks).

- Mission should be revised to ensure validity of underlying assumptions.

- **Strategic Planning:**

- Organized process for selecting strategies to achieve the mission.

- Defines how to move from current state to the state envisioned in

mission and vision.

- Key areas for objectives: Market share, Innovation, Productivity,

Resources, Manager/Worker Performance, Profitability, Social
Responsibility.

- Management by Objectives: Work assignments based on organizational

needs, stretch objectives, quantifiable/tangible objectives, agreed
resources, employee development, plans for 6 months to 1 year.

- **Creative Technology Project:**

- International First Year IYZ problem-solving and creative thinking.

- Learning outcomes: Creative thinking, recognizing non-engineering

solutions, considering approaches from other disciplines.

- **Searching for Creative Solutions:**

- Avoid unnecessary constraints, search for different perspectives, look

for remote relationships, unusual solutions, new patterns of thought,
divide complex problems into parts, allow time for development, be open
to various strategies.

- Designers are problem solvers: Structure problems, organize

information, harden information, find alternative solutions.

- Problem statements can be open-ended or directed.

- Techniques for creative solutions: Brainstorming (encourage all ideas,

record many ideas, combine and improve ideas, delay judgment),
Attribute listing (break down problem into smaller parts).
- **Skills Required for Problem Solving:**

- Analytical Ability, Lateral Thinking, Initiative, Logical Reasoning,

Persistence, Team working, Negotiation skills, Communication skills,
Listening skills.

- **Project Design and Requirement Analysis:**

- Understand functional and non-functional requirements.

- Understand UML diagrams and the difference between behavioral and

structural diagrams.

- Create use case diagrams to define system requirements.

- Create test cases based on use cases.

- **Project Development Life Cycle (PDLC):**

- Initiation, Planning, Executing, Monitoring, Closing.

- **Requirements:**

- Functional requirements describe what the system should do.

- Non-functional requirements describe how the system performs a

function.

- **Functional Requirements:**

- Describe what the system should do.

- Focus on the system’s functionality and the actions it should perform.

- Examples:

- A library system should have a membership facility.

- A library system should allow the issue and return of books.

- A library system should maintain member data and book status.

- **Non-Functional Requirements:**

- Describe how the system performs a certain function.

 - Relate to the system’s operational characteristics and constraints.

- Examples:

- A library system should have throughput (non-functional) to handle a

certain number of transactions per time unit.

- A library system should have service availability (non-functional) to

ensure it is accessible during specified hours.

- A library system should have security (non-functional) to protect data

and prevent unauthorized access.

In summary, functional requirements specify the actions and features that

the system must perform, while non-functional requirements specify the
qualities that the system must exhibit, such as performance, security, and
reliability.

- **UML Diagrams:**

- Used for visual representation of software systems, standardized in

1997.

- Behavior diagrams show dynamic behavior, structure diagrams show

static structure.

- **Use Case Diagrams:**

- Represent scenarios of user interactions to achieve specific goals.

- Easy to understand, map onto business goals, focus on functionality,

divide projects into smaller increments.

- Notation includes actors (roles of users), use case names (active verb
plus noun phrase), and dependencies between use cases.

-** Use Case Relationships:

- «EXTENDS» Relationship: One use case optionally extends another, like

a program calling a subroutine.

- «INCLUDES» Relationship: One use case always includes another, which

can sometimes occur on its own.
 - Generalization: One actor can perform all use cases of another actor
and have their own.

- Example Use Cases:

- University Registration System: Professors, students, and billing system

interactions.

- Exercises:

- Draw UseCase Diagram for vending machine and ATM scenarios.

- Agile vs. Waterfall:

**Waterfall Model:**

- Linear and sequential design process

- Distinct phases: requirements, design, implementation, testing,

maintenance

- Heavy emphasis on documentation

- Difficult to implement changes once the project has started

- Suitable for well-defined and stable requirements

- Clear timeline and budget predictability

- Identifies risks early but is challenging to address them with changes

**Agile Model:**

- Iterative and incremental development

- Allows for changes in requirements and scope throughout the project

- Emphasizes continuous customer involvement and feedback

- Adapts quickly to changes in project environment or customer needs

- Addresses risks by delivering functionality in incremental, testable pieces

- Less emphasis on documentation, more on working software

- Early delivery of working functionality

- Frequent feedback and adjustments

- Cost-effective changes

- Easier to manage risk

- Progress is measurable

- Supports changing requirements

- Facilitates parallel development

- Emphasizes customer collaboration

- Flexible approach to project development

-***The Waterfall model, which is a linear and sequential design approach

to software development, has several advantages:

1. **Simple and Easy to Understand**: The Waterfall model follows a

straightforward, step-by-step process that is easy for team members to
understand and follow.

2. **Easy to Manage**: Due to its rigid and structured nature, the

Waterfall model is relatively easy to manage. Each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process, which simplifies project management.

3. **Phases Processed One at a Time**: The model ensures that each

phase is completed before moving on to the next, which can help in
maintaining a clear focus and avoiding confusion.

4. **Works Well for Smaller Projects**: For projects with well-understood

and stable requirements, the Waterfall model can be very effective,
especially when the project scope is small.

5. **Clearly Defined Stages**: The model provides a clear roadmap with

distinct stages, making it easier to plan and allocate resources
accordingly.

6. **Easy to Arrange Tasks**: The sequential nature of the model allows

for a straightforward arrangement of tasks and dependencies.
7. **Process and Results are Well Documented**: The Waterfall model
emphasizes documentation at each stage, which can be beneficial for
future reference and for ensuring that all stakeholders are on the same
page.

8. **Suited for Non-complex Projects**: For projects that do not expect

changes in requirements and have a clear understanding of the end
product, the Waterfall model can be an efficient approach.

These advantages make the Waterfall model a suitable choice for certain
types of projects, particularly those with stable requirements and a well-
defined scope. However, it is important to note that the Waterfall model is
less flexible and does not adapt well to changes, which can be a
significant drawback in dynamic environments or for projects with
evolving requirements.

-*** The Agile model, which is an iterative and incremental approach to

software development, offers several advantages:

1. **Early Working Functionality**: Agile allows for the development of

some working functionality early in the life cycle, which can provide value
to the customer sooner.

2. **Frequent Feedback and Adjustments**: The iterative nature of Agile

means that feedback is gathered and adjustments are made frequently,
leading to a product that better meets the customer's needs.

3. **Cost-Effective Changes**: It is less costly to change the scope or

requirements in Agile because changes can be incorporated into future
iterations rather than requiring a complete rework.

4. **Easier to Manage Risk**: Agile focuses on addressing high-risk parts

of the project first, which helps in managing risk more effectively.
5. **Progress is Measurable**: The incremental approach of Agile allows
for the measurement of progress at the end of each iteration, providing
visibility into the project's status.

6. **Supports Changing Requirements**: Agile is designed to handle

changes in requirements, making it suitable for projects where the
requirements may evolve over time.

7. **Parallel Development**: Agile can facilitate parallel development,

where different team members work on different parts of the project
simultaneously.

8. **Customer Collaboration**: Agile emphasizes close collaboration with

the customer, ensuring that the final product aligns with their
expectations and needs.

9. **Flexibility**: The Agile approach is flexible, allowing for changes in

project development requirements even after the initial planning.

10. **Team Input and Problem-Solving**: Agile promotes a collaborative

environment where team members can contribute to the development
process, leading to better problem-solving and team dynamics.

These advantages make Agile a popular choice for software development

projects, especially in situations where requirements are not fully defined
at the outset or where there is a need for flexibility and adaptability.

-***The V-Model, which is an extension of the Waterfall model, introduces

a testing phase for each corresponding development phase. Here are the
advantages of the V-Model in bullet point notes:

- **Highly Disciplined**: The V-Model follows a disciplined approach where

each phase must be completed before moving to the next.

- **Works Well for Smaller Projects**: Similar to Waterfall, the V-Model is

suitable for projects with well-understood requirements.
- **Simple and Easy to Understand**: The V-Model is straightforward,
making it easy for team members to follow.

- **Easy to Manage**: Due to its structured nature, the V-Model simplifies

project management.

- **Specific Deliverables**: Each phase has specific deliverables and a

review process, ensuring quality at each stage.

- **Testing Integration**: The model integrates testing into the

development process, ensuring that each phase is verified and validated.

- **Quality Assurance**: The V-Model emphasizes quality assurance by

testing each development phase.

- **Clear Roadmap**: Provides a clear roadmap with distinct stages, aiding

in planning and resource allocation.

- **Documentation**: Like Waterfall, the V-Model encourages

documentation, which is beneficial for future reference.

These advantages make the V-Model a suitable choice for certain types of
projects, particularly those with stable requirements and a need for a
structured approach to testing and quality assurance. However, it is less
flexible than Agile and may not adapt well to changes or uncertainty in
project requirements.

- ** Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) Methodologies:

- Waterfall Model: Suitable for well-documented, stable requirements.

- Agile Model: Suitable for projects with changing requirements, involves

customer collaboration.

- V-Model: Extension of Waterfall, includes testing phases associated with

each development phase.

-***Software Testing:**

- Evaluates software quality, improves it, and ensures it meets defined

requirements.

- Goals include showing that the application satisfies customer needs, is

fit for purpose, and to detect defects for resolution.
 - Testing conditions should be realistic, using real data and operators,
and involve project members and users.

- Defects can arise at various stages, with nearly 50% originating before
coding.

- Quality in software includes conformance to functional requirements,

reliability, usability, and a degree of excellence.

- Problems can include not fulfilling business requirements, unreliability,

difficulty in use, and challenges in amending or enhancing.

- To avoid problems, use standards, inspections, reviews, planned

testing, user acceptance testing, and effective project management.

- **Testing Approaches:**

- V-Model implies testing for quality and correctness at each stage.

- Testing analysis and design deliverables is crucial.

- **Levels of Testing:**

- Unit Testing: checks if software components fulfill functionalities.

- Integration Testing: checks data flow between modules.

- System Testing: evaluates functional and non-functional needs.

- Acceptance Testing: checks if requirements are met for delivery.

- **Unit Testing:**

- Involves testing the smallest testable parts of an application.

- Checks interfaces, data storage, error-handling paths, and boundary

conditions.

- **Integration Testing:**

- Ensures modules can communicate and produce expected results.

- **System Testing:**

- Tests the complete and fully integrated software product.

 - Checks business functionality, stability, consistency, and usability.

- **User Acceptance Testing:**

- Users test the software in real-world scenarios to ensure it can handle

required tasks.

- **Group Task:**

- Discuss which methodology is more suitable for your project and

provide reasons.

- **Creative Technology Project – LIPCF301:**

- Lecture topics include software testing, quality, and testing throughout

systems development.