Purposive

Communication
GEEng 1 │ Stub Code 970

Clarese P. Benjamin, M.
Ed. Professo
r
Melisa O.
Derramas
BSED-English
1

Unit 1: Introduction to Communication

 Chapter 1: Communication Process, Principles and Ethics
 All human beings, in fact, all living creatures communicate with one another to survive.
 Communication is essential for life, a fundamental aspect of being human. However, there is a need to
understand too, that communication is not merely a message sent from one person to another because
communication does something.
 It causes a result, creates an atmosphere, and reveals the identity of a person his/her age, gender, race, or
culture.
 Learning the skills on how to communicate effectively will help a college student become a competent
communicator which is necessary for success.

What Communication Is and Why It Is Important

Communication
 A term that has been given more than a hundred published definitions.
 A broad definition of communication says that it is the process of exchanging and acting on information between two or more people.
Someone does or says something, and others think or do something in response to the action or the words as they understand them.
 Communication is the process of making sense out of the world and sharing that sense with others by creating meaning through the
use of verbal and nonverbal messages. (Beebe and Ivy, 2013.)

“Human beings put meaning into what they experience when they begin to interpret what is seen, touched, heard, smelled, and tasted with
sensations, thoughts, feelings, and words.”

 Whether one is an ordinary citizen, a VIP, a college student, or a professional, competence in communication and expertise with the
skills are valuable in strengthening and building relationships, in getting employed, and in maintaining healthy living.
 Every good and lasting relationship is founded on good communication.
 Understanding the role and function of communication can help unfold some of the mysteries of human relationships.
 According to Virginia Satir (1988), a pioneer in family enrichment, “family communication is the largest single factor determining the
kinds of relationships (we make) with others.” This means that an individual’s early communication with his/her parents has profound effects
on his/her self-concept and self-worth. It is, therefore, necessary to have open communication among family members, because
building a good relationship with others begins at home and it determines how a person interacts with others.
 Those who can communicate effectively with others are in high demand in any field of work.
 Every job requires communication – talk, read, relate, and write. The better the communication skills, the more employable the person
is.
 Communication helps build good relationships with others and having a social support system that is, supportive friends and family
members can help make a difference in a person's overall health and quality of life.
 Research has found out that the lack or loss of close relationships can lead to ill health and even death.
 Good friends and intimate relationships with others whether online or in person help an individual manage stress and contribute to
both physical and emotional health.
 Learning how to enrich the quality of communication with others can make life more enjoyable and enhance overall well-being.

The Process of Communication

Modern Communication Model evolved from Shanon and Weaver’s Information Theory Model.

Sender Encoding Message Decoding Receiver

Noise

Feedback Response

Figure 1
  Source or sender is the originator of an idea or emotion.
 Encoding is the translation of ideas, feelings, and thoughts that have been translated into a code.
 Decoding is the interpretation of ideas, feelings, and thoughts that have been translated into a code.
 Receiver is a person or a group of persons toward whom a sender or source directs messages and who decodes the message.
 Message is the written, spoken, and unspoken elements of communication that carries a meaning or which meaning is assigned.
 Channel is the pathway or means through which messages pass between the source and receiver.
 Context is the physical, historical, and psychological communication environment.
 Noise is any literal or psychological interference with the clear encoding or decoding of a message.
 Feedback is the verbal and nonverbal responses to a message.
Figure 1 shows that the communication process begins with the sender or source.
 For that message to be received, the sender must first encode the message in a form that can be understood and transmit it.
 The person whom the message is directed to is the receiver. He receives the message or information and decodes or interprets it.
 If the message has been successfully transmitted, received, and understood, the receiver then responds to the sender in the form of
verbal or nonverbal response. This is called feedback.
 In the process of sending and receiving information or ideas, noise may interfere with the process. It can be any sort of interference such
as the literal or external noise or internal noise or esoteric noise as misinterpreting a local custom.
The Primary Principles of Communication
There are factors that determine whether a particular communication experience is likely to be successful or not.
 Every individual participating in the communication process is affected by internal factors.
 Interactional factors affect how information is sent and received between two or more people.
 External factors affect the extent to which the physical environment is conducive to effective communication.

The communication process has inherent principles as well as skills that can be learned and mastered.
 When people are aware of these principles and apply this information, they significantly decrease the likelihood of
misunderstanding and conflict and increase the chances of successful and effective communication.

Here are fundamental principles of communication:

1. Be aware of your communication with yourself and others.
Be conscious of your intrapersonal communication that is communication that occurs within yourself, including your thoughts,
your emotions, and your perception of yourself and others. Realize that your own "self-talk" affects your communication with others and
your overall communication behavior. Understand the communication behavior of others.
2. Effectively use and interpret verbal messages.
Use clear and precise words to explain ideas and concepts to others. Make concerted effort to accurately interpret the words of
others.
3. Effectively use and interpret nonverbal messages.
Use nonverbal, unspoken cues to express feelings and emotions to others or to modify the explicit verbal message you are
communicating.
4. Listen and respond thoughtfully to others.
Be other-oriented by taking special care to stop and focus on what others are saying, to look for nonverbal cues, and to listen accurately
for both the ideas and the major details. Be precise, accurate, and timely in providing appropriate feedback to others.
5. Appropriately adapt messages to others.
Because of differences in culture, gender, background, and experience, it is important to consider how other people interpret your
messages and how your interpretations of the messages of other people are affected by these differences. Enhance message
understanding, achieve your communication ethically by appropriately adapting, editing, and shaping both what you say and how you say it.
(adapted from Beebe, A.B., Beebe, J.S., & Diana, K.I., Communication Principles for a Lifetime)

The Ethics in Communication

Every communication has a purpose which may be good or bad. Whatever the objective is, if the message is understood and
has accomplished its intended effect, but manipulates the receiver or the listener, unfairly restricts his/her choices or uses false
information, it may be effective; however, it is not appropriate or ethical.
  Ethics is defined as the beliefs, values, and moral principles by which right or wrong is determined. Anywhere in the world ethics
and ethical behavior have been considered critical components of human behavior.
 According to communication scholars Clifford Christians and Michael Traber (1997), every culture depends on its existence on
norms that order human relationships and social institutions. These universal norms are the beliefs and behaviors that describe what
is normal, appropriate or inappropriate. They further said there are three universal cultural norms: (1) the value of truth, (2) respect for
another person’s dignity, and (3) the expectation that innocent people should not suffer harm.

The proponents of a universal ethical code suggest that a universal moral code is an ideal basis for evaluating right and wrong behavior,
including communication behavior.
An example of this moral code which is present in all religions of the world that provides guidance for how people should treat others is the
Golden Rule in Christianity: "Do unto others what you would have others do unto you."
It is not only philosophy and religion that focus on ethical code. Other professions too, have clear codes of ethics that identify appropriate and
inappropriate behavior. In the United States, for example, the National Communication Association has developed a Credo for
Communication Ethics (November 1999) to emphasize the importance of being an ethical communicator. Here is an excerpt:
“Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and
communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth
and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others.”

An ethical communicator must be sensitive to the needs of others by giving them the chance to choose instead of forcing people to
behave in a certain way, respect their privacy, not intentionally decreasing their feelings of self-worth, and being honest in presenting
information.

Chapter 2: Communication and Globalization

Globalization is likened to the road. The world was used to be thought of as vast, unchartered, distant, mysterious, unfathomable, and
staggering and no person had the slightest inkling how he or she could fathom it. Today globalization has changed the way people see the
world. It has become a road people can tread to discover many possibilities although for some this unknown road can paint terror and fear.
 The term ‘globalization’ is widely used to define a spectrum of scientific, economic, linguistic, cultural, social, and political changes
that have shaped the world over the past 50- odd years.
 Since globalization is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, it has been credited with a wide range of powers and effects.
 Its proponents claim that it is both ‘natural’ and an inevitable outcome of technological progress, and it can create positive economic and
political convergences.
 Many perspectives on globalization see it as differentiated in its effects and reception, culturally driven, either pre-modern or postmodern,
best captured by globalist or skeptical perspectives, and an equalizing phenomenon.
 The main goal to achieve here is how important globalization and communication can get in terms of learning and living.

Globalization
 Globalization is a complex phenomenon.
 It is the interactive co-evolution of millions of technological, cultural, economic, social, and environmental trends at all
conceivable spatiotemporal scales.
 Although economic in its structure, globalization is equally a political phenomenon, shaped by negotiations and interactions between
institutions of transnational capital, nation-states, and international institutions.
 Its main driving forces are institutions of global capitalism – especially transnational corporations – but it also needs the firm hand of
states to create enabling environments for it to take root.
 In the highly developed countries like the United States, Japan, the UK, and Germany, globalization is manifested.
 Developing countries such as the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand have respective prominent and quality products in the form
of coffee, fruits, handicrafts, and among others which truly make them globally competitive and seen.
 We have to remember at all times that globalization is equated with economic growth and recognition.
 Language and society always go hand-in-hand, for one cannot exist without the other.
 It has never been known to people that cultures will invariably linger and survive because of the core foundation lent by languages and
people.
 The road to globalization is paved by all these composite elements reflected in the working qualities, dynamics, and significances
of languages and cultures of diversified people all over the world.

The Origins of Globalization

 Globalization has taken a long stride after its first potent spark in the heart of the once mighty Great Britain.
 It was Great Britain that started placing value on English. Who would have thought that Latin, Italian, Spanish, Greek, and French
languages could be outshone and outweighed by the English language? Not even those famous linguists, semanticists, and
theorists had predicted the emergence and popularity of English. All throughout these hundreds of years, the spread of English
proved to be phenomenal and overwhelming.
 The Old World in the shape, form, and power of Great Britain seized and established territories and empires. It was through
communication, transportation, and trade that globalization took its speed and presence. The great empires of Great Britain
stretched from Europe to Africa.
 With the regal royalties among the kings and queens alongside their massive military strengths, English was indeed the force to
reckon with.
 The reversal of power, influence, and reign occurred in the late 18th century and early 19th century when the New World,
America, set sight of the golden opportunities. It was the undeniable display of grit, ambition, faith, innovation, and tenacity on the
part of the Americans that paved the shift of supremacy and domination. America took pride in science, technology, medicine, and
commerce. It was the vision and mission values of the Americans that also augmented the robustness and pervasiveness of
English. Today, English is known to be the ‘lingua franca’ or a universal language which is evident in the areas of education,
governance, communication, entertainment, and business.

Globalization and Communication

 Globalization is also evidenced as a structural phenomenon of growing and interfacing interdependence among different countries of
the world, for which the effects of a motion sensed at a distance has resulted in a stunning spectrum of social, economic, and
cultural changes that have shaped the world more than half a decade. Consequently, this evolution was galvanized by the emergence of
digital breakthroughs and scientific development. The details are well-pronounced in the continuing landscape of swift communications
and more accessible and shareable information.

Effects of Globalization
 According to Nikolay Daney (2017), easy access to information is a major effect of the process of globalization. The World Health
Organization, in its works focused on the cultural dimensions of globalization, has expressed the view that with the spread of
commerce, trade, and businesses delivering Internet, satellite TV, and mobile services, the costs of such information technologies
drop. He expressed that the decreased price makes it easier for people across the world to make use of the World Wide Web and
the resources available.
 In connection with education, there is now (what everybody takes delight in) edutainment. The Internet has been used to bring in
edutainment – an integration of education and entertainment which is a fun way of teaching and learning.

Entrepreneurial Marvels
 Daney (2017) asserted that globalization had influenced global communication by implementing new techniques
for business conduct among workers at international corporations.
 Long-distance travels are no longer necessary for business people should they require a meeting with a partner
overseas. Internet technology makes it possible to exchange business information and conduct video
conferences.
 Additionally, enhanced communication allows businesses to promote their products more efficiently on the
international market. This significantly changed the business world.
 In his works on the matter, U.S. economist John Thompson concludes that the advanced means of
communication have enabled international organizations to take faster and more adequate decisions in
accordance with the change in economic, political or social climates in a particular region. For example, as
described by Boonlert Supadhiloke, a professor of communication in Bangkok University, Thai-based
international technology corporations use advanced communications to respond to the growing demand for
Thai-made products.
 On the other hand, Metro Iloilo is one of the premier hubs in terms of Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) industry or offshore
outsourcing these days. In fact, there are American companies expanding their horizons by putting up branches all over the city.
 Moreover, some Hagwon or Korean English Academies in Iloilo have gone online in place of tutorials, learning sessions, and
classes. How illuminating the concept that Ilonggos are at par with the world in e-commerce, e-business, and BPOs!

Increase in Social Awareness

 It has been discussed in the relevant article, entitled “The Effects of Globalization on Global Communication”,
that the availability of information, which is a direct effect of the development of global communication systems,
has led to an increased social awareness of people across the world. Information technology and networks
enable them to share opinions, views, work on projects and research different areas. These are among the main
 reasons why the process of globalization is creating a sense of a global society. For example, through the use of
communication, many students from the developing countries enroll in university degrees in the developed
world. Education is only a single sector of the social awareness. Other effects, like social determination, have
also occurred -- the political unrest in Tunisia at the beginning of 2011 had been inspired by opinions and
political considerations shared over the social networks available on the web.
 Furthermore, Central Philippine University (CPU) ensures the remarkable powerbase and expands the definitive
scope of its International Programs Office that fosters different linkages with other universities. Engendering
better ties and pedagogical affinities with international and goal-directed academic institutions is one of the
noblest and commendable achievements CPU continues to aspire for.
 Making use of all mass media in keeping the Centralian spirit alive has proven once and for all that one’s declarative knowledge is power.
In fact, there are many Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese students who come to study under intensive and extensive
programs. The concerted effort is made possible because of linkages and collaborations. This simply shows how influential the use
and usage of social media with the aid of the Internet is.

Love in Two Words and Inspiration via Cyber Space

 Modern and sophisticated transportation by land, sea, and sky is no longer a far- fetched dream to many.
 The truth is there are a number of ferry terminals for fast crafts that appear like first-rate terminals found at the airport. Such is a
clear manifestation that globalization is at work.
 The same scenario goes for education programs that enable teachers and educators become part of the cultural immersion and
professional growth.
 Central Philippine University annually sends teachers as exchange faculty to several Korean universities.
 One good narrative about love in two worlds is that there was once a particular member of the exchange program team from the
Department of Languages, Mass Communication, and Humanities who had this unforgettable romance with the loving and caring female
Korean. That is indeed a unique by-product of globalization, too, right?

The Challenge
 Despite the wide range and ongoing progress, global communication fails to reach many people in all corners of the world.
 One research conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that at least 70 percent of the majority of people in
Africa have never made a single phone call or accessed the Internet. It stressed out the urgency for a much deeper or more thorough
use of communication technologies as part and parcel of the globalization process.
 In fact, the same narrative holds true for the provinces of Iloilo. Far-flung areas or remote barrios in many towns do not have even
commercial electric power for television and radio sets. The lack of social awareness and disconnectedness can be
disheartening and unsettling because at the height of millennium there are people who are depraved and deprived of the benefits and
essentials shared by globalization and communication.

Chapter 3: Local and Global Communication in Multicultural Setting

Communication is often defined as the sharing of information, ideas, and messages between two or more people.
 The primary goal, of course, of communication, is to understand the information being conveyed or shared and at the same time,
also to be understood.
 One of the ways successful communication can be achieved is to have the involved parties share a mutual knowledge of how the
signs and symbols used in communication come together to create meaning. However, communication is not as simple as sending
and receiving messages as it may involve interaction between people that come from different backgrounds and cultures. More often
than not, how people impart and understand a message would depend on how they derive or inject meaning into what is being said (or
not said). People read into information based on their knowledge of it, and their knowledge is ultimately shaped by the culture and
environment they are in.
 It is important to understand that what is defined as appropriate in terms of communication can differ from person to person or
from culture to culture. Communicating in a culturally appropriate way would require finding ways to impart and receive messages with
respect to the cultural differences between individuals involved in the communication process. Therefore, to be able to
communicate effectively in the local and global setting, one must be able to understand that there are internal and external
differences one must take into consideration before diving into the process of communication.

INPUT
 Effective communication is important in any interaction one gets involved in. In theory, effective communication is as simple as
sending a message to a receiver, the receiver decoding the message and understanding it and ideally, getting a response from that
said receiver. However, effective communication is not as simple as it theoretically sounds. In fact, effective communication involves a
 complex understanding of how symbols and signs are presented based on the cultures and environment of the communicators.
 Look at how one communicates within the boundaries of his/her home. Despite speaking the same language and coming from the
same background and culture, members of a family still experience miscommunication due, most likely, to differences in age,
gender, and personality or the context with which the message is interpreted.
 Now, take that same situation and place it in a global context. Imagine one’s self- interacting with people from different
backgrounds, cultures, and languages. The opportunity for miscommunication becomes more apparent the bigger the difference is
between the communicators’ language and culture

What is culture?
Culture is often defined as the learned patterns and attitudes shared by a group of people (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). According to Geert
Hofstede (1984), a noted social psychologist, culture is "the programming of the mind." He said:
Every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting which were learned throughout [his or her] lifetime.
Much of [these patterns are] acquired in early childhood, because at that time a person is most susceptible to learning and assimilating.
 Hofstede (1984) described how patterns are learned and developed through one’s day to day interactions with his surroundings -
with his family, community, school, work, and so on (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). Culture shapes one’s perceptions and ideas,
which in turn, would also shape how one interacts, gives meaning to and draws meanings from the signs, symbols, and messages
he or she may encounter every day.
What is Intercultural Communication?

 The differences of cultures and backgrounds affect communication. In fact, culture becomes a significant determiner of how people
approach any form of communication. One’s environment can significantly change his or her perception about certain issues in the
society which in turn would also determine how he or she would communicate the ideas he or she may want to tackle.
 In addition, people from different backgrounds often encounter difficulties in processing meanings and understanding messages due
to the difficulties in understanding certain factors of communication such as language, context, and meaning. Communication
problems often occur when there is a lack of understanding about how certain cultures "work."
 Ultimately, the only way to lessen miscommunication in an intercultural context is to understand that no two individuals are alike
and that every person comes from a background that may be different from one another. It is only by observing and learning the
cultures of other people that one can possibly lessen the gap created by cultural differences.

High- Context Cultures and Low-Context Cultures

 One framework for understanding intercultural communication is the concept of high and low context cultures. This concept refers to
the values cultures place upon direct and indirect communication (Neese, 2016).
 According to scholars, high-context and low- context cultures rely on the verbal and non- verbal cues present in the interaction to draw
meaning from the message. High-context cultures take into account the background information of the sender and receiver when
comprehending messages.
 Asian, African, Arab, central European and Latin American cultures are generally considered to be high-context cultures. For these
cultures, they tend to put a premium on the relationships they have with the people they interact with. Productivity would depend on
how these relationships work within and among the members of the group. Nonverbal cues are very important and more often control how
the message is understood more than the verbal cues, which may be more indirect than direct (Halverson & Tirmizi, 2008).
 On the other hand, western cultures with European roots, such as the United States and Australia, are generally considered to be low-
context cultures (Neese, 2016). Contrary to high- context cultures, low-context cultures prefer direct over indirect communication. They
may not put too much value on the non-verbal cues present in the communication. Relationships do not seem to play a significant role in
the communication process. Ideas and information are sent and received explicitly (Halverson & Tirmizi, 2008).
 Cultural differences shape how people interact and communicate with one other. According to Carol Kinsey Goman (2011), people in
Japan, a high-context culture, would rather communicate face-to-face than over electronic devices, which are often preferred by people in
highly-industrialized countries such as the US, UK, Germany, etc., which are considered low- context cultures. This is because the
Japanese place more value on the relationships they create and establish through communication.
 The United States can be considered as an individualistic culture (low-context) which emphasizes individual goals, whereas, Japan
can be seen as a collectivist culture (high- context) wherein a person defines himself based on his relationship with others (Spring,
2000).

Read some examples of Intercultural Communication below.

1. In Japan, for a period, the sale of Pampers diapers was not particularly promising. After a thorough study, it was discovered that the
reason for the low sale of the Pampers diapers was based on the importance the Japanese put on gender differences. The result was
the introduction of pink diapers for girls and blue diapers for boys.
 2. The American cowboy used in the ads of cigarette brand Marlboro is often seen as an effective symbol in most countries, except in
Argentina where their concept of a cowboy is often seen as a lower-class worker.

The Intersection of Cultures: Multicultural Education in the United States and the Global Economy (Joel Spring, 2000)

There are often misinterpretations of messages that are sent between cultures. Most times, these
misinterpretations are a result of differences in cultural values (Spring, 2000).

Potential Areas for Misinterpretation in Intercultural Communication

 According to AJ Schuler (2003), miscommunication in a cross-cultural setting can be minimized if one is aware of the different areas
wherein misinterpretation can occur. He came up with a list of potential hot spots in intercultural communication which more often
than not, have become areas for miscommunication. Looking into these areas and studying them before interacting with people from
other cultures can greatly help lessen the obstacles one would need to navigate in the communication process.

1. Opening and closing conversations- Different cultures have different ways of going about addressing someone
in terms of whom should be addressed first, how they should be addressed and when they can be addressed. Who
speaks first or who closes the conversation can also differ from one culture to another. In some situations, addressing
someone in a manner that is not common in a particular culture can often be seen as rude and disrespectful.
2. Taking turns during conversations- There are appropriate ways of interacting with other people in all cultures. In
some, turn- taking is often welcomed whereas, in other cultures, listening and reserving comment after the conversation is
preferred. Other cultures believe that giving an immediate response can be seen as a challenge or humiliation
3. Interrupting - In some culture, interruption during a conversation can be acceptable especially when it is within the context
of the interaction. However, in other cultures interrupting in the middle of a conversation, regardless of the point being
made, can be viewed as impolite.
4. Using Silence- The use of silence and the amount of silence in communication can be interpreted in many ways
depending on the culture in which one is interacting. In some cases, silence before a response to a conversation would give
the impression of thoughtfulness and consideration to the first speaker. On the other hand, silence can also come off as
a sign of hostility or indifference to others.
5. Using appropriate topics of conversation- Appropriateness of topics could largely depend on the situation one is in, and
the culture one belongs to. In some cultures, talking about money can be seen as unethical and embarrassing. In other cultures,
however, one can easily talk and ask about how much a person earns. In Asian cultures, talking about family issues with those who
are not part of the family can be construed as inappropriate. Many Asian cultures protect family issues fiercely. Appropriateness of
topics to discuss is not only determined by where one is from but also by their religion, educational background, etc.
6. Using Humor- In Western culture, humor is often used as an icebreaker in communication to help establish
rapport with others. In some ways, humor is used to make an atmosphere less stifling and more relaxed. In
other cultures and situations, however, using humor in a conversation may seem disrespectful.
7. Knowing how much to say - Knowing how much to say and when to say it can also determine the
success of communication. Many people from Western cultures prefer communicating in a straight-to-the-
point manner; whereas, those from Asian cultures are less confrontational, thereby utilizing a more indirect
approach in discussing certain matters.
8. Sequencing elements during a conversation- When to say things is as important as what one says and how
one says things. A speaker should always consider the timing in which he or she should introduce a topic,
negotiate, or ask for directions. Often, people struggle about when they should change direction in terms of
the conversation or how far into the conversation would it be appropriate to ask questions.
It is important to note, however, that culture being mentioned here is not merely limited to geographics.
Cultural differences may also be determined by gender, age, religion, education, position, political affiliations,
and so on. For example, some religions would strongly define the roles of men and women within the society
which would, in turn, dictate how they interact with people of the opposite sex.
Intercultural communication is an ever-evolving process. As cultures continue to grow, morph,
adapt and interact with each other, how people communicate will continue to change over time. As
technology and travel continue to make access to the rest of the world easier and more convenient, it is
important to understand that differences in culture should be studied to allow for better communication
and interaction among the members of the global community. No culture is better than the other, and no
culture is perfect. It is only when people understand this that they can learn to adapt and interact with one
another in a harmonious level.

Chapter 4: Varieties and Registers of English

One day a Filipino teacher from Iloilo and an Indian teacher from Kerala were conversing
with each other in English. Their talk began with the Indian complimenting the Filipino. In a heavily
accented voice, she said, "You have a lovely frock." Leaning forward, the Filipino lady responded, "Huh?"
Her Indian friend slowly repeated what she said but this time emphasized the word, "frock" while
pointing to her friend's floral printed black dress. "Oh, thanks," the Filipino promptly replied a bit
embarrassed for not understanding right away what her friend meant by what she said.
The two teachers both know how to speak English, but their accent and vocabulary can be
different because they learned English in two varying cultures. Perhaps they share a common
grammar, but they would most likely differ in diction or choice of words, intonation, and pronunciation.
In their written communication, it is possible that there may be fewer differences such as the spelling
of some words.

Language Variety
Each of the languages all over the world exhibits variation. For example, Hiligaynon, the language
of people living in Panay and Negros Occidental, can be spoken in varying intonations depending on
where people live. Moreover, it can also vary in vocabulary and grammar depending on the context it is
used. Any language for that matter exhibits variation as its users engage in a host of communication
activities every day.
In sociolinguistics, language variety or a lect refers to the distinctive form of a language.
According to Tom McArthur (1992), it can have two broad types: (1) user-related varieties and use-
related varieties (as cited in Nordquist, 2017). The first type is associated with the specific people who use it
and naturally with the places where they live. So English spoken by people in Australia is often called
Australian English and is an example of a user-related variety. Most people are aware that when the
word ‘Today’ is said as “To die,” the speaker must be an Australian. The second type is associated with
function such as literary English (the language used in literary texts) or business English (the language
used in business and corporate communication) and many others.
Varieties of English
 English is widely used in the world, and thus it has gained the reputation of being an
international language. Its spread may have been brought about by colonization, migration, and
globalization among others. As such English has evolved into a language with many varieties such as
American English, Korean English, Filipino English, etc. In the 1990s, an Indian linguist, Braj Kachru,
developed a model to explain the spread of
English and introduced the idea of World
Englishes. As shown in his concentric model, he
categorized the speakers of English as those
belonging to the Inner Circle, the Outer
Circle, and the Expanding Circle. English
users in the Inner Circle are native speakers
of the language: British, Americans,
Australians, etc. Those in the Outer Circle are
mostly people whose countries were colonized
by the British or the Americans. These include
Filipinos, Indians, Singaporeans to name a few.
Finally, many of the speakers of English in
the Expanding Circle belong to countries
which have not been subjugated by English-
speaking colonizers but have found the
language valuable for social and economic
mobility. Those who can afford English
lessons invest on learning the language
abroad or via the Internet. The Japanese,
Koreans, and Chinese are examples of English
speakers in the Expanding Circle. The Swedish, Danish, Finnish in Europe are also part of the expanding
circle.

Figure 1 Kachru's (1992) concentric circle model representing the spread of World Englishes

Filipino English and American English

As a former colony of the United States of America, the Philippines belongs to the outer circle
of the World Englishes model. It has continued to place a high premium on English as it occupies a
privileged position of being one of the official languages of the country as stated in the Philippine
Constitution. Although the country’s language policies have prioritized the strengthening of Filipino, the
national language and the preservation of other Filipino languages, English is still an important
language which serves as an alternative lingua franca among Filipinos who speak different regional
languages; as a secondary language in the educational system; and as a bridge language for doing
business with foreigners.
English has been used in the Philippines for more than a hundred years, and it has
evolved into a variety which is uniquely Filipino. For instance, spoken Filipino English often
disregards the ‘schwa' sound in the word, ‘bicycle.' Thus you will hear it said either as ‘bysikel’
or ‘bysikool.' This can be explained as resulting from the absence of this particular sound in
Filipino native languages. However, surprisingly many Filipinos can speak English with an
American or even British accent. It is not only in pronunciation that makes Filipino English
distinct from other varieties. There are English expressions that have come down to this
generation with a distinctive twist. For instance, on the stairs, one sees the sign, “Watch your
Steps.” which the British and Americans phrase as “Watch your Step.”
 Since the 1900s, the English taught to Filipinos has been the variety that the United States of
America has brought to the country. Thus, the grammar, spelling, and pronunciation of English by
those who successfully learn the language approximate the American English (AE) variety. However,
because of the interference of Filipino languages, many Filipinos could not pronounce English
approximating the AE native speaker. The lack of qualified English teachers also resulted to poor
proficiency in both written and spoken English. The advent of the contact center industry in the
Philippines at the turn of the century greatly increased the demand for English-proficient workers
which when met could translate to economic growth. Thus, the alarming deterioration of the English
proficiency of Filipinos has moved the Philippine government, the business sector, and educational
institutions to join forces to reverse the condition to attract more companies to outsource customer
care and other services through contact centers in the country.
Today contact centers in the Philippines do not only cater to American, but also to British,
Australian, and Canadian companies among others. Also, more Filipino nurses and other professionals
now work in different countries and former colonies of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Thus it may
be helpful for Filipino students to be familiar with both varieties of English.

Differences between American and British English

A popular anonymous quote says that America and Britain “are two nations divided by a common
language.” However, if you examine closely the two English varieties, there are more similarities than
differences.
The most noticeable difference between American and British English is vocabulary. For example, an
American lives in an apartment while a British lives in a flat. The American baby wears a diaper while
the British wears a nappy. Americans eat eggplant which the British call aubergine. A list of these words
is found in the Appendix. In addition to vocabulary, the spelling of certain words can reveal whether it
is American or British English. Americans usually spell these words without a ‘u’ – color, labor, favor,
savor unlike the British who spell them as colour, labour, favour, savour. The British also prefers these
spelling for ‘judgement’ and ‘acknowledgement’ which Americans spell as ‘judgment’ and
‘acknowledgment.’
Definitely, there is a difference in the way Americans and the British talk in English. Some people say
British English is harder to understand than American English. This may be the case if one is more familiar
with American English like most Filipinos. However, Europeans who are more exposed to British English
understand it more quickly than American English. To better appreciate the difference between the two
English varieties, watch some videos on YouTube that feature their distinguishing features.

Language Register
The way you talk or write in a language can often be influenced by the context or the situation
of the communication activity. When you write a note to a friend, you must have used the complimentary
close, “love,” but it will be an inappropriate choice for a letter written for the purpose of getting a job. In
verbal exchanges, you must have pronounced your words more carefully and said them loudly when
delivering a public speech than when you were simply conversing with friends. The varying ways by
which you use language to suit certain situations reflect what is known in linguistics as language register.

Language register is the style or level by which one communicates in a given context. Also
known as tone or tenor, it is the kind of language for a specific situation. It uses specialized words,
phrases, and contractions that may be exclusive only to one particular social setting and may sound
strange or off if used in another.
Language register is determined by its use, not by its users. Formal language register is used
mostly in written communication. Business letters, research reports, and professional emails call for
the use of a formal register. Certain writing conventions are strictly followed. For example, formal
language avoids the use of colloquialisms, contractions or first- person pronouns such as ‘I' or ‘We.'
Colloquialism means using familiar or ordinary words or phrases mostly in the context of a
conversation. A contraction is a shortened combination of two words which uses an apostrophe in the
place of the letter or letters that are removed such as isn't (is not), He'll (He will), or We've (We have).
On the other hand, informal language register is often the variety appropriate for ordinary
conversations, text messaging between friends and similar situations. It utilizes a casual tone and
usually abounds in contractions. In the case of bilinguals like most Filipinos, it can be characterized by
code-mixing or code-switching. A Hiligaynon-English bilingual can combine two languages in
expressing an idea like in the question: "Where kamo ma eat?” Sometimes a person can switch from
English to another language. “Where are you eating lunch? Maupod ko tani sa imo.” The speaker
expresses the first idea in English, but the second sentence is in Hiligaynon.

Formal and Informal Language in Written English

Here are sentences that further show the differences between formal and informal
registers in writing. The contrastive presentations demonstrate the appropriate registers for
contractions, phrasal verbs, slang, colloquialism, and first-person pronouns particularly in the
context of formal reports.

1. Contractions
 Informal: The latest gadgets canʼt be introduced due to funding restrictions.
 Formal: The latest gadgets cannot be introduced due to funding restrictions.
2. Phrasal or Two-Word Verbs
 Informal: The balloon was blown up for the experiment.
 Formal: The balloon was inflated for the experiment.
3. Slang/Colloquialism
 Informal: Teachers still count on students to use correct grammar in essays.
 Formal:Teachers expect students to use correct grammar in essays.
4. First Person Pronouns
 Informal: I considered various theoretical frameworks for the study.
 Formal: Various theoretical frameworks were considered for the study.

Five Styles in Spoken Language

A popular model for the levels of spoken English was introduced by Martin Joos in the 1960s. These
are frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.
Frozen. This style is used when printed unchanging language like Biblical quotations or any
text using literary language are delivered in situations like weddings, funerals or formal public
ceremonies. It is also called static register and often uses old language. Archaic words or expressions
are those not used for everyday conversation but sometimes become part of present-day communication
to lend to it an old-fashioned flavor. Some examples are the words thy (your) and art (are) as when
Christians recite the line “Our Father who art in heaven, Hallowed be thy Name.” from The Lord’s
Prayer.
Formal: This register can be described as a one-way, uninterrupted presentation which uses
technical vocabulary, complex and divergent grammatical structure, and careful and standard speech. It
is common for plenary speakers of conferences to use this tone.
Consultative: The most operational among the five styles, it has two-way participation as exemplified
 by a regular conversation between a teacher and a student or any two persons working in the
same company. It is also the style used in small group discussion. It is spontaneous, so people
tend to repeat some unnecessary words such as "uh huh," "I see," etc., or choose the wrong word or
even use slang or jargon. Slang is an informal, non-standard vocabulary (i.e., bestie for best friend) while
jargon is a specialized or technical vocabulary of a group or a special activity. The sentences used
tend to be shorter and usually delivered in average speed.

Casual: This style is often used in conversations with friends and family in a social setting like a
picnic or a sports event. Sentences are usually shortened, and ellipsis and slang are common.
Ellipsis is a sudden leap from one topic to another.
Intimate: This tone is used by close members of a family or friends. Intonation can be more
important than wording or grammar. It can use private vocabulary and many non-verbal messages.

Choosing the Appropriate Language Variety and Language Style

Living in a multicultural setting poses many challenges in communication. One may have to
learn a second or a third language to avail of opportunities for educational and economic
advancement. In acquiring the second or third language, one must work really hard to reach the
required proficiency level for a particular job or educational pursuit. However, one must not discount the
value of one’s native or first language because it remains a vital tool for expressing ideas and
emotions.
Given this scenario, people who desire to be effective communicators must choose the
best language variety and register to express their ideas in. They can do this by a careful analysis
of the place and the time of the communication event; the people involved; its end or purpose; the
sequence or organization of the speech acts; the tone appropriate for the event; the language,
whether written or spoken; the rules or norms to be met; and the kind of communication
activity.
Selecting the most appropriate language variety and register may not necessarily result to
complete success, but it can be the first step to its realization.

Chapter 5: Text and Context Analysis for Purposive Communication

As global society evolves, the division of world citizens is slowly diminishing. What used
to be segmented by language, ethnicity, creed, or culture, the global society has connected
individuals through communication, knowledge, information, and network. Globalization
aims to make it possible for everyone to have a collaborative culture where individuals,
despite differences in genetics, education, cultures, traditions, aspirations coexist, work, and
learn together. Sharing and networking are bywords of global people who intend to outgrow
the tendency to subscribe to a social construct that defines “to each their own” mentality.
Today, people in many different countries share common cultural experiences and
information vital to the understanding of various events around the world. The global
society paved the way toward intercultural communication.

Language and Culture Factors in Communication

Purposively, human communication requires an acceptable code to be understood.
Since the English Language is the accepted global lingua franca, it is well noted that, officially,
it becomes the language for transacting business. As a system, language has rules in
production of sounds, formation of words, construction of sentences, and expression of
meanings. These rules are learned and used appropriately for communication purposes.
Language code helps people understand each other when they belong to the same
speech community as they share a set of rules in the language system and process. They
speak their mother tongue or first language. They acquire this language in their community. As
they recognize the need to deal with others outside their commuity, they discover the use
of other languages for certain reasons. They learn their second language either formally
when they go to school or informally on their own effort. Hence, language acquisition and
learning are significant processes in human communication activities.
When individuals visit another community barely visited by others from other
communities, despite the use of a common language, differences get in the way in expressing
the same concept, pronunciation, articulation, or even spelling of the same words. But with
people’s strong desire to communicate, contact and interaction with others bring about
language learning to the core. This makes communication possible because the effort of
adapting allows individuals to maximize the use of language to productively and effectively
communicate with others in a global society. It is also important to understand that to be able to
communicate effectively, speakers or writers need more than language rules. Aside from
knowledge of the language, its rules on grammar, vocabulary used, construction of
sentence, meanings of utterances are also interpreted in the context in which they are made.
The global world requires effective communication across cultures. Even
professionals struggle to understand the speech or interpret the behavior of speakers of other
languages and those coming from other cultures . Different cultures have various ways of
assigning meanings to words. Language is a reflection of this culture. Behaviors also bring about
miscommunication. Cultural differences are sometimes expressed in body language. Eye contact,
gestures, and facial expressions are examples of non-verbal communication which may have
different interpretation and meaning in different cultures. Pesonality stereotyping give assumptions
of characteristics of individuals from a particular cultural or social group. Some assumptions about
personal characteristics are negative and hostile which become a barrier in cross- cutural
communication. These are some cultural barriers that will make communication difficult when not
properly understood.

The Complexity of Intercultural Communication

Individual differences brought about by race, gender, age, faith, language, and culture make
communication very complicated. Despite shared knowledge and world-wide transmission of
information, having a common interpretation of message may seem impossible. There is always a
breakdown in communication when meanings are misinterpreted and misunderstood. It is a challenge to
speakers and writers to cut across a message that is well understood by listeners and readers who
use different languages. Some reasons for miscommunication may be attributed to the following:
 Verbal utterances can cause misunderstanding among people in a multi-cultural setting.
Terms which are not appropriately used may give ambiguous references that could be interpreted
in different ways. People coming from different region who speak fast have the tendency to
mispronounce words. Articulation may produce different sounds of words that lead to
misunderstanding of terms used when given wrong meaning.
 Non-verbal cues also contribute to misunderstanding. Misinterpretations of gestures and body movements
may lead to giving wrong meaning of the message. It is necessary that speakers and writers become
aware of the racial identities and differences in non-verbal codes of the individuals they are communicating
with.
 Cultural diversity is another source of miscommunication. People have different languages, lifestyles,
ways of thinking, speaking, and behaving. These differences are expressed in the manner they communicate
with others. Understanding the culture of other people will help lessen miscommunication.

However, in today’s complex and pluralistic society, communicating and decoding meaning becomes more
complicated as it is colored by many factors. Communication is now a challenge which is addressed by the use of
multimodal means.

The principle of education advocated by Confucius in the above graphic is the

underlying need of using multimodal communication. Multimodal communication includes
texts which, according to Roxanne Doerr (n.d.), are texts which “communicate their
message using more than one channel of communication.” This means communication
is not the simple verbal or textual message of the bygone years. A successful communication
should involve the elements of a WOVEN (Written, Oral, Visual, Electronic and Nonverbal)
process, which according to Kathryn Hue Harrison, is “in short, all forms of communication.”
She wrote that “when we communicate with someone, be it through a formal presentation, a
job interview, or via email, our audience derives meaning from more than just our words
(they) communicate with their classmates, their peers notice not only their words, but their
body language, facial expressions, vocal tone, physical proximity to the people they’re
speaking with–all of these elements impact their relationships with their peers in a job
interview, for instance, facial expressions, pacing of speech, and vocal inflection will be
integral to keeping their listener’s active attention; the content of the words they speak
only matter if other forms of communication work effectively with their words.”
Examples of these multimodal texts are magazine articles, advertisements, oral
presentations, blogs or video conferences with pictures, audio clips or with moving images.
These multimodal modes of communication are, for the most part, more interesting and are
patronized by young people exposed to a multimedia environment. This makes pure
lectures in classrooms as boring as eating oatmeal every day for a year, and might make
teachers in classroom lectures in the future, a thing of the past.
The phenomenon of multimodal communication has greatly challenged educators,
businessmen and advertisers to sell their products or services and practically everyone who
wants to be understood well. Educators need make their lectures more interesting by using
technology as part of their teaching/learning tools. Businessmen have to make convincing
sales pitches with presentations that will close deals. Advertisers, too, must market products
and services that appeal to their target customers. Even ordinary people need to understand the
intended meaning of a certain message. Without that shared meaning between the speaker and
listeners, communication blunders often happen.
Communication blunders happen when multimodal texts take on new meanings or
connotations and are interpreted differently. These are, oftentimes, caused by differences in culture,
race, language, background and other reasons. Products have been pulled out of shelves and
advertisements have failed due to misinterpretations of their advertisements. Others have
offended a certain group of people just because of a wrong word or phrase, causing rifts and tensions.
From text messages, emails, advertisements with subliminal content, today’s society is constantly
flooded with them. Behind those messages are content which might be misconstrued due to racial or
cultural diversity. These differences can twist or change the meaning of the intended message.
Keeping in mind how the process works, consider the following suggestions in organizing
and analyzing multi-modal communication to avoid future communication blunders:
 1. Plan the message carefully. This is done by the source. Note the following
questions that will help the sender figure out the efficiency and effectiveness
of the communication.
 Why are you communicating? Determine your purpose, objectives.
 With whom are you communicating? Know your audience.
 What do you want to say to answer what the audience need to know? Outline your
content or message.
 How are you sending your message? Identify the ways and means to connect with your
audience.

2. Create a clear and well-crafted message by encoding a precise message that

considers not only the complete content, but also the perspective of the
receiver, how the message will be perceived and received.

 Analyze what you want and need to say.

 Anticipate the receiver’s reaction to the message.
 Choose carefully the words, the appropriateness of the language, and the tone of the
communication. For oral communication, body language is also considered. In written
communication, reviewing your mechanics of style, avoiding the use of jargon/slang,
familiarizing with company’s writing policies are a must. Graphics, pictures, charts, etc. may be
necessary for clarity of message. Understanding socio-cultural context is a great help for
effective cross-cultural communication.

3. Choose the right channel that gives way to a more efficient way of
communicating as this considers the following:
 Some subject matter has sensitivity and emotional content.
 Minute details are easily communicated.
 The receiver may have specific preference.
 Eliminating time constraints as factor in miscommunication
 There may a need for asking and answering questions.

4. Receive and interpret the message by decoding clearly the content of the
communication. In oral communication, active listening is a factor to avoid
breakdown in communication. Emphatic listening also helps in decoding a message
accurately as this will make the receiver understand the emotions and feeling
that the speaker is expressing. Some useful tips are:
 Body language when properly understood can be very useful in deciphering the message.
 Distractions should be avoided.
 Acknowledge a well-understood point by nodding or smiling.
 Process what the speaker is saying.
 Let the listener speak to clarify topic of communication.
 Avoid interrupting the speaker at any point of communication.

5. Identify the noise, also known as interference, which can be either internal or
external. This is an element that inhibits the message to be conveyed effectively.
Some questions may be helpful to determine that messages are sent properly:
 Is the message accurately conveyed?
 Is it received by the concerned or proper authority?
 Does the receiver respond as expected?
 Is the response appropriate to the message?
 6. Determine the context that refers to the environment surrounding the message.
It includes things, places, time, event and attitude of the sender and receiver.
Analyzing this context, a communicator may consider the following:
 Do a simple environmental scanning (where the communication came from, when it was
sent, who sent it).
 Check personal/network contacts.
 Determine certain cultural factors surrounding it.

7. Recognize the feedback that helps determine if the message is well understood. Body language is an important
source of clues to the effectiveness of oral communication. Being aware of the body language of the
receiver/listener gives the speaker an opportunity to adjust the message level of understanding of the receiver
for better communication. Observing the facial expressions, gestures, and posture of the receiver of the
communication, the communicator can see the following:
 level of confidence
 defensiveness
 agreement
 comprehension
 lack of interest
 lack of engagement with the message
 truthfulness

In addition to the understanding of factors affecting global communication,

knowledge of communication process and enhancement of communication skills will
ensure successful exchange of messages. Learning the language, understanding culture,
and the ability to process the messages will help communicators make sense of the
ideas, feelings, and thoughts conveyed from one individual to another. Also, regardless of
modes of communication such as face- to-face interaction, video-audio conference, and
text –based communication, human communication is interpersonal, purposive and in this
global society, it is intercultural. Human communication is a process.

Considering how the different elements of communication such as source or

sender/encoder, medium, channel, receiver, feedback, context, and noise inter-relate with each
other, a well-processed communication leads to effective interpretation of meanings of
different messages. Already discussed in the previous Unit, the communication process gives
a procedural way of understanding the text and the meaning it conveys.

Since communication skills affect intepretation of meanings, it is wise to know how

good your communication skills are. Answer the communication self-assessment below.

Approaches to Intercultural Communication

Since most of the global communication is influenced by language and cultural factors
, the study of intercultural of communication will be a great help in understanding the
exchange of messages across cultures. The following approaches are taken from the study of
Martin and Nakayama (2010).

1. Functionalist approach is useful in considering the role of behavior in communication. This

approach is based on social sciences discipline, particularly psychology. The relationship between
 culture and communication can be predicted through observation. In this approach analysis of
context is not considered but significant in identifying cultural variations and recognizing cultural
differences in communication.
2. Interpretative approach is founded on sociolinguistics which aims to describe behavior.The
study assumes that human behavior is voluntary and creative. It presupposes that culture is created
and maintained through communication.This approach emphasizes the study in context of
cultural differences in communication.

3. Critical approach has interdisciplinary foundation. It focuses on the change of behavior

based on the assumption of reality which is subjective and material. It considers the changeable
nature of human behavior. It uses textual analysis of communication media. This approach is
helpful in understanding culture as a means of power struggle. It recognizes
economic,social,and political forces affecting culture and communication with the assertion
that all intercultural interactions are characterized by power.

Analyzing Intercultural Communication Text Analysis

The importance of understanding the different approaches to the study of the intercultural
communication is underscored by the need to be aware or conscious of the cultures of
people. Besides, knowing the cultural identities and background of other people, the
ability to analyze how they think and what they say will help build bridges and foster
goodwill. The messages found in the text of correspondence or important documents should
be carefully evaluated to be able to respond effectively.
Texts refers to books, essays, discussions, newspapers articles, historical
documents, speeches, advertisements, correspondence, conventions or conference
readings, literary selections, or any other events of communicative language. An
evaluative study of this communicative occurrence is called content analysis. To do this, text
is coded and broken down into categories on a variety of levels such as words, phrases,
sentences, or themes. Content analysis may either be conceptual or relational. The text is
examined focusing on its content to explore the linguistic, social, cultural, affective and
historical significance of the message. The following are other possible uses of content
analysis:
 determining international differences in communication content
 recognizing the presence of propaganda
 identifying intentions with focus on communication trends of an individual, group, or institution
 describing attitudinal and behaviotal responses to communication
 determining psychological or emotional state of persons or groups

Context Analysis
Since content analysis is a direct study of communication through text or transcripts, it focuses
on the aspect of social interaction as it provides insight into complex modes of human thoughts
and language use. However,its limitation is on its disregard of the context that produced the
text as well as the state of things after the text is produced.
The environment, which includes when the text is produced, where it originated,
and how or why the communication existed, is an important aspect in the analysis of the
message. The analysis of the background or surrounding circumstances of the text is known
as contextual analysis. Gathering information about the text helps understand the influence
of socio-cultural or even historical factors in communication. Intercultural communication,
which sometimes is either text explicit or implicit requires assessment of the context to
understand better the text and give appropriate interpretation of the meaning of the message.
The following questions will be helpful in the evaluation of the text reflecting different
cultures:

1. What is the source of the message?

2. Who is the sender?
3. What is the message?
4. What is the purpose of the message?
5. How is the message conveyed by the text and/or image?
6. Who is the target recipient/reader of the message?
7. What are the other means of the presentation of the message?

In literary analysis, as C.S. Lewis puts it, “literature adds to reality, it does not simply
describe. It enriches the necessary competencies that daily life requires and provides; in
this respect, it irrigates the deserts that our lives have already become.” Analyzing literary
text includes the study of structure and style of selection. It is concerned with the
examination of grammar, lexis, semantics, phonological properties and discursive devices
which is also known as the stylistic properties of literary arts. Stylistics in literature examines
oral and written text in order to determine crucial characteristic of linguistic properties,
structures, and patterns influencing perception or interpretation of the texts. The analysis
of literary texts serves the following functions:
Interpersonal function is all about the relationship that the text is establishing with its
recipients, the use of either personal or impersonal tone, speech acts, and the mood of the
statement are analyzed.
Ideational function is concerned with the means of representing the reality by the text,
the way the characters are represented together with the arrangement or organization of
the information and meaning the text is conveying.
Textual function is the reference of the sentences which makes the text cohesive and
coherent. It serves the purpose of studying the discursive devises such an ellipsis,
repetition, anaphora. Likewise, it focuses on the effectiveness of the stylistic properties of
the texts to determine their suitability to the perceived meaning and contribution to overall
interpretation.
Understanding literary selections involves critical thinking, and it is significant to
examine how a text works, why, and what message is conveyed, then communicating
that clearly makes up the whole of texual analysis. The following can serve as a guide to
text analysis of literary arts:

Analyze the rhetorical context. This studies the external factors or circumstances surrounding
the writing situation which includes the purpose, audience, and focus.

1. Identify the writer/ persona in the text.

2. Give the role or position of the writer/persona.
3. Identify intended reader/audience.
4. Clarify exigency of purpose of writing.

Examine the textual features .This includes the distinctive formal aspects of utterance, text, or art work in any
medium.
1. Clarify concern or issue addressed in the text.
2. Give the position taken by the writer.
 3. Assess language used in the text.
4. Identify text specific features supporting the issue or the writer’s stand.
5. Evaluate suggestive level of meanings found in the text.

Place the text in a new context. This helps identify how the text relate to other texts and how
might another writer or even you use the text. This includes the contextuality and
intertextuality of literary readings.

1. Identify the influences of external factors on the text (socio-political and cultural context).
2. Assess the relationship of the text with other text across culture.
3. Check the universality of the meaning of the text.

Interpreting the meaning and communicating this orally or in writing is what the reader does
in response to the text. It is important to note that a text can be meaningful to a reader
who cannot express this meaning in words. Literary interpretation includes decoding meanings
hidden in the writing of the author or even beyond the text itself. ”What the text really
means” may express levels of understanding of what imaginative writing is and how literature
works. In your literary reading, you read in the context of your own world. What you
encounter is not just the world of the author; you encounter the world of the text, and you
relate it to the world where you alone do not exist. The meaning which the text has for the
reader emerges from the interaction of the reader’s world with the world of the text and
the outside world where the text has not existed but has significant meaning. It is not
unusual to find meaning that does not reside in the text or in the author’s intentions.
More often than not, the meaning happens as the text is read and reflected upon.

Literary texts distinguish themselves from other texts by the subtleties and
intricacies of their multi-level meanings and by the common fact that the actual meaning
of the text is almost always hidden and implicit in the fabric of the work’s devices.
Meaning in literature is; therefore, something that needs to be determined not merely on
the basis of a face value understanding of the words in it but through complete evaluation
of the signifying complexity of the rhetoric, figures of speech, images, symbols, allusions,
connotations, suggestions and implication of the entire text. The reading of literature
is in the perspective of building connections among nations and culture.

Chapter 6: Communication Aids and Strategies using Tools of Technology

The first thing in mind to a successful presentation is good speaking skills and visual aids
to assist you. This can be refined through creating effective presentations with much
practice and experience. The purpose of this section is to provide you basic information on
tools to assist you in creating effective presentations with much emphasis on visual aids which
are essential in successful presentations.

Selecting Audio and Visual Aids

 Communication tools are important as you deliver your speech through a visual and/or
audio presentation. Choosing appropriate tools to deliver a message to the audience is
essential such as the following:

 Visual aids - these include handouts, PowerPoint, overhead transparencies, slides, flip-charts,
blackboards, whiteboards, and other forms of print media.
 Audio aids – these include digital audio (MP3/4) players, compact discs, and radio broadcast.
 Audiovisual aids – these include computer multimedia, videotapes, and films.

Major Steps
Planning. Do a quick rehearsal in the room to use, prior to the actual presentation to ensure
everything will run smoothly. Include the audio and visual aids during rehearsal, and make
sure that each audio/visual-aid aid is appropriate for the size of the room and can be seen
by all participants.

Presenting. Use a variety of audio and visual aids appropriate for the audience during the
presentation. A mix of aids during your presentation helps maintain participants’ interest.
See to it that you do not overuse audio aids because the lack of visual stimuli can be boring.

Delivering. Ensure that the use of the audio and visual aids does not interrupt the flow of the
presentation. To prevent boredom, plan group activities, ask questions and work in a break, if
appropriate. Use humor as it can not only put the audience at ease, but it can make you
more relaxed as well.

Major Details
Time and Budget. Selection of audio and visual aids should fit within the time and budget
frame. If time and budget are insufficient, don’t use poorly prepared audio or visual aid, but
instead, use simple aids such as whiteboard, black board, flip chart, or handouts. You can
consider professional digital videos, digital audios, or computer multi-media if large
timeframe and budget are available.

Audience Preference. See to it that the audio-visual aids are preferred by the audience or
participants to maximize their full attention.

Location and Size of Audience. The right visual aid should depend on the size of your audience.

 Determine the size of the audience whether large or small, and how they will be seated. For a smaller
group of 10 to 20 participants, a flip chart is an acceptable option if a PowerPoint presentation and DLP
projector are unavailable. Computer multimedia is best used for this number of participants if it is
available. A large screen projector is better if it is also available in the venue. A videotape presented via a DLP
projector is also a good option for a group of twenty or less

 For the optimum group size of 100 people, a large screen and a technical assistant are needed. Also, an
audience larger than 40 people likely requires a larger screen and a technical assistant to avoid delays
and technical troubles.
  Audio materials can be used regardless of the size of the audience; however, proper amplification
methods must be carefully observed to ensure that all participants can hear.

 Handouts are always useful for large or small crowds. They are best distributed before the actual the
actual presentation.
Facilities and Equipment. Check to be sure that the necessary equipment is available
(e.g., DLP projector, or large screen projector). Check the facilities to determine if certain
aids can be used such as the availability of DLP projector, large screen projector, and
computer. Check the room dimension, location of electrical outlets, whiteboard, or
blackboard to find out whether the equipment is working well. Power Point slides or a large
screen projector ideally requires the room to be darkened to positively impact the successful

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Audio and Visual Aids Preparation

General Guidelines
1. Keep your audio and visual aids simple. Ideally, use one aid to convey one concept and leave a lot of
space to make information more appealing.
2. Prepare visual aids in color, rather than black and white, for it is preferable as color is more effective in
getting the attention of the audience.
3. Be conservative on the volume of your materials. For example, too many handouts or slides tend to be
overwhelming and less effective.

Text on Visual Aids

Text on visual aids should be written in point form, not paragraph form. Use
highlighting tools such as bullets or arrows to emphasize important ideas.

Prepare aids visible enough to all participants. In general, one-inch lettering is

visible at 30 feet, two inches at sixty feet, and so on. There should only be a maximum of eight
to ten lines in a PowerPoint slide. Between lines, allow blank space of one and one-half
times the letter height.

Use three-inch lettering for a presentation prepared on a flip chart. Leave a blank
sheet between pages, so the audience will not see the next page before you are ready. Using
several colors will maintain interest and separate points. Use water-based pens as they
leak through less than permanent markers.
Diagrams and Charts on Visual Aids

Use charts and diagrams to graphically represent complex ideas or issues. They aid in
better understanding of the descriptive or narrative text written above or below it.

Use bar graphs or pie charts to represent numerical or statistical data. Bar graphs are
effective to show trends over time, while pie charts are effective when comparing parts to
the whole.
General Rules for Preparing AV Material

1. Always be conscious of the time limit for your presentation. Presenting 10 to 15 slides is adequate for
short presentations (15 minutes).

2. All slides must be in landscape format. Use color carefully; avoid color combinations resulting in a low
contrast.
3. The first slide should contain the title of your presentation and the presenter or group members' names.
This should be the only page where a university logo is permitted. You should also prepare the
following slides:
 A slide describing the objectives or the basic idea of your work
 A slide containing an outline of your topic
 A slide containing the conclusion of your topic

4. Keep your material simple and make sure that the font size in your slides is readable at a distance of 15
meters. Avoid cluttering of words and graphs to ensure readability of your text.
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