Chapter 1 communication.

This is activated in order to

achieve our goals, avoid miscommunication, and
COMMUNICATION PROCESSES, analyze and learn from our inevitable mistakes.
PRINCIPLES, AND ETHICS Communication is crucial for a person’s success.
The skill to talk with fluency and write with
efficiency may lead to a person’s fortune.
ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION Hence,communication has its daily relevance.

The importance of communication is related to d. Civic

various aspects:
There is a connection between communication
1. Communication is integrated in all parts of and a person’s civic engagement. We are
our lives. engaged with the world around us, participate in
our society, and become a virtuous citizen. Civic
Communication is valued in the real world and it engagement refers to working to make a
is integrated in all episodes of our lives. difference in our communities by improving the
quality of life of community members; raising
Our lives consist of four domains:
awareness about social, cultural, or political
a. Academics issues; or participating in a wide variety of
political and nonpolitical processes (Ehrlich,
Communication skills are tied to academic 2000). The civic part of our lives is developed
success. Students who are good at writing and through engagement with the decision making
speaking perform better not only in the English that goes on in our society at the small-group,
classroom but also in the content areas and all local, state, regional, national, or international
other areas of learning. Students who can level.
effectively communicate in English have more
confidence in their communication tasks. They
undoubtedly receive high grades and are less
2. Communication meets needs.
likely to drop out of school. Students are
required to enroll a general education course in Communication helps us achieve certain
English in order to develop their English physical and instrumental needs, and feeds into
language skill. This soft skill can help them our identities and relationships.
succeed in the academe and set them for more
success in the workplace. a. Physical needs – affects well-being

b. Professional b. Instrumental needs – helps us achieve long-

term and short-term goals
Desired communication skills vary from one
career to another. However, English courses c. Relational needs – maintains social bonds and
provide important skills essential for functioning interpersonal relationships
in entry-level jobs. Despite the well-documented
need for communication skills in the d. Identity needs – allows us to present ourselves
professional world, many students still resist in a distinct manner
taking communication courses. In such a 3. Communication is guided by culture and
competitive job market, being able to context.
demonstrate that you have received
communication instruction and training from O’Neil (2006) defines culture is a full range
communication professionals can give you the of learned human behavioral patterns which
edge needed to stand out from other applicants
or employees. includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
customs, capabilities, and habits acquired by
c. Personal man as a member of the society. Conversely,
context is the circumstances that form the
Having a vocabulary to name the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and
communication phenomena in our lives in terms of which it can be fully understood
increases our ability to alter consciously our (Oxford Dictionary, 2018). Culture and context
also influence how we perceive and define • Use of descriptive words
communication. Cultures vary in terms of
having a more individualistic or more • Emphasis on certain phrases
collectivistic cultural orientation. • Volume of voice
4. Communication is learned. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION – a
Humans are born with the capacity to learn form of communication which refers to the
a language and the ability to communicate. sending of messages to another person using
Communication is learned rather that innate. It is methods or means other than the spoken
learned through human contact. However, our language. Basically, it is communication without
manner of communication varies from one the use of words.
person to another based on culture and
NON-VERBAL CUES – may both be
context. intentional and unintentional and is categorized
5. Communication has ethical implications. in two (2) categories:

Communication is more concerned with the • Non-verbal cues produced by the body
decisions people make about what is right and
• Non-verbal messages produced by the
wrong. Communication ethics deals with the broad setting such as time, space, and silence.
process of negotiating and reflecting on our
actions and communication regarding what we ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
believe to be right and wrong.
The elements of the communication process
involve a sender, receiver, message, channel,
and feedback. In the process, however, one
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION may encounter other factors such as an
When people speak to people in other cultures, interference or ―noise’ that may distort the
sometimes language is one of the barriers to message or fail the process and an ―adjustment‖
communicating. However, even when people that is required to perform to solve or remove
are speaking the same language, cultural the barrier for effective communication. Below
differences may affect the way they are the elements of the communication process:
communicate. These differences may be seen in 1. SENDER – a person, group, or
people’s verbal and non-verbal communication organization who initiates the communication.
styles— the two forms of communication (Cox,
The sender may also be called the source,
2018). encoder, speaker, writer, or communicator. The
1. VERBAL COMMUNICATION – a form sender is initially responsible for the success
of transmitting messages using word symbols of the message. Her/his experiences, attitudes,
representing ideas and objects. It comes in two knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture
forms: influence the message.

• ORAL COMMUNICATION – includes face-

to-face interaction, speaking to someone 2. MESSAGE – an element transmitted in
on the phone, participating in meetings, communication consists of the idea, opinion,
delivering speeches in programs, giving information, feeling, or attitude of the sender.
lectures or discussions Before encoding the message, the sender must
consider the receiver’s knowledge and
• WRITTEN COMMUNICATION – uses assumptions, along with what additional
symbols that are hand- written or printed with an information the sender wants the receiver to
electronic device take. More importantly, the sender should use a
language that is understood by the sender and
Factors that affect verbal communication: mentally visualize communication from the
• Tone of voice receiver’s point of view.
 3. CHANNEL – a pathway or medium process which may distort hearing and may
through which the message travels to reach distract the receiver’s attention.
its destination. It may be oral, written, visual.
The channel may vary depending on the Examples: inappropriate channel, incorrect
characteristics of communication. grammar, inflame

• Oral – more effective when an immediate ISSUES IN COMMUNICATION

feedback is needed
Essen:al issues to be aware of in any
• Written – more effective when the message communica:on situa:on are:
must be delivered to many people
1. CONTENT refers to the information and
• Visual/Electronic – used for distant experiences that are provided to the receiver
communication of the communication process. Content
must be presented in a language that makes
4. RECEIVER – a person who receives,
a grammatical sense.
analyzes, understands, and interprets the
message. The receiver can also be called the
2. PROCESS refers to the way the message
decoder, reader, or listener. The message is
is presented or delivered.
examined by the receiver assigning some
type of meaning to it. The receiver’s 3. CONTEXT is the situa7on or
knowledge, experiences, beliefs, among environment in which your message is
others may influence her/his interpretation of delivered.
the message.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
5. FEEDBACK – the receiver’s response that
provides information to the sender. It is the These principles will help you to make your
return process in which the receiver provides communication more informative and will
both verbal and non-verbal signals to show aid you to gain positive effects:
whether the message is understood or not.
Verbal signals may take the form of a spoken 1. Principle of Clarity – the information or
comment or a written message while the non- message should be coded or worded clearly.
verbal signal may be a long sigh, a smile, or
some other actions. Bovee and Thill (1992) said 2. Principle of Attention – the receiver’s
that even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form attention should be drawn to the message to
of response. Without feedback, however, make the communication effective.

the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has 3. Principle of Feedback – there should be
interpreted the message correctly. It is a very feedback information from the receiver to
important element in the oral communication know whether s/he understood the message
process because it makes the whole process a in the same sense in which the sender has
dynamic, two-way interactive event. meant it.

6. ADJUSTMENT – done if the message is 4. Principle of Informality – informal

distorted or is not clearly understood by the communication may prove effective in
receiver. The feedback provides the sender to situations when formal communication may
adjust her/his message or send the same message not achieve its desired results
but adjust her/his means of transmission or
language to get a better response or a positive 5. Principle of Consistency – consistency
feedback. avoids conflict in an organization;
inconsistency leads to confusion
7. NOISE – a form of distortion, barrier, or
obstacle that occurs in any of the phases of oral 6. Principle of Timeliness – communication
communication process. It may be visual, aural, should be done in real time so that it helps,
physical, or psychological in forms may and it is relevant in implementing plans;
interfere with or break the whole communication delayed communication may not serve any
purpose
7. Principle of Adequacy – information the well- being of families, communities,
should be complete; is essential to take and society.
proper decisions and make action plans;
inadequate information may delay action 5. Promote communication climates of
and create confusion. caring and mutual understanding that respect
the unique needs and characteristics of
COMMUNICATION ETHICS individual communicators.

COMMUNICATION ETHICS – deals with 6. Condemn communication that degrades

the behavior of an individual or a group individuals and humanity through distortion,
which is governed by their morals and in intimidation, coercion, and violence, and
turn affects communication through the expression of intolerance and
hatred.
ETHICAL COMMUNICATION –
enhances human worth and dignity 7. Commit to the courageous expression of
personal convictions in pursuit of fairness
UNETHICAL COMMUNICATION – and justice.
causes threats to the quality of
communication 8. Advocate sharing information, opinions,
and feelings when facing significant choices
NATIONAL COMMUNICATION while also respecting privacy and
ASSOCIATION (NCA) - developed the confidentiality.
Credo for Ethical Communication which
reminds that communication ethics is 9. Accept responsibility for the short-
relevant across contexts and applies to every term and long-term consequences of our
channel of communication. own communication and expect the same of
others.
NCA stipulates that ―ethical communication
is fundamental to responsible thinking, Chapter 2 COMMUNICATION &
decision making, and the development of GLOBALIZATION
relationships and communities within and
across contexts, cultures, channels, and COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE
media. COMPETENCE

1. GRAMMATICAL COMPETENCE -
the domain of grammatical and lexical
CREDO FOR ETHICAL capacity
COMMUNICATION by the National
Communication Association (NCA) 2. SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCE -
an understanding of the social context in
1. Advocate truthfulness, accuracy, which communication takes place, including
honesty, and reason as essential to the role relationships, the shared information of
integrity of communication. the participants, and the communicative
purpose of their interaction
2. Endorse freedom of expression, diversity
of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to 3. DISCOURSE COMPETENCE - the
achieve the informed and responsible ability to interpret individual message
decision making fundamental to a civil elements in terms of their
society. interconnectedness and of how meaning is
represented in relationship to the entire
3. Strive to understand and respect other discourse
communicators before evaluating and
responding to their messages. 4. STRATEGIC COMPETENCE - the
coping strategies that communicators
4. Promote access to communication employ to initiate, terminate, maintain,
resources and opportunities as necessary to repair and redirect communication
fulfill human potential and contribute to
EXPECTED SKILLS FOR COLLEGE multiple identities that lead to the unlocking
GRADUATES (National Communication of human potential in the development of
Association) intelligence, knowledge, and creativity for a
peaceful and productive society.
1) State ideas clearly.
2) Communicate ethically. 1. GLOBAL MINDSET - is a
3) Recognize when it is appropriate psychological process that represents
to communicate. patterns of an individual or group
4) Identify their communication thinking. It is a fixed mental attitude
goals. that leads people to see things and
5) Select the most appropriate and events from a specific lens through
effective medium for perception and reasoning.
communicating. 2. UNFOLDING THE SELF - the
6) Demonstrate credibility. ability to look for shared
7) Identify and manage communication symbols and project
misunderstandings. the self into another person’s mind by
8) Manage conflict. thinking the same thoughts, feelings,
9) Be open-minded about another’s and emotions as the person.
point of view. 3. MAPPING THE CULTURE - ability to
10) Listen attentively. contrast cultural differences that may
motivate us to prefer alternative styles
GLOBAL COMMUNICATION of cultural expressions and engender in
COMPETENCE COMPETENCE - the us a desire to retool so that we can
ability of individuals that relates effectively better function with the demands of
to self and others in daily life. global environment and cope with the
changing environment rapidly.
COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE - an 4. ALIGNING THE INTERACTION -
innate individual trait that is not related to requires individuals to foster the
personal intellect or education, thus, is an ability of cultural adroitness by which
internal ability that is enhanced and they can function effectively and
luminated through the promotion of appropriately without violating their
empathy in the process of socialization In counterpart’s norms and rules to reach
the global communication context, a global civic society.
competence further requires individuals to
be equipped with the ability to GLOBALIZATION Definitions of
acknowledge, respect, tolerate and Globalization:
integrate cultural differences to be
qualified for enlightened global citizenship 1. Globalization is associated with
deterritorialization
MODEL OF GLOBAL
COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE This 2. Globalization is linked to the growth
enables individuals to search for the vision, of social interconnectedness across
shared understanding, and sense of multiple existing geographical and political
identities that lead to the unlocking of boundaries.
human potential in the development of
intelligence, knowledge, and creativity for a 3. Globalization must also include a
peaceful and productive society. reference to the speed or velocity of social
activity
FOUR DIMENSIONS OF
COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE Chen 4. Globalization should be conceived as a
(2005) defines communication relatively long-term process
competence as an innate individual trait
that is not related to personal intellect or FEATURES OF GLOBALIZATION
education. Thus, he developed a ―model
of global communication competence‖ 1. The emergence of transnational
that enables individuals to search for the communication conglomerates as key
vision, shared understanding, and sense of players in the global system.
2. The social impact of new 2. CULTURAL AWARENESS IN
technologies, especially those SPEECH. The need for cultural awareness is
associated with satellite a major impact of globalization on the
communication required skillset of effective
3. The asymmetric flow of information communicators. Modern entrepreneurs and
and communication products within employees need the ability to catch
the global system subtle nuances of people’s manner of
4. The variations and inequalities in speech when communicating across
terms of access to the global cultures. Even when two people are
networks of communication speaking the same language, cultural
differences can affect vocabulary,
MAJOR TRENDS IN GLOBALIZATION colloquial expressions, voice tone, and taboo
topics (Ingram, 2009).
1. 1. Technology development has made
globalization inevitable and 3. CULTURAL AWARENESS IN BODY
irreversible. LANGUAGE. Awareness of cultural
2. Economic transformation has led to a differences in body language can be just as
new landscape of economic world. important as the nuances of speech. Students
should understand acceptable speaking
THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION distances, conflict styles, eye contact, and
Globalization requires the development of posture in different cultures, accepting that
a person’s language ability. The ability the physical expressions of their own culture
to use language accurately and are not universally accepted. These
appropriately is a requirement of a differences should be addressed to avoid
globalizing society. In a social interaction, a difficulties or miscommunication.
person demonstrates the ability to respond
appropriately to the formality level of the 4. TIME DIFFERENCES. The advent of
situation, can use a variety of sentence global collaboration introduces another
structures, and can handle expanded new dynamic to communication skills— the
inventory of concrete, idiomatic and need to communicate and share information
conceptual language. Hence, the creativity with people across several time zones. When
to use the English language is a people collaborate with others on the other
determinant of a person’s communication side of the globe, their counterparts are
skill. usually at home asleep while they
themselves are at work. Today’s
Today, people need to understand the communication skills development
dynamics of long-distance collaboration, the programs should address the nuances of
impact of culture on manners of speaking overcoming this challenge by teaching
and body language, and how to use people to understand the information needs
technology to communicate with people of their colleagues, according to the
on the other side of the globe. communication styles of different countries
Understanding the impact of globalization or cultures. Being able to effectively
on each of these factors can help share information between shifts can
students to select their most useful make or break the productivity of a
communication skills development geographically dispersed team, making this
programs. an important issue for many companies
(Ingram, 2009).
1. VIRTUAL INTERACTIONS.
Globalization has introduced virtual THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN
communication and collaboration as a GLOBALIZATION COMMUNICATION
major part of workplace dynamics. Modern MEDIA - plays a significant role in
entrepreneurs need to understand the constructing and representing the
strengths and limitations of different phenomenon of globalization and
communications media, and how to use each subsequently changing educational and
medium to maximum effect. learning processes.

ROLES OF MEDIA:
 1. It enables communication to take  IDEOSCAPE - the movement of
place in real time over great ideologies
distances.  MEDIASCAPE - pertains to the
2. It advances the 21st century into electronic and print media in global
what we speak as the globalization of cultural flows
communication.  MEDIAMORPHOSIS -
3. The emergence of electronic media transformation of communication
and the digital media has brought media OMG - Oh My God!
about a radical change on how we  SELFIE - an ego-manical madness;
see education. gives focus on an individual
STREAMING
LANGUAGE AND GLOBALIZATION  MULTIMEDIA - live audio and
21ST CENTURY LANGUAGE has become video available on a website
the language that exists in the global world. TECHNOSCAPE - movement of
Here are some of the terminologies in the technology TELEMATIC
globalizing society  NETWORK - convergence of
telecommunications and information
 CHAT ROOM - internet feature that processing
allows people to communicate in real  VIRTUAL COMMUNITY -
time. community that exists in the world of
 COMPUTER LITERACY - internet electronic communication rather than
literacy; ability to use computers in the physical world
 CYBERSPACE - world wide web  VIRTUAL REALITY - the use of
 DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP - the computer to simulate an
creation of conscious critical forms experience in a way that is
of integration in the globalizing obscure from reality
society; a person utilizing technology
(digital citizen) Chapter 3 LOCAL AND GLOBAL
 DIGITAL COMPETENCE - COMMUNICATION IN A
confidence and critical use of MULTICULTURAL SETTING
information technology
 DIGITAL IMMIGRANTS - adults INTRODUCTION: Communication
who adapt to their environment as is guided by culture and context. It is
they retain their language; born predicted by the type of culture
before the widespread of technology dictated by its context.
 DIGITAL NATIVES - young people
who are native speakers of the digital  CULTURE - is manifested in
language of computers; born on the our actions and affects how
era of technology we tell the world who we are
 DIGITAL SKILLS - ability to and what we believe in. It is
evaluate a variety of technological the basis for how we behave
solutions; more than just knowing in a certain communication
how to use a specific technology context.
well EMOJI - the creation of a new  CONTEXT - brings a better
alphabet; pictograph understanding about culture
 EMOTICON - words without letters in general and our own
conveying emotional responses culture. It refers to anything
 ETHNOSCAPE - landscape of that refers to the stimuli,
persons who form the shifting world environment, or ambience
where we live surrounding an event
 HYPERPERSONAL (Edward T. Hall)
COMMUNICATION - computer  LOCAL
mediated communication that is COMMUNICATION - is
more socially desirable than face-to- highly grounded on the
face communication cultural context. This context
of communication reflects the
 culture of people who are LANGUAGE - Words, greetings and
creating their self-identity expressions that are based on culture and
and community. context
 GLOBAL
COMMUNICATION - has • BODY LANGUAGE - is a form of non-
turned to be a modifying verbal communication in which movements
factor of local of the body communicate messages, either
communication. It attempts to in place of, or in conjunction with speech.
bring changes that affect
communication conventions. THE ABC’S OF INTERCULTURAL
 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION - a
discipline that focuses on • Communication is complex because of the
how culture affects cultural and contextual factors embedded in
communication. It is the it.
ability to understand and
value cultural differences. • It is also challenging due to the many ways
 LANGUAGE - is a in which communication can vary between
component that is linked to cultures as well as individuals plus the
intercultural understanding. requirements needed by an individual to
Enhancing oral and written satisfy the conversational conventions
communication in
intercultural environments is • Although effective communication is hard
a way to achieving to achieve because of these considerations,
intercultural competence. good communication is attainable.

GRICE’S PRINCIPLE OF COOPERATIVE • Lewis (2008) provided the following

CONVERSATION ABC’s of intercultural communication.

1. MAXIM OF RELATION - every  ACKNOWLEDGE Differences in

interlocutor should be relevant in a communication style should be
conversation, requiring them to acknowledged. Every person in a
respond based on cultural and group has a particular
contextual requirements. communication style which gives
2. MAXIM OF QUANTITY - every her/his own identity in
interlocutor should observe a ―fair- communicating. Anticipating
share-talk of time.‖ awareness on differences will
3. MAXIM OF QUALITY - the truth increase awareness of uniqueness.
value of a message should be held  BI-LEVEL Communication does not
primary in a conversation. The only uphold speaking and listening
accuracy of the message should but also requires a holistic process
always be upheld. It should not go that includes verbal and non-
beyond what is true nor deduced in verbal channels. Non-verbal
its essence. communication is critical in the
4. MAXIM OF MANNER - the manner communication process due to its
of saying a word is more regarded cultural nuances. It may vary from
than its content. one culture to another.
 CLARIFY If you are doubtful of
MODES OF COMMUNICATION Words your understanding about what is
and gestures are used in a region or country being communicated, ask for
to give meaning to certain ideas. Words are clarification. Devote a little extra
primary in communication, but gestures time to verify understanding so that
would even make a meaningful you can save time and avoid
communication. Below are the modes of frustration.
communication in an intercultural
communication. CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
BARRIERS Sometimes, the goal of
communication is not achieved due to  go with the flow — to do what
communication barriers brought by culture. people do and accept things as they
are bend the law or
 BARRIERS - give difficulty in  bend the rules — to cheat a little bit
understanding people, whose without breaking the law
language is different, and evidently
challenge people who are trying to Slang - It is a shortcut or highly colloquial
work harmoniously with others of a word that suggests excessive informality and
different background. lack of appreciation in the workplace setting
o LANGUAGE BARRIER - It
is evidently the primary  gonna — going to
barrier of communication in  wanna — want to
second and foreign language  Cover your ass. — Protect yourself
contexts. Because of its from possible criticism.
complexity, communication  What you see is what you get. —
between people speaking There is nothing hidden.
different languages is  Okay — all right
difficult.
o HOSTILE STEREOTYPES - Acronym - It is formed from the initial
Stereotypes are letters of other words and pronounced as a
generalizations or word.
assumptions people make
about the characteristics of
 LAM — leave a message
members of a group, based
 IMO — in my opinion
on an image about what
people in that group are like.  AKA — also known as
o BEHAVIOR  AWOL — absent without leave
DIFFERENCES - Difference  ASAP — as soon as possible
of behavior between different
cultures can cause Abbreviation - It is a short form of a
misunderstandings. Every lengthy expression.
culture has its norm about
what is regarded as  Acct – account
appropriate behavior.  recd – received
o EMOTIONAL DISPLAY -  w/o – without
Different cultures have  fwd – forward
varying regard on emotional  ad – advertisement
display. What is considered
appropriate display of Jargon - It is a type of language that is used
emotion in one culture may in an occupation. Often, words are
not be appropriate in another meaningless outside a certain context.
culture.
 bang for the buck — a business
AMBIGUOUS EXPRESSIONS Idioms and jargon for getting the most for your
figurative clichés This form of language money
uses words and expressions with a meaning  helicopter view — an overview of a
that is different from the literal job or a project
interpretation.  desk job — a job that is typically
confined to duties from a desk
 beat the clock — to do something  end-user perspective — what the
before the deadline customer thinks about a product or
 do the dirty work—to do the service
disagreeable, illegal, dishonest things  cubicle farm — a section of the
 labor of love — a work that brings office that contains worker’s cubicles
you great pleasure
Chapter 4 VARIETIES AND REGISTERS • It is a broad term used to refer to
OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN American English and British English as
LANGUAGE spoken by the black communities in the
United States and the United Kingdom.
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH Varieties of
English refer to the different kinds of • It is also used to refer to black
English used around the world based on communities in Caribbean and Africa. There
geographical locations. There are over a are different varieties of this variant, but its
hundred varieties of the English language, two major sub-varieties are African
but two of the most prevalent varieties of the American Vernacular and British Black
English language are British and American English.
English.
Singapore English (SingEng or Singlish)
American English (AmE)
• Singapore English is a language variant
• It is a variant of the English language which is considered the most popular
which is spoken mainly in the United medium of communication in the academe.
States. About two-thirds of the world's There are two main forms of this variant:
native speakers of English live in America Singapore English and Singapore Colloquial
and speak this variant. English.

British English (BrE) Philippine English

• It is a variant of the English language • It is another variety of the English

which is spoken in the United Kingdom. language related to American English in
terms of spelling and grammar. Besides the
• Along with American English, British Filipino language, the English language is
English is one of the main variants native to the Philippines and is considered
taught in English as a second language or an official language.
English as foreign language programs.
• Non-native pronunciations abound in the
Australian English (AuE) spoken language, and grammatical flaws are
oftentimes inevitable. Hence, code-
• It is another variant of the English switching is prevalent in formal and more
language which is spoken in the Australia. likely in informal situations.

• Australian English began to diverge from VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

the British English shortly after Australia VOCABULARY The following show
was settled in the late 18th century. This major differences in vocabulary among
variety is similar to New Zealand English the three different varieties of English. This
and bears resemblance to dialects of is a type of English variety at the lexical
South East England. Its spelling level, which means that the difference lies
corresponds to British English spelling. on the vocabulary or words.

New Zealand English (NZE) REGISTER - is described as a variety

according to use in the sense that each
• It is the variant of the English language speaker has a range of varieties and chooses
spoken as the first language by my most between them at different times. Register
people in New Zealand. refers to the level of formality of the speech.

• New Zealand English is most similar to FORMS OF LANGUAGE REGISTER

Australian English in pronunciation, with
some differences. 1. FORMAL REGISTER - is appropriate in
professional and business writing.
Black English(African American Vernacular
English) 2. INFORMAL REGISTER - is the way we
talk to our friends and family.
3. NEUTRAL REGISTER - not specifically specific audiences or individuals,
formal or informal, positive or negative. It is Latino is generally acceptable.
used with non-emotional topics and  ✓ The preference is for Asian or
information. Asian American rather than Oriental.
Again, specific groups may prefer
BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE labels based on country of origin
(Japanese American, Korean).
• Sometimes the language we use  ✓ Native American has gained
reflects our stereotypes. While in speech favor over Indian. Depending on
our facial expressions or even gestures may context, you might more accurately
convince our listeners that we are not being refer to a specific tribe or tribes.
offensive, in writing it is a lot harder to do.
AVOID AGE BIAS
• To avoid confusion and needless anger on
the part of the reader, use language that is • Age should only be specified if it is
clear, objective, and stereotype-free. relevant. Avoid expressions that are
Avoid generalizing when talking about demeaning or subjective.
gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation,
or people with disabilities.

AVOID GENDER BIAS

• Avoid using masculine pronouns when the

gender of the person is not known. When a
word has the suffix -man or -woman, check
to see if it reflects the gender of the person
described. Use more neutral alternatives
when gender is not important to the idea you
are getting across.

• For example, use chairperson or chair

instead of chairman, fire fighter instead of
fireman, or salesperson instead of salesman.

AVOID RACIAL AND ETHNIC BIAS

Racial or ethnic information should only be
indicated if the context demands it. Take
note of the following:

 ✓ Both black and African

American are generally acceptable
(although some members of this
community prefer one or the other).
The phrase people of color is
sometimes used to include other
racial groups, particularly for
political purposes. The labels Negro
and colored are generally not
acceptable.
 ✓ Depending to some extent on
regional preference, people with
roots in Latin America refer to
themselves as Hispanic,
Latino/Latina, or Chicano/Chicana,
or by place of origin (Cuban
American, Puerto Rican). Except for