Memory

Introduction
Memory involves -
recording, storing, and retrieving information and
experiences.

Encoding is the process of translating information into a neural code for the
-

brain to process.

Effortful processing is a type of encoding that requires intentional focus,

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such as when we take notes or rehearse information.

Automatic processing happens - without intentional effort and requires little

attention, often encoding things like frequency or spatial location.

Levels of processing theory suggests that deeper

-
processing of
information leads to better memory retention.
syllables
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· Nonsense
↑

were
! Garming
Ebbinghaus Memory Experiment forgetting were
·
rehearsal
Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted pioneering research on memory in the late
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19th century, using nonsense syllables to investigate the processes of learning

- -

and forgetting. He found that the time taken to memorize lists decreased with
practice, leading to the concept of the learning curve, which illustrates how

--
repetition improves memory retention. Additionally, Ebbinghaus introduced
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the forgetting curve, demonstrating that information is lost rapidly after initial
- -

learning, with a significant drop in retention occurring shortly afterward,

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followed by a gradual decline. His work emphasized the importance of

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rehearsal in memory retention, showing that frequent review leads to better

long-term retention of information.

repitition
Spacing Effect learning curre :
·

improves retention
is lost
·
forgettingcorne into :
↑

initial learning
- >
rapidly after
Memory deline 1

gradual
 Human memory

sensory STM LTM

--
Haplin
Echoic Primary
Kconi Explicit Implicit
working menney
Conscious
unconscious
Olfactory and
I
storage retrieval of rilieral of
Gustatory info
manipulation of info
d
information) ↓
Provdura
Phonological Loop
&
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Declarative
visuospaial sketchpad
-
Episodic buffe --
Episodic Semantic
Central enculine
 *
The spacing effect refers to the phenomenon where information is better
retained when learning
-
sessions are distributed over time rather than massed
into a single session. This approach, known as distributed practice, enhances
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the transfer of information into long-term memory, making it more likely that the
material will be remembered later. Research indicates that spaced learning
sessions improve retention compared to cramming, as the intervals between
study sessions allow for better consolidation of knowledge. The optimal
spacing varies depending on the material and individual learning preferences,
but overall, spacing out learning leads to more effective and durable memory.
without rehearsal
·

Forgetting occurs

rapid
forgetting is
Forgetting Curve
:
·
Initial phase
Slows down late -
> Repitition + Rehearsal
A
·

The forgetting curve is a graphical representation that illustrates how memory

- -

retention declines over time without reinforcement or rehearsal. According to

- -
-

Ebbinghaus's findings, a significant amount of information is forgotten shortly

-
after learning, typically within the first few hours or days, indicating rapid initial
-
-

forgetting. After this initial phase, the rate of forgetting slows, suggesting that
some information remains in memory for longer periods, especially if it is
revisited. The forgetting curve highlights the importance of repetition and
review, as these strategies can alter the curve by strengthening memory
retention and slowing the decline of information over time.

Multi Store Model

The multi-store model is an explanation of memory proposed by Atkinson-
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and Shiffrin which assumes there are three unitary (separate) memory
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stores, and that information is transferred between these stores in a linear

sequence.

The three main stores are the -

sensory memory, short-term memory STM
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and long-term memory LTM.

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Each of the memory stores differs in the way information is processed

(encoding), how much information can be stored (capacity), and for how
long (duration).

Information passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been
described as an information processing model (like a computer) with an
input, process and output.

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 maintenant
rehearsal Elaborative
Attended I -
meaning term
ehearsal

sensory > Short

-
term >
- Long
memory memory
Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory
-
-
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memory, which stores a fleeting

-
impression of sensory stimuli. If attended
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to this information enters

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the STM and if the information is given meaning
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(elaborative rehearsal) it is passed

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on to the LTM

Sensory Memory

Duration: 1/4 to 1/2 second

Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity)

Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense)

The sensory stores are constantly receiving information but most of this
- -

receives no attention and remains in the sensory

-
register for a very brief period.
-
-

Short Term Memory

Duration: 018 seconds

Capacity: 7 / 2 items

Encoding: mainly auditory

The STM memory store has a duration of up to 30 seconds, has a capacity of

7/2 chunks and mainly encodes information acoustically. Information is lost
through displacement or decay.
Maintenance rehearsal is the process of verbally or mentally repeating
information, which allows the duration of short-term memory to be extended
beyond 30 seconds. An example of maintenance rehearsal would be
remembering a phone number only long enough to make the phone call.

Long Term Memory

Duration: Unlimited

Capacity: Unlimited

Encoding: Mainly Semantic (but can be visual and auditory)

LTM has unlimited capacity and duration and encodes information semantically.
Information can be recalled from LTM back into the STM when it is needed.

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 If the information is given meaning (elaborative rehearsal) it is passed on to the
LTM. Elaborative rehearsal involves the process of linking new information in a
meaningful way with information already stored in long-term memory.

Process : STM >

- LTM
(integrating info to
existing
Memory Consolidation knowledge)
Memory consolidation is the process by which short-term memories are
transformed into stable, long-term memories. This involves the stabilization and
integration of newly acquired information into existing knowledge, ensuring that
it can be recalled effectively in the future. Consolidation occurs through two
primary mechanisms: synaptic consolidation and system consolidation.
Synaptic Consolidation Learning
↓
Synaptic consolidation refers to the process of strengthening the synaptic
LTP
connections between neurons shortly after learning. This occurs at the level of
↓
individual synapses and typically happens within minutes to hours after an
experience. When new information is learned, it leads to changes in the synaptic
connections
synaptic strength, a phenomenon known as long-term potentiation LTP. LTP
Strengthens
enhances the communication between neurons, making it easier for them to ↓
fire together in the future. This synaptic strengthening is believed to underlie
the initial stabilization of memories, allowing them to become more resistant to memory
Stabiuses
forgetting. During this phase, proteins are synthesized, and structural changes
occur in the synapses, which play a crucial role in making memories more
durable.
System Consolidation
System consolidation is a broader process that involves the gradual integration
of memories into long-term storage across various brain regions over a longer gradual
↓
time frame, typically days to years. Initially, memories are often reliant on the
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hippo
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hippocampus for retrieval and storage. However, over time, the information a
-
-

becomes increasingly independent of the hippocampus and is redistributed to neocorted

the neocortex, where it is stored as a more stable representation. This transition
sup
allows memories to become more robust and accessible over time, enabling rest
their retrieval even after the hippocampus has been damaged. System
consolidation is thought to involve the replay of memories during sleep and
periods of rest, which helps strengthen neural connections and promotes the
integration of new information into the existing knowledge network.

Gradual integration of memory into LTM

↓
eretrieval
Hippocampus
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neocortes
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 Brain parts and Memory

1. Limbic System
The limbic system integrates emotions with memory, influencing how memories
are formed and recalled. It plays a critical role in emotional memory, helping to
enhance the retention of memories associated with strong feelings. It helps link
emotional responses to experiences, making emotional memories more vivid
and easier to recall.

2. Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are involved in procedural memory, which includes skills
and habits. They facilitate the learning and execution of motor skills by
reinforcing learned behaviors through practice. They help automate actions,
allowing us to perform tasks without conscious thought once learned, such
as riding a bike or typing on a keyboard.

3. Hippocampus

The hippocampus is essential for the formation of new explicit memories,

including episodic (events) and declarative (facts) memories. It helps
convert short-term memories into long-term storage and is crucial for
spatial memory and navigation. Damage to the hippocampus can lead to
difficulties in forming new memories, a condition known as anterograde
amnesia.

4. Amygdala

The amygdala is central to the processing of emotional memories,

particularly those related to fear and pleasure. It enhances the encoding of
memories that have strong emotional components, influencing how we
recall experiences tied to significant emotions. The amygdala is involved in
fear conditioning and helps assess the emotional relevance of memories,
making them more memorable.

5. Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

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 Frontal Lobe Plays a role in working memory, decision-making, and
organizing thoughts. It helps in the retrieval and manipulation of information
in memory tasks.

Parietal Lobe Integrates sensory information and contributes to spatial

memory, allowing us to remember and navigate environments based on
sensory cues.

Temporal Lobe Critical for long-term memory formation, particularly

episodic and semantic memories. It houses the hippocampus and
amygdala, linking sensory input to memory processing.

Occipital Lobe While primarily responsible for visual processing, it

contributes to visual memory, helping recall past experiences associated
with visual stimuli.

6. Cerebellum

The cerebellum is involved in motor learning and the acquisition of

procedural memory. It helps refine and automate learned motor skills,
making them more efficient through practice and repetition. It contributes to
the timing and coordination of movements, essential for tasks requiring fine
motor skills.

Memory Related Disorders

Dementia and Its Types

Dementia is a general term for a decline in cognitive function severe enough to
interfere with daily life. It is not a specific disease but a group of symptoms
affecting memory, thinking, and social abilities. Dementia results from damage
to brain cells that affects their ability to communicate. Depending on the
affected brain region, different types of dementia can develop.

1. Alzheimer's Disease

Characteristics Alzheimer's is the most common type of dementia,

accounting for 6080% of cases. It is a progressive condition that affects
memory, language, and thinking. It is associated with the build-up of

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 abnormal proteins (amyloid plaques and tau tangles) in the brain, leading to
the death of brain cells.

Symptoms Memory loss, confusion, difficulty in completing familiar tasks,

and personality changes.

Injury/Cause Alzheimer's is primarily linked to aging and genetic factors.

No specific injury directly causes Alzheimer's, but traumatic brain injury
TBI can increase the risk.

2. Vascular Dementia

Characteristics Vascular dementia occurs when there is impaired blood

flow to the brain, often due to strokes or small vessel disease. This lack of
blood flow damages brain cells, leading to cognitive decline.

Symptoms Impaired judgment, difficulty with problem-solving, slower

thinking, and trouble planning or organizing tasks.

Injury/Cause Strokes, transient ischemic attacks (mini-strokes), or other

cardiovascular problems like high blood pressure can lead to vascular
dementia by restricting blood supply to brain regions.

3. Lewy Body Dementia LBD

Characteristics Lewy body dementia is caused by the abnormal buildup of

proteins called Lewy bodies in the brain, which disrupts normal brain
functioning. It shares symptoms with both Alzheimer's and Parkinson's
diseases.

Symptoms Visual hallucinations, movement problems (similar to

Parkinsonʼs), attention issues, fluctuating cognitive function, and sleep
disturbances.

Injury/Cause Lewy body dementia is primarily associated with abnormal

protein deposits, not a direct injury. However, brain trauma or other
neurological conditions may contribute to its development.

4. Frontotemporal Dementia FTD

Characteristics Frontotemporal dementia affects the frontal and temporal

lobes of the brain, which control personality, behavior, and language. It is
one of the most common causes of early-onset dementia, affecting people
under 65.

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 When frontotemporal dementia FTD is described as a "regression type,"
it refers to the nature of the cognitive and behavioral decline seen in
individuals with this condition. In FTD, particularly the behavioral variant,
people may exhibit a regression to earlier stages of development,
displaying behaviors and emotional responses that are less mature or
socially appropriate.

Symptoms Personality changes, inappropriate social behavior, language

difficulties, and poor judgment.

Injury/Cause FTD is linked to genetic mutations in some cases but does

not typically result from physical injuries. However, repetitive head injuries
may contribute to increased risk.

Types of Injury and Related Dementia:

Traumatic Brain Injury TBI Linked to an increased risk of Alzheimer's and

other forms of dementia over time.

Stroke or Mini-Strokes Directly leads to vascular dementia due to

impaired blood flow to the brain.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy CTE A progressive brain condition

caused by repeated blows to the head or concussions, can mimic
symptoms of dementia and is linked to long-term brain injury.

Amnesia and Its Types

Amnesia is a condition characterized by memory loss, either the inability to
create new memories or the inability to recall past ones. Amnesia can be
caused by brain injury, disease, psychological trauma, or neurological
conditions. There are different types of amnesia, each affecting memory in
unique ways.
1. Anterograde Amnesia

Characteristics Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories

after the onset of the condition. People with this type of amnesia can often
remember events from before the incident, but they struggle to retain new
information for more than a short period.

Symptoms Difficulty learning and recalling new facts, names, and

experiences. They may constantly forget recent conversations or tasks, but

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 older memories remain intact.

Cause Anterograde amnesia is commonly caused by damage to the

hippocampus or related areas in the brain involved in memory formation.
This damage can result from traumatic brain injuries TBI, alcohol abuse
Korsakoff syndrome), or neurological diseases.

2. Infantile Amnesia

Characteristics Infantile amnesia refers to the inability of adults to recall

memories from early childhood, typically before the age of 3 or 4. This is a
normal phenomenon experienced by most people and is not associated
with brain damage or trauma.

Symptoms A lack of autobiographical memories from infancy or early

childhood, while later childhood and adult memories are unaffected.

Cause Infantile amnesia is believed to be due to the underdevelopment of

brain structures critical for memory, such as the hippocampus and
prefrontal cortex, during early childhood. Additionally, language
development and the lack of a clear sense of self at that age may prevent
the formation of long-lasting, explicit memories.

3. Retrograde Amnesia

Characteristics Retrograde amnesia involves the loss of memories formed

before the onset of the condition. Individuals with retrograde amnesia may
forget personal experiences, facts, or even skills learned in the past, but
they can often still form new memories.

Symptoms Inability to recall events, people, or knowledge from before the

memory loss. Some memories, especially those closest to the incident, may
be permanently lost, while older memories might be retained.

Cause Retrograde amnesia is often caused by brain trauma, such as a

head injury, stroke, or brain surgery. It can also result from degenerative
brain diseases, such as Alzheimer's. The severity of memory loss depends
on the extent of damage to brain areas involved in long-term memory
storage, such as the temporal lobes.

H.M.'s Case and Anterograde Amnesia

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 Henry Molaison H.M.) underwent surgery in 1953 to treat severe epilepsy.
Neurosurgeon Dr. William Scoville performed a bilateral temporal lobectomy,
removing parts of H.M.'s medial temporal lobes, including
the hippocampus and amygdala on both sides of his brain. While the surgery
reduced his seizures, it had a major unintended consequence: H.M.
developed anterograde amnesia, which left him unable to form new long-term
memories.

Effects of the Surgery:

Anterograde Amnesia H.M. could no longer create new memories.
Although his short-term memory remained intact, he couldn't transfer
information to long-term memory. After a conversation or event, he would
quickly forget what happened.

Preserved Memories H.M.ʼs memories from before the surgery remained

mostly intact, showing that his retrograde memory (past memories) was
unaffected.

Procedural Memory Despite his inability to form new explicit memories,

H.M. could still learn new motor skills, indicating that procedural
memory relies on different brain areas.

Significance:
H.M.ʼs case revealed the key role of the hippocampus in forming new
declarative memories and highlighted how different types of memory, like
procedural memory, rely on separate brain systems. This case transformed the
understanding of how memory functions in the brain.

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