INDEX

Sr. Name of Tasks Pg. no. Remarks

no.
1 1 to 4

To study the different types of Network cables and network

topologies.
5 to 6

2 Practically implement and test the cross-wired cable and straight through
cable using clamping tool and network lab cable tester.

3 7 to 9
Study and familiarization with various network devices.
4 10 to 12
Familiarization with Packet Tracer Simulation tool/any other
related tool.
5 13 to 15
Study and Implementation of IP Addressing Schemes
6 16to 17

Creation of Simple Networking topologies using hubs

and switches
7 18
Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer Task
8 19

Study and implementation of various router

configuration commands
9 20to 21
Creation of Networks using routers.
22 to 23
10 Configuring networks using the concept of subnetting
11 24 to 26
Practical implementation of basic network command
and Network configuration commands like ping,
pconfig, netstat, tracert etc. for troubleshooting network

related problems.
12 27 to 28

Configuration of networks using static and default

routes.
Task:1 To Study The Different Network Cable & Network Topologies.

Network cables are essential for the setup and functioning of any network. They enable the connection
and communication between computers, servers, and other network device. Types of Network
Cables:
Twisted pair cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optic Cable
1. Twisted Pair Cables
Twisted pair cables are the most common type of cabling used in local area networks (LANs) and other
telecommunications setups. They consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
electromagnetic interference.

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

This is the most commonly used twisted pair cable in office and home networks. It relies on the twisting of
the cables to provide protection from electromagnetic interference.

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

This cable includes shielding in the form of a foil around each pair of wires or around the group of wires to
provide additional protection from interference.

2. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, or coax, is made of a single solid copper core. A plastic layer provides insulation between
the center conductor and a metal shield. This cable is traditionally used for television and other broadband
networks due to its ability to carry high-frequency signals over long distances without significant loss.

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3. Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cables use glass fibers to transmit data as pulses of light. They offer high bandwidth, can
support data transmission over long distances, and are immune to electrical interference.
Fiber optic cables are ideal for backbone connections between networked buildings or within data centers.

• Single-mode Fiber
Uses a single ray of light (mode) to carry transmission over long distances.
• Multi-mode Fiber
Uses multiple rays of light simultaneously, which gives high bandwidth at high speeds over medium
distances.

Network Topologies
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are connected to
each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical
topologies could be same or different in a same network.
Types of Network Topology
1. Point to Point Topology
2. Bus Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Mesh Topology
6. Tree Topology
1. Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers, servers
connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is connected to
sending end of the other and vice-versa.

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2. Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.Bus topology may have
problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either uses
CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple
forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other devices. But failure of the
shared communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.

3. Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-to-point
connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and hub. The hub device can be
any of the following:
• Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
• Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
• Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

4. Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular network
structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not adjacent to it, the
data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing structure, the
administrator may need only one more extra cable.

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5. Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This topology has hosts in point-to-
point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point- to-point connection to
few hosts only.

• Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network.
Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable
network structure among all network topologies.
• Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts
connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to
provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

6. Tree Topology

Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in use
presently This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus topology
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in LANs, a network
is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-layer where computers are
attached. The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper
layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e.
root of the tree from which all nodes fork.

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TASK 2 : Practically implement and test the cross-wired cable and straight through
cable using clamping tool and network lab cable tester.

Materials Needed: RJ45 connectors , Clamping tool (crimping tool) , Cable stripper , Network lab cable
tester , Wire cutters (optional) , Ethernet cable (Cat5e or Cat6).

Steps :
1. Strip the Cable: Remove 1-2 inches of the outer jacket from both ends.
2. Untwist Wires: Separate and straighten the wire pairs.
3. Arrange Wires:
• Straight-Through: Use T568A or T568B on both ends.
• Crossover: Use T568A on one end, T568B on the other.

4. Trim Wires: Ensure all wires are of equal length.

5. Insert Wires into RJ45 Connector: Slide wires into the connector, maintaining order.
6. Crimp the Connector: Use the crimping tool to secure the wires in the connector.
7. Repeat for Other End: Follow the same process for the second end.
8. Test with Cable Tester: Plug both ends into the tester to verify the wiring is correct.

Cross-Wired Cable (Crossover Cable) : A

cross-wired cable, commonly referred to as a crossover cable, is
used to directly connect two similar network devices, such as two
computers, two switches, or two routers, without the need for a
hub, switch, or router between them.

Wiring Standard for Crossover Cable : To create a crossover cable, you must use different wiring standards on
each end of the cable.
End 1: T568A Standard End 2: T568B Standard

T568A Standard (End 1) T568B Standard (End 2)

Pin 1: White/Green Pin 1: White/Orange

Pin 2: Green Pin 2: Orange
Pin 3: White/Orange Pin 3: White/Green
Pin 4: Blue Pin 4: Blue
Pin 5: White/Blue Pin 5: White/Blue
Pin 6: Orange Pin 6: Green
Pin 7: White/Brown Pin 7: White/Brown
Pin 8: Brown Pin 8: Brown

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Uses of Crossover Cable:
• Computer to Computer: Directly connect two computers for file sharing or networking.
• Switch to Switch: Link two network switches together directly.
• Router to Router: Connect two routers for network segmentation or redundancy.
• Hub to Hub: Join two hubs to expand a network without using a switch.
• Connecting Older Network Devices: Some older devices that don’t support auto MDI/MDIX require a
crossover cable to connect similar devices.

Straight through cable : A straight-through cable is a type of

Ethernet cable that has identical wiring on both ends, following the
same wiring standard (either T568A or T568B). It is commonly used
to connect different types of devices, such as:
• Computer to Router
• Computer to Switch
• Router to Switch

Wiring Standards for Straight through cable: You can choose either T568A or T568B, but the same standard
must be used on both ends.

Pin 1: White/Orange
Pin 2: Orange
Pin 3: White/Green
Pin 4: Blue
Pin 5: White/Blue
Pin 6: Green
Pin 7: White/Brown
Pin 8: Brown

Uses of Straight through cable:

Computer to Switch: Connect a computer to a network switch to access a local network.
Computer to Router: Link a computer to a router for internet access or network configuration.
Router to Modem: Connect a router to a modem for internet connectivity.
Switch to Router: Link a switch to a router to allow multiple devices on the network to access the internet.
Computer to Network Printer: Directly connect a computer to a network printer.
Access Point to Switch: Connect a wireless access point to a wired network switch.
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TASK 3 : Study and familiarization with various network devices.
Network devices : are the hardware components that facilitate communication and resource sharing in a
network.

Here’s a list of various network devices:

1. Router
• Function: A router is responsible for forwarding data packets
between different networks. It determines the best path for data to
travel from the source to the destination. Routers can connect
multiple networks, such as a home network to the internet.
• Example: In a typical home setup, a router connects to the internet
service provider’s network via a modem and routes data between the
internet and the home’s devices, such as computers, smartphones,
and smart TVs.

2. Switch
• Function: A switch operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and connects multiple
devices within the same local area network (LAN). Unlike a hub, which broadcasts data to all devices,
a switch intelligently forwards data to the specific
device that needs it, using MAC addresses to make this
decision.
• Example: In an office environment, a switch connects all the computers, printers, and servers in the
network, allowing them to communicate with each other efficiently.

3. Hub
• Function: A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple
Ethernet devices in a network. It broadcasts incoming data packets to all
connected devices, regardless of the destination. This makes hubs less
efficient than switches, as they can cause network collisions.
• Example: Hubs were commonly used in older or simpler network setups to connect a few computers
within a small LAN.
4. Modem
• Function: A modem (short for modulator-demodulator) converts digital
signals from a computer into analog signals that can travel over telephone
or cable lines and vice versa. This conversion allows for communication
over long distances, typically for internet access.
• Example: A DSL or cable modem connects a home or office network to
the internet via the ISP's infrastructure.

7
5. Access Point (AP)
• Function: An access point is a device that allows wireless devices to
connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi. It acts as a bridge between
wireless devices and the wired LAN, extending the network’s coverage
area.
• Example: In a large office, multiple access points are placed throughout
the building to provide Wi-Fi coverage in all areas, ensuring that wireless
devices can connect seamlessly to the network.

6. Firewall
• Function: A firewall is a network security device that monitors and
controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined
security rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and
untrusted external networks, such as the internet, to prevent
unauthorized access and threats.
• Example: Enterprises use firewalls to protect their internal networks
from external cyber threats by filtering out potentially harmful data and blocking unauthorized access
attempts.

7. Network Interface Card (NIC)

• Function: A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that allows a computer or device
to connect to a network, either through a wired Ethernet
connection or wirelessly via Wi-Fi. The NIC provides the
necessary physical connection and the interface to process
network communications.
• Example: Most modern computers come with a built-in NIC
that enables them to connect to wired or wireless networks for
internet access and file sharing.
8. Gateway
• Function: A gateway is a device that serves as an entry and
exit point between two networks, often connecting a local
network to an external network (like the internet). It can
translate between different protocols and perform functions
such as routing, security filtering, and data format
conversion.
• Example: A home router often acts as a gateway, connecting
the home’s internal network to the internet, managing the
traffic, and providing security functions like NAT (Network Address Translation).

8
9. Bridge
• Function: A bridge is a network device that connects and filters traffic
between two different segments of a local area network (LAN).
Operating at the data link layer, it divides a large network into smaller
segments to reduce traffic congestion and improve performance.
Bridges filter traffic by examining the MAC addresses to determine
whether to forward or block data.
• Example: In a large building with multiple floors, bridges can be used
to connect the networks on each floor, allowing them to communicate while managing the traffic
between them.

10. Repeater
• Function: A repeater is a device that regenerates and amplifies
signals in a network to extend the distance over which data can be
transmitted without degradation. Repeaters are often used in long-
distance data transmission to ensure that signals remain strong and
clear.
• Example: In a large office or warehouse where a single wireless
signal cannot cover the entire area, repeaters can be used to extend the Wi-Fi signal to reach all
corners of the space.

11. Proxy Server

• Function: A proxy server acts as an intermediary between a client and a server, forwarding requests
from clients seeking resources from other servers. Proxy servers are often used for filtering content,
improving performance through caching, and hiding the client’s
IP address for anonymity.
• Example: Organizations often use proxy servers to control and
monitor internet usage, block access to certain websites, and cache frequently accessed content to
reduce bandwidth usage.

12. Load Balancer

• Function: A load balancer distributes incoming network
traffic across multiple servers to ensure that no single server
is overwhelmed with too much traffic. This helps in
maintaining high availability and reliability of applications
and services, especially in high-traffic environments.
• Example: Websites with a large number of visitors, such as e-commerce sites, use load balancers to
distribute user requests across multiple web servers, ensuring smooth performance and preventing any
single server from failing due to excessive load.

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Task 4 : Familiarization with Packet Tracer Simulation tool/any other related tool.
Packet Tracer : Packet Tracer is a powerful network simulation tool developed by Cisco, widely used for
learning and practicing networking concepts, especially for those studying for Cisco certifications like CCNA
(Cisco Certified Network Associate).

Advantages of Cisco Packet Tracer

1. User-Friendly Interface:

◦ Easy to Learn: The interface is intuitive, making it accessible even for beginners with little to no
prior networking experience.

◦ Drag-and-Drop Functionality: Users can easily add devices and create network topologies
using drag-and-drop. Cost-Effective:

◦ Free Access: Cisco offers Packet Tracer for free to students and educators through the Cisco
Networking Academy, making it an affordable option for learning networking.
2. Supports a Wide Range of Cisco Devices:

◦ Device Simulation: Packet Tracer includes a variety of Cisco devices (routers, switches, PCs, etc.),
allowing users to simulate complex network scenarios.

◦ IoT Simulation: It supports the simulation of IoT (Internet of Things) devices, which is useful for
understanding modern network setups.
3. Educational Focus:

◦ Built-in Tutorials: It includes various tutorials and labs that align with Cisco’s certification programs,
such as CCNA.

◦ Learning Environment: Designed to help students learn and practice networking concepts in
a controlled environment. Real-Time and Simulation Modes:

◦ Real-Time Mode: Shows the immediate state of the network, similar to a real network.

◦ Simulation Mode: Allows users to visualize and analyze packet flow, which is helpful for
understanding network protocols and troubleshooting issues. Cross-Platform Compatibility:

◦ Runs on Multiple Operating Systems: Packet Tracer is available on Windows, macOS, and
Linux, making it accessible to a wide range of users.

Disadvantages of Cisco Packet Tracer

1. Limited to Cisco Devices:

◦ Vendor Lock-In: While Packet Tracer is excellent for learning Cisco-specific networking, it
doesn't support devices from other vendors, limiting its usefulness for those needing to learn about
multi-vendor environments.

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Simulation Limitations:

◦ Not a Full Emulator: Packet Tracer is a simulator, not an emulator. It approximates the behavior
of Cisco devices but doesn’t run actual IOS images, which means it may not replicate every
command or feature exactly as it would be on real hardware.

◦ Simplified Environment: Some advanced networking features and protocols are either not
supported or are simplified, making it less suitable for in-depth or highlevel network design and
testing.
2. Performance Constraints:

◦ Resource Intensive: Although not as demanding as some other network simulators, Packet Tracer
can still be resource-intensive, especially with large and complex topologies.
3. Less Suitable for Advanced Users:

◦ Not Ideal for Professional Use: While it is excellent for educational purposes, professionals may
find Packet Tracer lacking when it comes to advanced network design, testing, and troubleshooting
in a production environment.
4. No Support for Non-Cisco Certifications:

◦ Focused on Cisco Curriculum: The tool is primarily designed to align with Cisco's certification
paths, so it might not be as useful for those pursuing non-Cisco certifications like CompTIA
Network+ or vendor-neutral networking knowledge.

1. Getting Started with Packet Tracer

Installation

• Download: You can download Packet Tracer from the

Cisco Networking Academy website. It is available for
Windows, macOS, and Linux.

• Installation: Follow the installation instructions for

your operating system. You may need to sign in with a
Cisco Networking Academy account.
2. Creating a Simple Network

1. Adding Devices: Drag and drop devices like routers, switches, and PCs from the left panel onto the
workspace .

2. Connecting Devices: Use cables (straight-through, crossover, etc.) to connect the devices. The correct
cable type is often automatically selected, but you can manually choose the type if necessary.

11
 3. Configuring Devices: Click on a device to access its configuration menu. You can configure IP addresses,
subnet masks, and routing protocols.
4. Testing Connectivity: Use the ping command from a PC’s command prompt to test connectivity between
devices.

3. Using Simulation Mode

• Packet Visualisation: In simulation mode, you can create and trace the flow of data packets across your
network. This is useful for understanding how protocols like TCP/IP work.
• Troubleshooting: If a network connection fails, use the simulation mode to identify where the packet fails,
helping you understand the problem.

4. Advanced Features

• Protocol Simulation: Packet Tracer supports many network protocols, including RIP, OSPF, EIGRP, and
STP, allowing you to simulate complex network scenarios.
• IoT Devices: You can also simulate Internet of Things (IoT) devices and create smart home networks.
• Multiuser Collaboration: Packet Tracer allows multiple users to collaborate on the same network
topology, useful for group projects.

12
Task 5: Study and implementation of IP Addressing Scheme (IPV6)
IPV6 Address: - An Internet Protocol Version 6 address is a numerical label that is used to identify a
network interface of a computer or other network node participating in an IPv6 network. An IP address
serves the purpose of uniquely identifying an individual network interface of a host, locating it on the
network, and thus permitting the routing of IP packets between hosts IPv6 is an Internet Protocol (IP) for
packet-switched internetworking that specifies the format of packets (also called datagram) and the
addressing scheme across multiple IP networks. In comparing the two protocols IPv6 expands upon the
addressing and routing capabilities of IPv4 in a number of ways including:
• In IPv6 the IP address size is increased from 32 bits to 128 bits.
• IPv6 supports a greater number of addressable nodes.
• IPv6 provides more levels of addressing hierarchy.
• IPv6 offers simpler auto-configuration of addresses.
• Ipv6 also supports simplified header format.

TYPES OF IPv6 ADDRESS

IPv6 addresses are classified by the primary addressing and routing methodologies common in networking:
unicast addressing, anycast addressing, and multicast addressing.
• UNICAST ADDRESS: - A unicast address identifies a single network interface. The Internet Protocol
delivers packets sent to a unicast address to that specific interface.
• ANYCAST ADDRESS: - An anycast address is assigned to a group of interfaces, usually belonging to
different nodes. A packet sent to an anycast address is delivered to just one of the member interfaces,
typically the nearest host, according to the routing protocol’s definition of distance.Anycast addresses
cannot be identified easily, they have the same format as unicast addresses, and differ only by their
presence in the network at multiple points. Almost any unicast address can be employed as an anycast
address.
• MULTICAST ADDRESS: - A multicast address is also used by multiple hosts, which acquire the
multicast address destination by participating in the multicast distribution protocol among the network
routers. A packet that is sent to a multicast address is delivered to all interfaces that have joined the
corresponding multicast group. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing. Broadcast's traditional
role is subsumed by multicast addressing to the all-nodes link-local multicast group.

Working modes of router: - There are 5 mail modes of router: User Execution Mode, Privilege Mode,
ROM Monitor Mode, Sub interface Configuration Mode, Interface Configuration Mode, Global
Configuration Mode. Link local:
1. A link local address is an ipv6 unicast address that can be automatically/ manually configured on any
interface using the prefix “FE80:”
2. These addresses mostly used for addressing on a single link for purposes such as automatic address
configuration and neighbor discovery.
3. All ipv6 enabled interfaces have a link local unicast address.
• No shutdown: This command enables an interface and brings it up. It is mostly used for new interfaces or
troubleshooting purposes.
• Show IP route: It is used to show the list of the networks that router can reach, their metric.
• Show IP interface: It is used to list all the interface brief of all IP’s connected.
Steps:
• Step1: Scenario Created

13
 Figure: 7.1
• Step2: To configure IPV6 address on PC0.

Figure: 7.2
• Step5: To configure ipv6 routing in the network. Go to cmd interface of router0 and type following
commands:
 Enable  Configure terminal

Step4: To configure IPV6 address on PC1.

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Figure: 7.3

 Ipv6 unicast-routing
 Interface fastethernet 0/0
 Ipv6 enable
 Ipv6 address FE80::202:4AFF:FE9D:5630 LINK-LOCAL
 Ipv6 address 2000:1:1:1:1:1:1:1111/112
 No shutdown
 Press “CTRL” to exit from current working mode of router
 Configure terminal
 Ipv6 unicast-routing
 Interface fastethernet 0/1
 Ipv6 enable
 Ipv6 address FE80::202:4AFF:FE9D:5630 LINK-LOCAL
 Ipv6 address 4000:1:1:1:1:1:1:1112/112
 No shutdown
 Press “CTRL” to exit from current working mode of router

15
 Figure: 7.4

18

Figure: 7.5

Figure: 7.6
• Step5: After completely executing these commands the IPV6 address scheme plan will be enabled and
all connections will be established.

16
Figure: 7.7

17
EXPERIMENT 7: SIMULATION OF WEB TRAFFIC

Steps:

• Select ‘Switches’ from Toolbox

• Select ‘2960-24TT’ switch from the panel and place it on the workspace
• Go to ‘End devices’ on Toolbox and select any four end devices such as computer or laptop.
• Go to ‘Cables’ and select Copper-straight through cable and attach the switch with all the devices
through fast Ethernet.
• Go to ‘End devices’ on Toolbox and select a server to store a webpage and give it an IP address
here (192.168.0.250)
• Go to ‘Switches’ on Toolbox and create a network with these devices
• No open the web browser on any of the computer devices and enter the IP address in the search
engine
• It will display the web data that was transferred

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EXPERIMENT 8: Study and implementation of various router
configurationcommands

Steps:

• Select ‘Router’ from the toolbar and select any router.

• Click on the router and then from the window select the CLI option and focus the terminal.
• In the terminal write ‘enable’ and then press enter. This will enable the router cli now we can run
commands on the terminal.
• Perform some basic commands like giving the hostname, password, setting up an interface, give Ip
address and subnet mask etc.
• For this first type ‘configure terminal’ and press enter.
• To give host name type ‘hostname [hostname]’ here (MainRouter)
• To give a password enter ‘enable secret [password]’ e.g., 123
• To set up an interface use ‘interface f0/0’
• To then set an IP address to this interface use ‘Ip address [ip_address] [subnet_mask]’ e.g., 192.168.0.1
255.255.255.0
• To exit the terminal use ‘exit’ to go back

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EXPERIMENT 9: CREATION OF NETWORKS USING ROUTERS

Steps:

• Toolbox ->Routers -> Any required Router e.g., 4321

• Toolbox -> End devices -> 6 PCs
• Toolbox -> Switches -> 2 switches
• Toolbox -> cables -> Cooper straight through cable to connect PCs with router
• Click on Router-0 and open ‘Config’
• Go to Interface ->
o Gigbitethernet0/0/0: IP address 192.168.0.10 and ‘on’ the Port Status o
Gigbitehernet0/0/1: IP address 192.168.1.10 and ‘on’ the Port Status
• Go to PC1, PC2, PC3 and give them IP addresses starting from 192.168.0.1 and default gateway
as 192.168.0.10
• Go to PC4, PC5, PC6 and give them IP addresses starting from 192.168.1.1 and default gateway
as 192.168.1.10 • Send a packet and test.

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21
EXPERIMENT 11: Practical implementation of basic network commands andnetwork configuration commands like
ping, ipconfig, netsat, traceart etc. for troubleshooting network related programs

Tracert
This command is used to diagnose path-related problems. On an IP network, routers exchange IP packets
between the source and the destination. They take IP packets from the source host and forward them in a
sequence until they reach the destination host. The sequence of routers between the source and destination
is known as the path. A path consists of all routers in a sequence that IP packets sent from the source host
traverse to reach the destination host.

The tracert command prints the path. If all routers on the path are functional, this command prints the full
path. If a router is down on the path, this command prints the path up to the last operational router

The tracert command uses the following syntax.

tracert Destination Name or IP address

The following command traces the path to the host named www.google.co.in.

tracert www.google.co.in
The following image shows the output of the
s command. Pa

The following table lists some important options of the tracert command

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 Option Description
-d Do not resolve the IP addresses of intermediate routers to their names.
-h Specifies the maximum number of hops (routers) to search on the path. The default is 30 hops.
-w Specifies the amount of time in milliseconds to wait for a reply message from the router. If not received
default time-out is 4000 (4 seconds).
Ping
The ping command is used to test connectivity between two hosts. It sends ICMP echo request messages
to the destination. The destination host replies with ICMP replies messages. If the ping command gets a
reply from the destination host, it displays the reply along with round-trip times.

The ping command uses the following syntax.

ping destination host IP or name

The following command tests connectivity between the host computer and Google's server.

ping google.com

The following image shows the output of this command.

If you specify the hostname as an argument, the ping command uses the configured DNS client service to
automatically translate the hostname into the IP address.

Arp
To send IP packets, a computer needs two addresses. These addresses are the MAC address and the IP
address. A MAC address is the physical or hardware address of the NIC. An IP address is the logical or
software address of NIC. If a computer knows the IP address of the destination computer but it does not
know the MAC address of the destination computer, it uses the ARP protocol to know the MAC address of
the destination computer.

22
The ARP protocol broadcasts a given IP address over a local network. The corresponding host responds to
the broadcast with its MAC address. To avoid repetition, ARP stores the answer in a table known as ARP
table. ARP maintains a separate ARP table for each NIC.

To view the ARP table, you can use the following command.

arp
By default, this command displays the ARP table of the active NIC. If multiple NICs are installed on the
computer, you can use the -a option with this command. If the -a option is used, the ARP command displays
all ARP tables.

The following image shows the output of the arp command when used with the -a option.

To display the ARP cache entry for a specific IP address, specify the IP address with the -N option. For
example, the following command displays the ARP cache table for the interface that is assigned the IP
address 192.168.42.171.

Arp -a -N 192.168.42.171
The following image shows the output of the above command.

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Netstat
This command displays active connections, ports on which the computer is listening, Ethernet statistics,
the IP routing table, and IP statistics.

The output of this command is organized in rows and columns. Each row represents a new connection or
an entry in the output. It contains four columns. These columns provide the following information about
the row.

Proto: - This column displays the name of the protocol (TCP or UDP).

Local Address: - This column displays the IP address of the local computer and the port number being
used. If the port is not yet established, the port number is shown as an asterisk (*).

Foreign Address: - This column displays the IP address and port number of the remote computer to which
the port is connected.

State: - This column displays the status of the connection.

The following image shows the sample output of this command.

Options and parameters

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 Option Description

-a Displays all active TCP connections and the TCP and UDP ports on which the
computer is listening.

-e Displays Ethernet statistics, such as the number of bytes and packets sent and
received.

-n Displays active TCP connections, however, addresses and port numbers are
expressed numerically and no attempt is made to determine names.

-o Displays active TCP connections and includes the process ID (PID) for each
connection.

-p Shows connections for the protocol specified by Protocol. In this case, the Protocol
can be

TCP, UDP, tcpv6, or udpv6.

-s Displays statistics by protocol. By default, statistics are shown for the TCP, UDP,
ICMP, and IP protocols.

-r Displays the contents of the IP routing table.

The following table lists some common options of the netstat command.

Ipconfig
This command displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and refreshes Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings. This command is mainly used to
view the IP addresses on the computers that are configured to obtain their IP address automatically.

The following image shows the sample output of this command

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 Used without Displays the IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway for all adapters.
parameters

/all Displays the full TCP/IP configuration for all adapters.

/renew [Adapter] Renews DHCP configuration for all adapters (if an adapter is not specified) or for
a specific
/release [Adapter] Sends a DHCPRELEASE message to the DHCP server to release the current DHCP
configurall adapters (if an adapter is not specified) or for a specific adapter if the
Adapter parameter i
/flushdns Flushes and resets the contents of the DNS client resolver cache.

The following table lists some important options of the ipconfig command.

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.

.
EXPERIMENT 12: IMPLEMENTING STATIC AND DEFAULT ROUTES USING
ROUTER CONFIGURATION

Steps:

• Go to Toolbox and select any three routers. Here Router-PT

• Go to the Toolbox and select the cables and attach the routers in a linear order
• Click on Router0 and open its config, there in se/2 give the IP address and subnet mask as
10.10.1.2 and 255.255.255.0 respectively
• Click on Router1 and open its config, there in se/2 give the IP address and subnet mask as
10.10.1.1 and 255.255.255.0 respectively
• For the same router configure the interface se/3 and give the IP address as 10.10.2.1 and subnet
mask as 255.255.255.0
• Click on Router2 and open its config, there in se/2 interface give the IP and subnet mask as
10.10.2.2 and 255.255.255.0 respectively
• Now try send message from Router0 to Router1 (successful), Router1 to Router2 (successful) and
Router0 to Router2 (FAILED)
• The message from Router0 to Router2 failed because there is no path from Router0 to Router2 as
shown from using ‘show ip route’ command

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• Now to enable messaging from Router0 to Router2 set a static route
from Router0 to Router2
• Click on Router0 and open config then in settings > static fill the fields
of IP address, subnet maskand Next hop as 10.10.2.0, 255.255.255.0,
10.10.1.1 respectively.
• Now again try sending now it will be successful
• Do similar for Router2 so it can also send messages to Router0

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