ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - I

(UCE05B06)
Total Credit: 03 Contact Periods: 03 (2L+1T+0P)

General: Environment and its components, Role of an Environmental Engineer.

Water Demand: Various types of water demands, total requirement of water for a city, per capita
demand, factors affecting per capita demand, variation in demand, design capacities for various
water supply components, design flows, design periods, and design population, population
forecasting methods.
Sources of water: Hydrological cycle, surface sources of water, storage reservoir and surface
sources of supply, quality and quantity of surface water and their usefulness for public water
supplies, sub surface or underground water sources, geological factors governing the occurrence of
ground water, zones of underground water, ground water yield, recuperation test, aquifer and their
types, infiltration galleries, infiltration wells and springs, tube wells, yield of wells and tube wells
by Thiem’s and Dupuit’s equilibrium formula, well loss and specific capacity of wells,

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Intakes and pumps: Factors governing the location of an intake, intake tower, canal intake, types
of pumps for lifting water, factors affecting the selection of a particular type of pump, pumping
stations.
Quality of Water: Physical, chemical and biological water quality parameters (WQP), sources,
measurement techniques and effect of WQPs, permissible limits of WQPs as per Indian standards,
water borne diseases and their control.
Treatment of Water: Historical overview of water treatment, water treatment process (theory and
application): screening, plain sedimentation, sedimentation aided with coagulation, filtrations,
disinfection, water softening, Aeration, miscellaneous treatment units.
Distribution of Water: Methods of distribution of water, layout of distribution networks,
distribution reservoirs, distribution systems, distribution system components, capacity and pressure
requirements, design of distribution system, hydraulic analysis of distribution systems, pumping
required for water supply systems.

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Air Pollution: Definition of air pollution, natural and manmade air pollution, types of
pollutants, their sources and impacts, lapse rate and inversion, dispersion of air pollutants into
the atmosphere, typical plume behaviours, predicting pollutants concentration through
dispersion models, design of plume rise and stack height, air pollution control, air quality
standards and limits.

Books
Sl No Name of the Books Author Publisher

1. Environmental Engineering Peavy, H.S.,Rowe McGraw Hill Book and

D.R Tchobanoglous, Company,1985

2. Water supply and sanitary G.S.Birdie& J.S. DhanpatRai Engineering publishing

Engineering Birdie Company, New Delhi.

3. Sewage Disposal and Air, , S.K.Garg Khanna Publishers

Pollution Control Engineering

4. Environmental Engineering Vol. S.K.Garg Khanna Publishers

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5. Water and Waste water Engg Metcalf & Eddy Tata McGraw Hill
 Why water demand is important?
For designing of a water supply scheme for a particular section of the community :
two important aspects are
• Evaluation of the amount of water available
• and the amount of water demanded by the public (more important).

• Many a times, a compromise is sought between the above two aspects.

Types of Water Demands

The various types of water demands, which a city may have, may be of following
classes:

• Domestic water demand

• Industrial water demand
• Institution and commercial water demand
• Demand for public uses
• Fire demand; and
• Water required to compensate losses in wastes and thefts.

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 Domestic Water Demand
Water required in private buildings for
• drinking,
• cooking,
• bathing,
• lawn sprinkling,
• gardenmg,
• samtary purposes, etc.
 The amount of domestic water consumption shall vary according to the living
condition of consumer.
As per IS : 1172-1993, The domestic water consumption is in between 135-225
lit/head/day (with 200 l/h/d being minimum under ordinary circumstances with
flushing system)
• 340 lit/head/day for developed countries.

Industrial Water Demand

The industrial water demand represents the water demand of industries, which are either
existing or are likely to be started in future, in the city for which water supply is being
planned.
 The quantity will vary with type and number of available industries.
 The ordinary per capita consumption on account industrial5
needs of a City is generally taken as 50 litters /person / day
 Institution and commercial water demand
The water requirements of institutions, such as hospitals hotels, restaurants,
school and colleges, railway stations offices, factories, etc.
On an average, a per capita demand of 20 liters / head / day is usually
considered
50 liters / head / day for highly commercialized cities.

Demand for Public Uses

The quantity of water required for public utility purposes, such as
• watering of public parks,
• gardening,
• washing and sprinkling on roads,
• use in public fountains, etc.
 A figure of 10 liters / head / day is usually added on this account

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 Fire Demand
• Water required for fire fighting purpose in a city
• In thickly populated and industrial areas, fires generally break out and may
lead to serious damages, if not controlled effectively.
• Hence, a provision should, therefore, be made in modern public water
supply schemes for fighting fires.
• Fire hydrants are usually fitted in the water mains at about 100 to 150
meter apart
• The minimum water pressure available at fire hydrants should be of the
order of 100 to 150 kN/m2 (10 to 15 m of water head)
• Although the rate at which water is required for fire-fighting is very large,
the total amount of water consumption hardly amounts to 1.0
litre/head/day.
• The per capita fire demand is thus generally ignored while compute the
total per capita water requirement of a city

 While designing public water supply schemes, the rate of fire demand is
sometimes treated as a function of population, and is worked out on the 7basis of
certain empirical formulas,
 Fire Demand

1. Kuichling's formula Q  3182 P

2. Freeman formula. P
Q  1136  10 
10 
3. National Board of Fire Under Writers Formulas

a) When population is less than or equal to 2,00,000

Q  4637 P 1 0.01 P 
b) When population is more than 2 lakhs, a provision for 54,600 litres/minute
may be made with an extra additional provision of 9,100 to 36,400
litres/minute for a second fire.

4. Buston's formula.
Q  5663 P
where Q = Amount of water required in litres/minute,
P = Population in thousands.
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Water Required to Compensate Losses in Thefts and Wastes.

• This includes the water lost in leakage due to bad plumbing or

damaged meters, stolen water due to unauthorized water
connections, and other losses and wastes.
• These losses should be taken into account while estimating the
total requirement
• Consider this demand as high as 15% of the total consumption

• For Indian condition, 55 lit/head/day is generally considered.

What is design period?

• The future period for which a provision is made in the water
supply scheme is known as the design period
• Generally for water supply scheme it is considered as 30
years.
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 Per Capita Demand (q)

 It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one

person, and includes the domestic use, industrial and commercial
use, public use, wastes, thefts, etc.

Per Capita Demand (q) in litres per day per head

Total yearly water requirement of the city in litres (i.e.V )

q
365 Design population

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 Factors Affecting Per Capita Demand

1. Size of the City.

• The per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that
for smaller towns.
• This is because of the fact that in big cities, huge quantities of water are
required for maintaining clean and healthy environments.
• Big cities are generally sewered, and as such require large quantities of
water (a sewered house requires four to five times the water required by an
un-sewered home

2. Climatic Conditions
• At hotter and dry places, the consumption of water is generally more,
because more of bathing, cleaning, air coolers, air conditioning,
sprinkling in lawns, gardens, roofs, etc., are involved.
• Similarly, in extremely cold countries, more water may be consumed,
because the people may keep their taps open to avoid freezing of pipes,

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 Factors Affecting Per Capita Demand
3. Habits and economic status of People
• Rich and upper class communities generally consume more water due
to their high living standards.
• Middle class communities consume average amounts, while the poor
slum dwellers consume very low amounts.
• The amount of water consumption is thus directly dependent upon the
economic status of the consumers.

4. Industrial and Commercial Activities

• The pressure of industrial and commercial activities at a particular
place increases the water consumption by large amounts.
• Many industries require really huge amounts of water (much more
than the domestic demand), and as such, increase the water demand
considerably.

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 Factors Affecting Per Capita Demand

5. Quality of Water Supplies

• If the quality and taste of the supplied water is good, it will be consumed
more, because in that case, people will not use other sources such as
private wells, hand pumps, etc.

6. Pressure in the Distribution System

• If the pressure in the distribution pipes is high and sufficient to make
the water reach at 3rd or even 4th storey, water consumption shall
definitely be more.
7. Development of Sewerage Facilities
• As pointed out earlier, the water consumption will be more, if the
city is provided with sewerage system.

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 Factors Affecting Per Capita Demand

8. System of supply
• The water may be supplied either continuously for all the 24 hours of the
day, or may be supplied only for peak periods during the morning and
evening.
• The second system, i.e. the intermittent supplies, may lead to some saving
in water consumption due to losses occurring for lesser time and a more
vigilant use of water by the consumers.

9. Cost of Water.
• If the water rates are high, lesser quantity may be consumed by the
people.

10. Policy of Metering and Method of Charging.

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 Variations in Demand
There are several types of variation in demand like Seasonal variations, daily
variations, hourly variations (Effect is maximum)
•The consumption in the early hours
of morning (0 to 6 hours-say) is
generally small
• Increases sharply as the day
advances, reaching a peak value
between about 8 to 11 AM,
• Then decreases sharply upto about 1
PM, remains constant upto about 4
PM,
• Again increases in the evening
reaching a peak between 7 to 9 PM,
• finally falling to a low value in the
late hours of night,
These normal variations in the demand or draft should generally be assessed
and known in order to design supply pipes, service reservoirs, distributary
pipes, etc.
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 Assessment of Normal Variations
1. Maximum daily consumption is generally taken as 180 percent of the average

2.Maximum hourly consumption is generally taken as 150 percent of average

hourly consumption.
3. Maximum hourly demand of the maximum day
i.e. Peak demand=1.5*1.8.*q=2.7q

 Coincident Draft is taken as the maximum of

a) sum of maximum daily demand (1.8 q) and fire Demand (Total Draft),
b) the maximum hourly demand of the maximum day or peak demand (2.7 q)

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Effects of Variations in Demand on the Design Capacities of Different Components of a
Water Supply Scheme

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• Sources of supply such as wells, etc., may be designed for maximum daily
demand (1.8q)

• Pipe mains taking the water from the source upto the service reservoir may be
designed for maximum daily consumption (1.8q)

• The filter and other units at water treatment plant may be designed for
slightly greater than maximum daily draft, i.e. 2q, instead of 1.8 q for
breakdown and repairs.

• The pumps lifting the water may be designed for maximum daily draft
•
• The distribution system should be designed for maximum hourly draft of the
maximum day or coincident draft with fire, whichever is more.

• The service reservoir is designed to take care of the hourly fluctuations, fire
demands, emergency reserve, and the pro-vision required when pumps have
to pump the entire-day's water in fewer hours than 24 hours.

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 Numerical on variation of demand

Problem 1
A water supply scheme has to be designed for a city having a
population of 1,00,000. Average daily demand is 250
lit/head/day.

Calculate

i) Average daily draft

ii) Maximum daily draft
iii) Maximum hourly draft of the max day
iv) Fire draft
v) Coincident draft
vi) Capacities of Intake structure, Pipe mains, Filter and other
units, Pumps, and distribution systems.
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POPULATION FORECASTING Methods

1. Arithmetical increase method;

2. Geometrical increase method;
3. Incremental increase method;
4. Decreasing rate method;
5. Simple graphical method;
6. Comparative graphical method;
7. Master plan method;
8. and The logistic curve method.

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 1. Arithmetic Increase Method
This method is based upon the assumption that the population increases at a constant rate; i.e.
the rate of change of population with time.

where Pn = Prospective or forecasted population after n decades from the present (i.e.
last known census),
Po = Population at present (i.e. last known census)
n = No. of decades between now and future.
x = Average (arithmetic mean) of population increases in the known decades.

Problem 2
The population of 5 decades from 1930 to 1970 are given below. Find out the
population after one, two and three decades beyond the last known decade, by using
arithmetic increase method.

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 2. Geometric Increase Method
• In this method, the per decade percentage increase or percentage growth rate
(r) is assumed to be constant, and the increase is compounded over the
exiting population every decade.
• In arithmetic method, no
compounding is done; in geometric
method, compounding is done every
decade.

• The computations in two methods are,

thus, comparable to simple and
compound interest computations, • where Po is Initial population ;
respectively. i.e. the population at the end
of last known census.
• Hence, the assumed constant value of •Pn is Future population after n
percentage growth rate per decade (r) decades.
is analogous to the rate of interest per • r is Assumed growth rate (%).
annum
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 2. Geometric Increase Method

The assumed growth rate (r) can be computed in several ways

from the past known population data.
• Where P1 is initial known population
• P2 is final known population
• t is No. of decades (period) between P1 and P2

Arithmetic average method

Geometric average method

However, the "GOI Manual on Water and Water Treatment" recommends the
use of geometric mean method

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 3. Incremental Increase Method
• In this method, the per decade growth rate is not assumed to be
constant as in the arithmetic or geometric progression methods
• but is progressively increasing or decreasing, depending upon
whether the average of the incremental increases" in the past data is
positive or negative.

where Pn = Population after n decades from present (i.e., last

known census)
x = Average increase of populations of known decades
y = Average of incremental increases of the known decades.
• This method will give end results, somewhere between the results
given by 'arithmetic increase method' and 'geometric increase
method', and is, thus, considered to be giving quite satisfactory
results.
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 4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method

• Since the rate of increase in population goes on reducing, as the

cities reach towards saturation, a method which makes use of
the decrease in the percentage increase, is many a times used,
and gives quite rational results.

• In this method, the average decrease in the percentage

increase is worked out, and is then subtracted from the
latest percentage increase for each successive decade

• This method is however, applicable only in cases, where the

rate of growth shows a downward trend.

• Applicable for old cities

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 5. Simple Graphical Method.

• In this method, a graph is plotted from the available data, between time
and population.
• The curve is then smoothly extended up to the desired year. The
method, however, gives very approximate results, as the extension of
the curve is done by the intelligence of the designer.

• However, they are less time

consuming and are used by
engineers.
• They are also useful for
providing a check on the
results obtained by some
other advanced and time
consuming methods of
population forecasting
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 6. Comparative Graphical Method
• In this method, the cities having conditions and characteristics similar
to the city whose future population is to be estimated are, first of all,
selected.
• It is then assumed that the
city under consideration will
develop, as the selected
similar cities have
developed in the past..
• This method has a logical
background, and if statistics
of development of similar
cities are available, quite
precise and reliable results
can he obtained.
• However, it is rather difficult to find identical cities with respect to
population growth
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 7. Master Plan Method or Zoning Method.
• Big and metropolitan cities are generally not allowed to develop in
haphazard and natural ways, but are allowed to develop only in
planned ways.
• Only those expansions are allowed, which are permitted or
proposed in the master plan of that city.

• The master plan prepared for a city is generally such, as to

divide the city in various zones, and thus to separate the
residence, commerce, and industry from each other.
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 8. The Logistic Curve Method

Under normal conditions, the population of a city shall grow as per

the logistic curve, shown in Fig. 2.3.
• The curve is S-shaped, as
shown in Fig. 2.3, and is
known as logistic curve.
• The curve represents
early growth AB at an
increasing rate; and late
growth DE at a
decreasing rate as the
saturation value (Ps) is
approached.
• The transitional middle
curve BD follows an
arithmetic increase
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 8. The Logistic Curve Method
P.F. Verhulst has put forward a mathematical solution for entire
curve (Fig. 2.3) . The curve can be represented by an autocatalytic
first order equation, given by

where Po =. The population at the start point of the curve A.

Ps = Saturation population.
P = Population at any time t from the origin A.
K= Constant.

After solving the equation

This is the required equation of the logistic curve.

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 8. The Logistic Curve Method

McLean further suggested that if only three pairs of characteristic

values Po, P1, P2 at times t = to = 0, t1 and t2 = 2t1 extending over
the useful range of the census populations, are chosen, the
saturation value Ps and the constants m and n can be evaluated
from three simultaneous equations,
• Knowing Po, P1 and P2 from
census data and using them in
these equations, the values of Ps,
m and n are known, and the
equation of the logistic curve is
thus known.
• From that, the population P at any
time t can then be obtained,

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End of Chapter 1

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