Minimum Learning Level Material

(Science -CLASS X CBSE)

CHAPTER 1: CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
Key Concepts to Learn:

1. Definition of Chemical Reactions:

- A chemical reaction occurs when one or more substances (reactants) are transformed into new substances
(products) with different properties.

2. Characteristics of Chemical Reactions:

- Change in state
- Change in color
- Evolution of gas
- Change in temperature
- Formation of a precipitate

3. Types of Chemical Reactions:

- Combination Reaction: Two or more substances combine to form a single product.
- Example: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
- Decomposition Reaction: A single substance breaks down into two or more simpler products.
- Example: 2H₂O₂ → 2H₂O + O₂
- Displacement Reaction: A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from a compound.
- Example: CuSO₄ + Zn → ZnSO₄ + Cu
- Double Displacement Reaction: Exchange of ions between two compounds to form new compounds.
- Example: Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄ + 2NaCl
- Oxidation and Reduction (Redox) Reactions:
- Oxidation: Gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen.
- Reduction: Loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.
- Example: CuO + H₂ → Cu + H₂O (Copper is reduced, hydrogen is oxidized)

4. Chemical Equation:
- A representation of a chemical reaction using symbols and formulas.
- Example: H₂ + O₂ → H₂O

5. Balanced Chemical Equations:

- A chemical equation is balanced when the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of
the equation.
 - Steps to balance an equation:
1. Write the unbalanced equation.
2. Count the number of atoms of each element.
3. Use coefficients to balance the atoms on both sides.
4. Make sure all coefficients are in the simplest ratio.

6. Examples of Balanced Equations:

- Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂
- 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO

7. Corrosion and Rancidity:

- Corrosion: The process where metals are gradually eaten away by the action of air, moisture, or a
chemical.
- Example: Rusting of iron.
- Rancidity: The oxidation of fats and oils when exposed to air, causing them to spoil.

Important Formulas and Symbols:

- Chemical Symbols: H₂ (Hydrogen), O₂ (Oxygen), NaCl (Sodium Chloride)
- Word Equation Example:
- Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
- H₂ + O₂ → H₂O

Practice Questions:
1. What are the characteristics of a chemical reaction? Explain with examples.
2. Balance the following chemical equation:
- Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂
3. Write down a chemical equation for the decomposition of calcium carbonate.
4. Differentiate between oxidation and reduction reactions with an example.

CHAPTER 2: ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS

Key Concepts to Learn:

1. Definition of Acids and Bases:

- Acids: Substances that release hydrogen ions (H⁺) in water. They have a sour taste and turn blue litmus
paper red.
- Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
- Bases: Substances that release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water. They have a bitter taste, slippery feel, and
turn red litmus paper blue.
- Example: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
2. Indicators:
- Indicators are substances that change color in the presence of an acid or a base.
- Examples of indicators:
- Litmus paper: Turns red in acids and blue in bases.
- Phenolphthalein: Colorless in acids and pink in bases.
- Methyl orange: Red in acids and yellow in bases.

3. pH Scale:
- The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is, ranging from 0 to 14.
- pH < 7: Acidic solutions
- pH = 7: Neutral solutions (e.g., pure water)
- pH > 7: Basic solutions
- Importance of pH in everyday life:
- pH of soil affects plant growth.
- pH of water is important for aquatic life.
- The human stomach maintains a low pH for digestion.
4. Neutralization Reaction:
- A neutralization reaction occurs when an acid reacts with a base to form salt and water.
- Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
- This reaction is important in many industrial and biological processes.

5. Salts:
- Salts are formed when acids react with bases.
- Types of salts:
- Acidic salts: Formed by the reaction of a strong acid and a weak base.
- Basic salts: Formed by the reaction of a strong base and a weak acid.
- Neutral salts: Formed by the reaction of a strong acid and a strong base.
- Common examples of salts:
- Sodium chloride (NaCl), used in cooking.
- Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃), used in laundry.
- Ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl), used in dry cells.

6. Common Acids, Bases, and Salts:

- Acids: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Acetic acid (CH₃COOH), Citric acid (C₆H₈O₇)
- Bases: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), Ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH)
- Salts: Sodium chloride (NaCl), Baking soda (NaHCO₃), Washing soda (Na₂CO₃)

7. Importance of Acids, Bases, and Salts in Daily Life:

- Acids: Used in digestion (HCl in the stomach), food preservation (vinegar), and cleaning agents (citric
acid).
- Bases: Used in soap and detergent manufacturing (NaOH), neutralizing acidity in soil (Ca(OH)₂), and in
antacids (Mg(OH)₂).
- Salts: Essential for the body's electrolyte balance (NaCl), used in food (table salt), and in various industrial
processes.
Important Formulas and Symbols:

- HCl (Hydrochloric Acid), NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide), NaCl (Sodium Chloride)

- Word Equation Example:
- Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium chloride + Water
- HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O

Practice Questions:
1. What is an acid? Give two examples of acids commonly used in laboratories.
2. What is the pH scale? What does it signify if a solution has a pH of 3?
3. Write the chemical equation for the neutralization of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
4. How is the pH of soil important for agriculture?

CHAPTER 3: METALS AND NON-METALS

Key Concepts to Learn:

1. Physical Properties of Metals and Non-metals:

- Metals:
- Lustrous (shiny), malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity.
- Example: Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu)
- Non-metals:
- Non-lustrous, brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricity.
- Example: Sulfur (S), Carbon (C)

2. Chemical Properties of Metals:

- Reaction with oxygen: Metals form metal oxides, which are basic in nature.
- Example: 4Na + O₂ → 2Na₂O (Sodium oxide)
- Reaction with water: Some metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
- Example: 2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂
- Reaction with acids: Metals react with acids to produce hydrogen gas and salts.
- Example: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂

3. Chemical Properties of Non-metals:

- Reaction with oxygen: Non-metals form non-metallic oxides, which are acidic in nature.
- Example: C + O₂ → CO₂ (Carbon dioxide)
- Non-metals do not generally react with water or acids.

4. Reactivity Series of Metals:

- The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in order of their reactivity.
- Highly reactive metals like potassium (K) and sodium (Na) are at the top, while less reactive metals like
gold (Au) and platinum (Pt) are at the bottom.
- The reactivity series helps predict how metals will react with other substances.

5. Ionic Compounds:
- Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations), and non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions
(anions).
- Ionic compounds are formed by the electrostatic attraction between cations and anions.
- Example: Na⁺ + Cl⁻ → NaCl (Sodium chloride)
- Properties of ionic compounds:
- High melting and boiling points.
- Conduct electricity in molten or dissolved form.

6. Corrosion:
- Corrosion is the process where metals deteriorate due to reactions with moisture, air, or chemicals.
- Example: Rusting of iron (Fe₂O₃.xH₂O)
- Prevention of corrosion:
- Painting, galvanization (coating with zinc), and oiling are common methods used to prevent corrosion.

7. Uses of Metals and Non-metals:

- Metals:
- Used in construction (iron, steel), electrical wiring (copper), and making utensils (aluminum).
- Non-metals:
- Used in fertilizers (nitrogen), water purification (chlorine), and making explosives (sulfur).

Important Formulas and Symbols:

- Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂ (Reaction of zinc with hydrochloric acid)

- Na + H₂O → NaOH + H₂ (Reaction of sodium with water)
- Na⁺ + Cl⁻ → NaCl (Formation of sodium chloride)

Practice Questions:

1. List three physical properties of metals and three of non-metals.

2. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of sodium with water.
3. What is the reactivity series? How does it help in predicting reactions?
4. What is corrosion? Give an example and a method to prevent it.
CHAPTER 4: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
1. Introduction to Carbon
Atomic Number: 6
Valency: 4 (Tetravalent)
Allotropes of Carbon: Diamond, Graphite, and Fullerenes
- Diamond: Hardest natural substance, does not conduct electricity.
- Graphite: Soft, slippery, good conductor of electricity.
- Fullerenes: Spherical carbon molecules (e.g., C-60).

2. Covalent Bonding in Carbon Compounds

Definition of Covalent Bond: A chemical bond formed by sharing of electrons between atoms.
Types of Covalent Bonds:
- Single Covalent Bond: Example: Methane (CH₄)
- Double Covalent Bond: Example: Ethene (C₂H₄)
- Triple Covalent Bond: Example: Ethyne (C₂H₂)

3. Versatile Nature of Carbon

Catenation: Ability of carbon to form long chains by bonding with other carbon atoms.
Tetravalency: Carbon can form four covalent bonds with other atoms (e.g., hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen).

4. Hydrocarbons
Definition: Compounds made up of only carbon and hydrogen.
Types of Hydrocarbons:
- Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes): Single bonds, e.g., Methane (CH₄).
- Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
- Alkenes: Contain double bonds, e.g., Ethene (C₂H₄).
- Alkynes: Contain triple bonds, e.g., Ethyne (C₂H₂).

5. Homologous Series
Definition: A series of organic compounds having the same functional group and similar chemical properties,
where each successive member differs by a -CH₂ unit.
Example of Alkanes: Methane (CH₄), Ethane (C₂H₆), Propane (C₃H₈).

6. Functional Groups
Definition: An atom or group of atoms that defines the structure and chemical properties of organic
compounds.
Examples of Functional Groups:
- Alcohol (-OH): Methanol (CH₃OH)
- Aldehyde (-CHO): Ethanal (CH₃CHO)
- Carboxylic Acid (-COOH): Ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH)

7. Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

Basic rules:
- Number the carbon atoms in the longest chain.
 - Identify and name the functional group or substituent.
Examples:
- Methanol (CH₃OH)
- Propanoic acid (C₂H₅COOH)

8. Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds

Combustion: Carbon compounds burn in oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy.
Oxidation: Alcohols can be oxidized to carboxylic acids.
Addition Reaction: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes) undergo addition reactions.
Substitution Reaction: Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) undergo substitution reactions.

9. Important Carbon Compounds

Ethanol (C₂H₅OH):
- A colorless liquid, used in alcoholic drinks.
- Can react with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen.
Ethanoic Acid (CH₃COOH):
- Also known as acetic acid.
- A weak acid, used in vinegar.

10. Soaps and Detergents

Soaps: Sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids. They are used for cleaning and form scum in
hard water.
Detergents: Synthetic cleaning agents that do not form scum in hard water.

Key Definitions:
Covalent Bond: A bond formed by sharing of electrons.
Homologous Series: A series of organic compounds with the same functional group and similar chemical
properties.
Functional Group: An atom or group of atoms that gives a compound its characteristic chemical properties.

CHAPTER 5: LIFE PROCESSES

1. Introduction to Life Processes
Life processes are the basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain life. These processes are
necessary for the survival of living organisms.
The essential life processes include:
- Nutrition
- Respiration
- Transportation
- Excretion
2. Nutrition
Nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain food and utilize it for growth and maintenance.
Types of Nutrition:
- Autotrophic Nutrition: Organisms prepare their own food. Example: Plants (photosynthesis)
- Heterotrophic Nutrition: Organisms depend on other organisms for food. Example: Humans, animals.

3. Respiration
Respiration is the process of breaking down glucose to release energy for cellular activities.
Types of Respiration:
- Aerobic Respiration: Takes place in the presence of oxygen. Example: Humans, animals.
- Anaerobic Respiration: Takes place in the absence of oxygen. Example: Yeast (fermentation).

4. Transportation
Transportation is the process of moving substances like nutrients, oxygen, and waste products throughout
the body.
In Humans, the circulatory system includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels.
In Plants, transportation is carried out by xylem and phloem tissues.

5. Excretion
Excretion is the process of removing metabolic wastes from the body.
In Humans, excretion is carried out by the kidneys, which filter blood and produce urine.
In Plants, excretion occurs through processes like transpiration.

6. Key Definitions:
Life Processes: Basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain life.
Autotrophic Nutrition: The process by which organisms prepare their own food.
Respiration: The process of breaking down glucose to release energy.
Transportation: Movement of substances like nutrients and oxygen within the body.
Excretion: The process of removing waste products from the body.

7. Questions for Practice

Q1. Define life processes and name the different types of life processes.
Q2. What is autotrophic nutrition? Give an example.
Q3. Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Q4. Describe the transportation system in plants.
Q5. Explain the process of excretion in humans.
Q6. Why is respiration considered a vital life process?
Q7. What are the main components of the circulatory system in humans?
Q8. How do plants excrete their waste products?
CHAPTER 6: CONTROL AND COORDINATION
1. Introduction to Control and Coordination
Control and coordination are the processes that help living organisms respond to their surroundings and
carry out various functions in a controlled manner. In animals, control and coordination are carried out by
the nervous and endocrine systems.

2. Nervous System
The nervous system helps in transmitting signals between different parts of the body. It consists of:
- Brain
- Spinal cord
- Nerves
The nervous system coordinates voluntary and involuntary actions and processes sensory information.

3. Structure of Neuron
Neurons are specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses. The main parts of a neuron are:
- Cell Body: Contains the nucleus and other organelles.
- Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive impulses.
- Axon: A long extension that transmits impulses away from the cell body.
- Synapse: The junction between two neurons.

4. Reflex Action and Reflex Arc

Reflex action is an automatic, quick, and involuntary response to a stimulus. It is controlled by the spinal
cord. Example: Withdrawing hand from a hot object.
The path taken by the nerve impulse during a reflex action is called the reflex arc.

5. Human Brain
The brain is the control center of the body. It is divided into three main parts:
- Forebrain: Controls thinking, memory, and voluntary actions.
- Midbrain: Controls eye movement and reflexes.
- Hindbrain: Controls balance, posture, and involuntary actions like breathing.

6. Endocrine System
The endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various
body functions. Key glands include:
- Pituitary Gland: Often called the 'master gland' as it controls other glands.
- Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism.
- Adrenal Glands: Produce adrenaline, the 'fight or flight' hormone.

7. Coordination in Plants
Plants coordinate their activities in response to external stimuli like light, gravity, and touch. This is achieved
through:
- Tropic Movements: Growth movements in response to stimuli (e.g., phototropism, geotropism).
- Plant Hormones: Chemical substances like auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins regulate plant growth.
8. Key Definitions:
Control and Coordination: Processes that help organisms respond to stimuli and carry out functions.
Neuron: A nerve cell that transmits impulses.
Reflex Action: An automatic response to a stimulus.
Hormones: Chemical substances that regulate body functions.
Tropic Movements: Growth movements in plants in response to external stimuli.

9. Questions for Practice

Q1. What is the role of the nervous system in control and coordination?
Q2. Describe the structure of a neuron.
Q3. Explain the concept of reflex action and reflex arc with an example.
Q4. Name the three main parts of the human brain and their functions.
Q5. What is the endocrine system? Name any two hormones and their functions.
Q6. How do plants respond to light and gravity?
Q7. Define tropic movements in plants and give examples.

CHAPTER 7: HEREDITY
1. Introduction to Heredity
Heredity refers to the transmission of traits from parents to offspring through genes. Genes are the basic
units of inheritance located on chromosomes, and they determine the characteristics of an organism.

2. Inheritance of Traits
Inheritance is the process through which genetic information is passed from parents to offspring. Traits may
be dominant or recessive:
- Dominant Traits: Expressed even when only one copy of the gene is present. Example: Tallness in pea
plants.
- Recessive Traits: Expressed only when both copies of the gene are the same. Example: Dwarfness in pea
plants.

3. Mendel’s Experiments
Gregor Mendel, the 'Father of Genetics,' conducted experiments on pea plants to understand how traits are
inherited. He formulated three laws of inheritance based on his experiments:
- Law of Dominance
- Law of Segregation
- Law of Independent Assortment

4. Sex Determination
Sex determination is the process by which the sex of an organism is decided. In humans, sex is determined by
the combination of sex chromosomes:
- XX: Female
- XY: Male
7. Key Definitions:

Heredity: The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes.

Dominant Trait: A trait that is expressed even when only one copy of the gene is present.
Recessive Trait: A trait that is expressed only when both copies of the gene are the same.
Variation: Differences in traits among individuals of the same species.

8. Questions for Practice

Q1. Define heredity. How are traits inherited from parents to offspring?
Q2. What is the difference between dominant and recessive traits?
Q3. Explain Mendel’s experiments on pea plants and the laws of inheritance.
Q4. How is sex determined in humans?
Q6. What is variation? Why is it important in the process of evolution?

CHAPTER 8: REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

1. Introduction to Reproduction
Reproduction is the biological process by which organisms produce offspring. It ensures the continuation of
species across generations. Reproduction can be of two types:
- Asexual Reproduction
- Sexual Reproduction

2. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves a single parent and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the
parent. It occurs without the fusion of gametes.
Examples of asexual reproduction include:
- Fission: Division of an organism into two or more individuals. Example: Amoeba.
- Budding: New organisms develop from a bud. Example: Hydra.
- Fragmentation: Organism breaks into fragments, and each fragment develops into a new organism.
Example: Spirogyra.
- Spore Formation: Spores are produced and released to form new individuals. Example: Fungi.

3. Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two parents and the fusion of male and female gametes, leading to genetically
diverse offspring. It includes the formation of specialized reproductive cells called gametes (sperm and egg)
and involves the following stages:
- Gametogenesis: Formation of gametes (sperms in males and eggs in females).
- Fertilization: Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
- Development: The zygote undergoes cell division and differentiation to form a new organism.
4. Reproduction in Humans
Human reproduction is a form of sexual reproduction. It involves the following:
- Male Reproductive System: Consists of organs like the testes (which produce sperms) and vas deferens.
- Female Reproductive System: Consists of organs like the ovaries (which produce eggs), fallopian tubes,
uterus, and vagina.
- Fertilization: The process by which the sperm fuses with the egg, usually in the fallopian tube, to form a
zygote.

5. Reproduction in Plants
Plants reproduce both sexually and asexually:
- Asexual Reproduction: Includes methods like vegetative propagation (e.g., cuttings, tubers).
- Sexual Reproduction: Involves the formation of male (pollen) and female (ovule) gametes. Fertilization
occurs in the ovary, leading to seed formation.

6. Key Definitions:
Reproduction: The biological process by which organisms produce offspring.
Asexual Reproduction: Reproduction involving a single parent, producing identical offspring.
Sexual Reproduction: Reproduction involving two parents and the fusion of gametes.
Fertilization: The process of fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
Gametogenesis: The process of formation of gametes (sperm and egg).

7. Questions for Practice

Q1. What is reproduction? Explain the two types of reproduction.
Q2. Describe asexual reproduction and mention different types with examples.
Q3. Explain the process of sexual reproduction in organisms.
Q4. How does reproduction occur in humans? Describe the male and female reproductive systems.
Q5. What are the methods of reproduction in plants? How does sexual reproduction occur in plants?
Q6. Differentiate between sexual and asexual reproduction.

CHAPTER 9: LIGHT: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

1. Introduction to Light
Light is a form of energy that enables us to see objects. It travels in a straight line and can undergo reflection
and refraction.

2. Reflection of Light
• Reflection: The bouncing back of light rays when they hit a smooth surface.

• Laws of Reflection:
1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.
• Types of Reflection:
- Regular Reflection: Occurs on smooth surfaces like mirrors, resulting in a clear image.
- Diffuse Reflection: Occurs on rough surfaces, where light is scattered, and no clear image is formed.

• Mirror Types:
- Plane Mirror: Forms a virtual, erect, and same-size image.
- Spherical Mirrors:
- Concave Mirror: Curved inward, can form real or virtual images.
- Convex Mirror: Curved outward, always forms virtual and diminished images.

• Mirror Formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u, where:

- f = focal length,
- v = image distance,
- u = object distance.

3. Refraction of Light
• Refraction: The bending of light rays when they pass from one medium to another.

• Laws of Refraction:
1. The incident ray, refracted ray, and normal to the interface of two media lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant, known as
Snell’s Law.

• Refractive Index:
- A measure of how much a medium can bend light.
- Formula: n = c/v, where:
- n = refractive index,
- c = speed of light in vacuum,
- v = speed of light in the medium.

4. Lenses
• Lens: A transparent material bounded by two refracting surfaces.

• Types of Lenses:
- Convex Lens (Converging Lens): Thicker in the middle, converges light rays to a point.
- Concave Lens (Diverging Lens): Thinner in the middle, diverges light rays outward.

• Lens Formula: 1/f = 1/v - 1/u, where:

- f = focal length,
- v = image distance,
- u = object distance.
• Magnification: The ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
- Magnification m = hi/ho = v/u.

5. Important Definitions
• Reflection: Bouncing of light from a surface.
• Refraction: Bending of light when it passes from one medium to another.
• Focal Length: The distance between the lens or mirror's center and the focal point.
• Real Image: Formed when light rays actually meet at a point.
• Virtual Image: Formed when light rays appear to meet but don’t actually converge.

Sample Questions
1. Very Short Answer Questions
1. Define reflection of light.
2. What is refraction of light?
3. What are the two types of spherical mirrors?
4. Write the mirror formula.
5. Define focal length.

2. Short Answer Questions

1. State the laws of reflection.
2. What is a refractive index? Write its formula.
3. Differentiate between concave and convex mirrors.
4. Write the lens formula and explain each term.
5. How does a convex lens form images at different distances?

3. Long Answer Questions

1. Explain the laws of refraction with the help of a diagram.
2. Describe the image formation by a concave mirror at different positions of the object.
3. Explain Snell's law of refraction and its significance.
4. Draw a ray diagram for the image formation by a convex lens when the object is placed beyond 2F.
5. Explain the working and applications of concave and convex mirrors.

CHAPTER 10: THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD

1. Introduction to The Human Eye

The human eye is a sense organ that helps us perceive light and colors.

• Parts of the Eye:

- Cornea: The transparent front part of the eye.
 - Iris: Controls the size of the pupil and gives the eye its color.
- Pupil: The opening that allows light to enter.
- Lens: Focuses light onto the retina.
- Retina: Contains light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) that detect light.
- Optic Nerve: Carries signals from the retina to the brain.

2. The Functioning of the Eye

• Accommodation: The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length to focus on nearby and distant objects.

• Defects of Vision:
- Myopia (Nearsightedness): The inability to see distant objects clearly. This occurs when the eyeball is too
long, causing the image to form in front of the retina. It is corrected using concave lenses.
- Hypermetropia (Farsightedness): The inability to see nearby objects clearly. It occurs when the eyeball is
too short, causing the image to form behind the retina. It is corrected using convex lenses.
- Presbyopia: Age-related farsightedness. It is corrected using bifocal lenses.

3. Refraction of Light Through a Prism

• Prism: A transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light.

When light passes through a prism, it is refracted (bent) and splits into its constituent colors. This
phenomenon is called dispersion.

4. Dispersion of Light and The Spectrum

• Dispersion: The splitting of white light into its seven constituent colors (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow,
Orange, Red) when it passes through a prism.
• Spectrum: The band of seven colors produced by dispersion.

5. Atmospheric Refraction
• Atmospheric Refraction: The bending of light when it passes through layers of the Earth’s atmosphere.

• Phenomena Due to Atmospheric Refraction:

- Twinkling of Stars: Caused by the refraction of starlight as it passes through the Earth’s atmosphere.
- Apparent Position of Stars: The position of stars appears slightly shifted due to atmospheric refraction.

6. Scattering of Light
• Scattering: The process by which light is dispersed in all directions by small particles in the atmosphere.

• Phenomena Due to Scattering:

- Tyndall Effect: The scattering of light by particles in its path, making the beam visible. It can be observed
when sunlight passes through a canopy of trees.
- Blue Color of the Sky: Shorter wavelengths like blue are scattered more than longer wavelengths, making
the sky appear blue.
- Red Color of the Sun at Sunrise and Sunset: During sunrise and sunset, sunlight passes through a larger
portion of the atmosphere, and shorter wavelengths (like blue) are scattered away, leaving the red color.

Important Definitions
• Accommodation: The adjustment of the focal length of the eye lens.
• Myopia: A vision defect where distant objects cannot be seen clearly.
• Hypermetropia: A vision defect where nearby objects cannot be seen clearly.
• Dispersion: The splitting of white light into its component colors.
• Spectrum: A band of colors formed by dispersion.
• Atmospheric Refraction: The bending of light due to the Earth's atmosphere.
• Scattering of Light: The redirection of light in all directions due to small particles.

Sample Questions
1. Very Short Answer Questions
1. What is the function of the cornea in the human eye?
2. Define accommodation.
3. What is myopia, and how is it corrected?
4. Name the phenomenon responsible for the blue color of the sky.
5. Define dispersion.

2. Short Answer Questions

1. What is the Tyndall Effect? Give an example.
2. Explain why stars appear to twinkle.
3. What is presbyopia? How is it corrected?
4. Describe the process of refraction of light through a prism.
5. Why does the Sun appear reddish at sunrise and sunset?

3. Long Answer Questions

1. Explain the working of the human eye and its structure.
2. Describe the defects of vision and their corrections.
3. Explain atmospheric refraction and how it leads to the twinkling of stars.
4. How does scattering of light explain the blue color of the sky?
5. Discuss the formation of the spectrum using a prism.
CHAPTER 11 - ELECTRICITY
Key Concepts:
Electric Current
The flow of electric charge (electrons). Unit: Ampere (A). Formula: I = Q/t, where I is current, Q is charge, and
t is time.

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

Electric Potential is the amount of electric potential energy per unit charge. Potential Difference: Work done
to move a unit charge from one point to another. Unit: Volt (V). Formula: V = W/Q, where V is the potential
difference, W is work done, and Q is charge.

Ohm’s Law
The potential difference (V) across a conductor is directly proportional to the current (I) through it, provided
the temperature remains constant. Formula: V = IR, where R is resistance.

Resistance
The opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of electric current. Unit: Ohm (Ω). Factors affecting
resistance: Length of the conductor, cross-sectional area, material, and temperature.

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Series combination: Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + … Parallel combination: 1/R total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + …

Electric Power
The rate at which electrical energy is consumed or produced by a device. Formula: P = VI, P = I^2R, P =
V^2/R. Unit: Watt (W).

Heating Effect of Electric Current

Joule’s Law of Heating: Heat produced H = I^2Rt.

Important Questions:
Section A: Basic Questions (1 Mark)
What is the SI unit of electric current?

Define electric potential difference.

State Ohm’s Law.

What is the formula for calculating electrical power?

How does the resistance of a conductor vary with its length?

Section B: Short Answer Questions (2-3 Marks)
Derive the formula for the equivalent resistance in the case of resistors in series.

If the potential difference across a resistor is 12V and the current passing through it is 4A, calculate the
resistance.

Explain why the resistance of a conductor increases with temperature.

A 60W bulb is connected to a 220V supply. Calculate the current drawn by the bulb.

Section C: Long Answer Questions (5 Marks)

Explain the heating effect of electric current. Derive the expression for the heat produced in a resistor when a
current flows through it for a given time.

Discuss the differences between resistors in series and parallel with the help of diagrams and equations.

A heater coil is rated at 100Ω and 220V. Calculate the power consumed by the heater and the energy
consumed in 2 hours.

Numerical Problems:
A 10Ω resistor is connected in series with a 15Ω resistor. The combination is connected to a battery of 12V.
Calculate:
- Total resistance of the circuit.
- Current flowing through the circuit.
- Potential difference across each resistor.

Two resistors of 6Ω and 12Ω are connected in parallel. If the combination is connected to a 6V battery, find:
- The total resistance of the combination.
- The current through each resistor.

CHAPTER 12 - MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC

CURRENT
Key Concepts:
Magnetism and Magnetic Field
Magnetic Field: The region around a magnet where the force of attraction or repulsion can be detected.
Magnetic Field Lines: Imaginary lines around a magnet representing the magnetic field. Properties: (1) They
emerge from the north pole and merge at the south pole. (2) They do not intersect. (3) Closer lines indicate
stronger fields.
Magnetic Field Due to a Current-Carrying Conductor
Magnetic Field Around a Straight Conductor: Magnetic field lines are concentric circles. Right-Hand Thumb
Rule: Thumb in current direction, fingers wrap in the direction of the magnetic field. Factors affecting field
strength: Current and distance.

Magnetic Field due to a Circular Loop

The magnetic field at the center of a current-carrying circular loop is straight and perpendicular. Strength
increases with current and number of turns.

Solenoid and Its Magnetic Field

A coil of wire (solenoid) has a uniform magnetic field resembling a bar magnet. Electromagnet: A solenoid
that produces a strong magnetic field.

Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: Thumb (force), forefinger (magnetic field), middle finger (current). Application:
Electric motors.

Electromagnetic Induction
Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule: Thumb (motion), forefinger (field), middle finger (induced current). Faraday’s
Law: A changing magnetic field induces current. Application: Electric generators.

Domestic Electric Circuits

Live Wire, Neutral Wire, and Earth Wire. Importance of fuses, earthing, and safety measures.

Important Questions:
Section A: Basic Questions (1 Mark)
What is a magnetic field?

State the right-hand thumb rule.

Define solenoid.

What is electromagnetic induction?

Name two devices that work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

Section B: Short Answer Questions (2-3 Marks)

Draw a diagram showing magnetic field lines around a bar magnet. What are the properties of magnetic field
lines?

How does the strength of the magnetic field due to a current-carrying conductor depend on the distance from
the conductor?

A circular loop carrying current generates a magnetic field. What will happen to the field strength if the
number of turns in the loop is doubled?

Explain Fleming’s left-hand rule with the help of a diagram.

What is the role of an earth wire in domestic circuits?

Section C: Long Answer Questions (5 Marks)

Describe the construction and working of an electric motor. Explain how Fleming’s left-hand rule is used in
the motor.

Explain the concept of electromagnetic induction with the help of an experiment. Also, state Fleming’s right-
hand rule.

Draw a labeled diagram of domestic electric circuits and explain the role of each component (fuse, live wire,
neutral wire, earth wire).

Compare the magnetic field around a straight current-carrying conductor and a solenoid. Why is the field
inside a solenoid uniform?

Numerical Problems:
A conductor of length 0.5 m carrying a current of 2A is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field of strength
0.3T. Calculate the force acting on the conductor. (Use F = BIL, where B is magnetic field strength, I is current,
L is length).

A solenoid 1.5m long has 1000 turns and carries a current of 5A. Calculate the magnetic field inside the
solenoid. (Use B = μ₀nI, where n is the number of turns per unit length).

An electric motor takes a current of 5A from a 220V source. If the efficiency of the motor is 80%, calculate the
output power of the motor.

CHAPTER 13 - OUR ENVIRONMENT

Key Concepts:
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms) interacting with
each other and their physical environment. Components: Biotic (living) and Abiotic (non-living). Types:
Natural (forests, lakes) and artificial (aquariums, crop fields).

Food Chains and Food Webs

Food Chain: A linear sequence of organisms where each is eaten by the next. Food Web: A network of
interconnected food chains showing complex feeding relationships. Trophic Levels: Producers, primary
consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers.

Energy Flow in Ecosystem

10% Law: Only 10% of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next, while 90% is lost as heat
to the environment.
Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Substances
Biodegradable: Substances that can be broken down by natural processes (e.g., food waste, paper). Non-
biodegradable: Substances that cannot be broken down by natural processes (e.g., plastic, glass).

Ozone Layer and Its Depletion

Ozone (O₃) absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Ozone Depletion: Thinning of the ozone layer caused by
chemicals like CFCs. Consequences: Increased UV radiation, skin cancer, cataracts, harm to ecosystems.

Waste Management
Methods of Waste Disposal: Landfills, Recycling, Composting, Incineration.

Important Questions:
Section A: Basic Questions (1 Mark)
What is an ecosystem?

Define food chain.

What are biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem?

What is the 10% law of energy transfer in an ecosystem?

Name two non-biodegradable substances.

Section B: Short Answer Questions (2-3 Marks)

Differentiate between biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances. Give examples.

Explain the significance of the ozone layer. What are the effects of ozone layer depletion?

What is a food web? How is it different from a food chain?

Why are producers important in an ecosystem? Explain with an example.

What is the role of decomposers in an ecosystem?

Section C: Long Answer Questions (5 Marks)

Describe the flow of energy in an ecosystem. Explain why only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic
level to the next.

Discuss various methods of waste disposal. Which one do you think is most effective and why?

What are the causes and effects of ozone layer depletion? Suggest measures to protect the ozone layer.

Explain with an example how human activities can disturb the balance of an ecosystem.

Numerical Problems:
In a grassland ecosystem, 1000 units of energy are available at the producer level. How much energy will be
available to the tertiary consumer according to the 10% law?