LESSON I

WHAT IS A LIBRARY?
A library is a collection of sources, resources and services, and the structure in which it is housed. A library
is a collection of useful materials for common use. However, with the sets and collection of media and
other books for storing information, many libraries are now also repositories and access points for maps,
prints, or other documents and various storage media such as microform, audio tapes, CDs, cassettes,
videotapes, DVDs and video games.The basic or ultimate goal of every library is to acquire, process and
disseminate information i.e. obtain, store or preserve and make available print and non- print materials
needed available to the end users.

Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in
many formats and from many sources. They are understood as extending beyond the physical walls of a
building, by including material accessible by electronic means, and by providing the assistance of librarians
in navigating and analysing tremendous amounts of information with a variety of digital tools. (Wikipedia,
2010).

Libraries also provide facilities to access subscription databases and the Internet. Academic libraries differ
from each other in many respects but they all have the same basic function, which is to aid the parent
institution in carrying out its objectives in the areas of teaching, research and community development. The
library contributes to the realization of these objectives and supports the total programme by acquiring and
making available the books, materials, services that are needed.

Types of library materials

Library materials, also known as library stock, are the resources and collections acquired by the library or
library system to meet users’ information needs. Library materials are categorized into two, namely:
a) Book materials/ Print resources
b) Non –book materials/ Non-Print resources

Book materials: These are the library resources in paper form which can be read and understood by
readers. This includes books, newspapers, serials publications (periodicals). Thus, a book can be defined as
a number of printed pages of not less paper than 49pages, bound together along one edge and usually
protected by either hardback or paperback cover. When it is less than 49 pages, then it is not a book but a
pamphlet or booklet. Book materials are in three parts:

Textbooks: These are: a)books on different subject areas (disciplines) known as non-fiction materials;
b) literature books - the fiction materials, examples are, novels or short stories. They are literary works
invented by imagination.

Reference materials: These are books that provide clue to reference queries (questions) such as: What?
Which? How? Why? etc. Reference books (materials) are: Dictionaries, Encyclopedias, Directories,
Yearbooks, Handbooks, Gazetteers, Indexes, Atlases, Almanacs, Bibliographies, Biographies, etc.
Reference books are not meant to be read from page to page, cover to cover like other books. Rather,
reference books provide answers to questions, terms or terminologies and they are usually alphabetically
arranged and are mostly in volumes. Reference materials are library materials consulted only within the
library for specific facts or definite piece of information on a subject. The scope covered by reference
materials is usually comprehensive while the information they contain is condensed and arranged in a

1
way that will enable the users to find it easily. Most reference materials are arranged alphabetically.
They are usually voluminous and expensive. Reference materials are documents that contain
miscellaneous information on any topic whether on events or individual. Reference materials can appear
both in print and electronic form. They only contain facts and are based on universally accepted
knowledge.

Types of reference materials

i. Encyclopedia
ii. Dictionary
iii.Year book
iv. Directories
v. Almanac
vi. Handbook/Manual
vii. Maps and Atlases
viii. Indexes
ix. Abstract
x. Government publication
i. Encyclopedia: These are works containing factual and comprehensive information on all subjects
or on a field of knowledge. Encyclopedia treats subjects and employs such features as illustrations,
maps, diagrams, charts, statistical table and so on. They can come in single volume or multiple
volumes. Unlike the dictionary which dwells more on the linguistic meaning of words, the
encyclopedia lays more emphasis on the object/ideas which the word represents. Encyclopedias,
divided into articles or items are often accessed alphabetically via article name.
There are two major types of encyclopedia, they are:
a) General encyclopedia: This contains information on almost all subjects. Examples are:
Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana and World Book.
b) Subject specific encyclopedia: This limits the information to a particular subject. Examples:
McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, International Encyclopedia of Information
Science.
ii. Dictionary: They are reference materials that provide information about words. The information
may comprise the meaning, derivation, spelling, pronunciations, syllabification, usage and current
status of words. The words are arranged in an alphabetical order e.g. Oxford, English Dictionary,
Advanced Learners Dictionary.
iii. Yearbook: This is a compilation of each year’s current development or event in a country or
agency. It helps in updating information and reviewing event of preceding year, that is, a user who is
interested in what happened in 2014 should consult year book published in 2015. Examples are: The
Statemans Year Book published by Macmillan or Nigeria Year Book published by Daily Times.
iv. Directories: A directory is a reference work that lists names and addresses in a particular
geographical area or organisation, profession or establishment in a systematic order for easy location.
It is published in alphabetic or classified order. Examples are; telephone directory, trade directory and
university directory.
v. Almanac: This is a reference material that provides information on past and current practical dates,
statistics and facts on general or special topics. These are often presented in tables to enhance
comparison. Almanacs also give information on the statistic of states, government. Examples include,
World Almanac and Book of Facts, Whitaker Almanac.
vi. Maps and Atlases: It is a graphic represented usually on a fast material of the whole or part of the
earth surface or of the celestial sphere. A collection of maps in single or bound volume is called an

2
 atlas. Atlases are essential in studying economics, history, geography and other branches of the social
science. An example is the World Book Atlas.
vii. Index: An index is a systematic guide to the location of a word, concept or other items in books,
periodicals or other publication. An index consists of a series of entries appearing not in the order in
which they appear in the publication but in some other order (for example, alphabetical). This is to
enable user find information quickly through references (such as page numbers) that show where each
item is located. It is usually at the back of a book, for example, periodicals index.

Periodicals: Also known as Serials are publications that come in successive parts, usually at regular or
irregular intervals and are intended to be continued indefinitely, examples are periodicals, newspapers,
magazines and so on. Serials are usually numbered and dated, for example, vol. 1, vol. 2, no. 4, 2005.
Reference books published annually, bi-annually or semi- annually are also referred to as serials, for
example; yearbooks, almanacs.

Types of Periodical (Serials)

 Magazine: Magazines are periodical publication of works by different authors often illustrated and with
advertisement. They give comprehensive account of recent event and advertise goods with pictures and
diagram. They are meant for entertainment and relaxation. They are published weekly, fortnightly, or
monthly. Examples are: Newswatch, Newsweek, and Ovation.
 Newspaper: Newspapers are the major source of current information usually published and issued daily,
certain days of the week or weekly. They report the latest news of current event or happenings and often
of their communities. Information in newspaper most often may be biased or based on opinion and
therefore, may not be used for research or scholarly work. Examples of newspapers are; The Punch, The
Nation, Nigerian Tribune.
 Journals: This is one of the main source of current information, is published at regular intervals and
usually emanate from learned societies or associations, professional body, research institutes and
government departments, for example, Journal of Library and Information Science.

Special features of Journals

1. They are essential in research undertaking as they contain current information on related subject.
2. They are educative and reliable.
3. They also carry information on advertisement, book reviews, announcement of meeting and seminars.
4. Journals bear ISSN number (International Standard Serial Number)

Non-Book materials
Non-book materials are;
 Electronic resources
 Audio-visual materials
 Learning resources
 Educational and instructional materials
 Visual aids
 Educational technology
 Media resources

Non-book materials help in solving communication problem and enhance instructional efficiency during
teaching and learning process. It enables students to see those things being taught in real life situations, as
seeing is believing.

3
LESSON II

TYPES OF LIBRARIES

There are different types of libraries. These libraries are established to achieve the aims and objectives of
their parent organizations. They are as follows:

Academic Libraries
Academic libraries are libraries to post-secondary institutions. They are libraries that exist in tertiary
institutions such as universities, polytechnics, colleges of education and colleges of technology. They
are the hub around which the academic activity of any tertiary institution revolves. They are usually
established to achieve the target objectives of the parent institutions. They stock various types of library
materials ranging from books and non-books, to other materials that can aid teaching and learning. In
fact, the objectives of the institution determine the types of materials they stock. It functions as
auxiliary of institution in which it exists. It is expected to serve the needs of the students and faculties.

It can be categorized into two; University and College Libraries. Libraries found within the Universities
are referred to as University Libraries while libraries in other tertiary institutions are called College
libraries. Examples respectively are: Kenneth Dike Library, University of Ibadan, and Nimbe Adedipe
Library, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta and: The Polytechnic Library, Ibadan and Gani
Belo Library, Federal College of Education, Osiele, Abeokuta.

Functions of Academic Libraries

The main purpose of academic libraries is to support the objectives of teaching, learning, research and
services of the parent institutions. Others include:

- Provision of information materials required for the academic programmes of the parent institutions.
- Provision of materials that are needed for learning.
- Provision of all information sources needed for carrying out effective learning and research
activities.
- Provision of information resources for recreation and for personal self-development of users.
- Provision of materials needed for the learning and research activities of the students.
- Provision of information materials to support teaching and research activities of the teaching staff.
- Provision of materials for learning and other purposes, for the support staff of the academic
institutions.
- Provision of local materials collected by the institution for consultation and use by the community
in which the library is located.
- Provision of information sources for the purpose of extra-mural students, recreation, entertainment
and general knowledge.
- The academic library also serves as a depository of their parent institutions’ publications or in some
cases, national publication.
- Provision of protection and security for the library materials.
- Cooperation with other libraries at appropriate levels for improved information services.

School Libraries
These are libraries established to provide for the reading needs of pre-primary, primary, secondary and
higher secondary schools. They supplement and complement teaching and learning activities of school

4
children. They contain more of audio-visual and graphic materials such as pictures, photographs, realia,
diagrams, magazines, periodicals and newspapers.
As the name implies, libraries in primary, secondary school and technical colleges are referred to as
school libraries. It can be described as an organized collection of books in a school for the use of the
teachers and pupils. The collections are specifically acquired to meet the academic needs of the pupils.
Preference is also given to reference books and books for home reading.

The Library is usually manned by a teacher librarian who exposes pupils to the use of books at a tender
age. Examples are libraries in secondary schools and Abadina Media Resource Centre, University of
Ibadan, Ibadan.

Functions of School Libraries

The major function is to provide information materials to supplement and complement teaching and
learning activities. Other functions include:

a. Support teaching and learning within the school.

b.Provide recreational materials for pleasure reading.
c. Promote the development of reading skills.
d.Encourage long-term learning habits through reading, listening to and viewing variety of learning
materials.
e. Encourage independent study by providing wide variety of materials.

National Libraries
National library is the apex library of a country. It is the nation’s centre of information. National library
provides referral service and keeps track record of information concerning the country. This is a library
established to serve the entire citizen of the public within a local community, a state or a nation. It is
usually established by the national government of a country to serve the educational, social and
recreational needs of the country. Books in this library are usually for reference only.

National Library of Nigeria was established with the issuance of the 1950 publication ordinance. This
was amended by decree No 29 of 1970. The decree stipulates that publisher of every book published in
Nigeria shall deliver three copies of the publication at his own expense to the library within one month
of publication. Federal and State Governments are to deposit twenty-five (25) and ten (10) copies of
their publications respectively to the National Library. However, a copy of these publications should be
sent to the University College Library, University of Ibadan, which acted as National library before the
establishment of National Library of Nigeria.

Functions of National Library

The main function of National library is to collect and preserve all publications emanating from a nation
for posterity. It is a copyright library. There is a copyright law which compels all publishers to submit
copies of their publications to the National Library for up-keep. This makes it easy for the library to
compile union catalogue, produce a national bibliography and publish a retrospective national
bibliographies. They are saddled with the responsibility of issuing International Standard Book Number
(ISBN) and International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) to publishers for books and serials
publications respectively. Others are:

- Major function is to serve as the depository of all copyright publications within a country.
- Collect and preserve national literature.
- Serve as a permanent depository for all documents issued in the country.

5
 - Publish the national bibliography.
- Acquire foreign documents of national importance and interest.
- Compilation of a union catalogue of all titles held in the major libraries in the country. This makes
it easy for libraries to organize inter-library loans.

Special / Research Libraries

These are libraries that belong to particular establishments, government ministries, research institutes,
banks and professional bodies. They are established to support researches going on in the institutions
they serve. Research institutes include International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Cocoa
Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN), Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER),
Nigerian Institute of International Affairs (NIIA), Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN),
Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), etc.

Research library can also be referred to as special library. The Library is established to support the
research activities of the institute they serve. They usually have a very narrow scope. Their patrons or
clientele are researchers or subject specialists embarking upon exhaustive and intensive investigation
into a particular area of knowledge. They usually provide referral services in support of studies in their
subject fields. The rationale for establishing research libraries include information explosion which
leads to tremendous growth of specialized literature, necessity to provide specific information to
specific readers and application of results of research for further growth of subject areas.

The special/research library is maintained by its parent body. A library is special depending on whether
it covers a specialized collection or form of items in a special subject e.g. Science Library, Music
Library, etc., a particular group of users or a type of parent organization. They are expected to provide
services to their users. They provide photocopying facilities and inter-library loan facilities. They also
provide selective services like translation, indexing and abstracting.

Functions of Special/Research Libraries

- Provision of information resources relevant to the activities of its parent organization.
- Provide and disseminate current awareness services based on the profiles of individual users.
- Provide required information quickly and precisely.
- Conduct retrospective literature search for users.

Public Libraries
Public libraries are libraries funded by state or local governments with the tax payers’ money and with
the backing of legislation. A public library is a general library where both print and non- print materials
available cover many subject areas. The range of materials is as wide and varied as the reading needs of
the people who use the library. It is free and open to all without any discrimination. It is therefore
wholly designed for the purpose of rendering services to the general public irrespective of age, sex,
status, occupation or religion. The services are meant to be free or attract little fee. Public library
generates fund from the public which are in turn used in maintaining the library.

A public library is established and maintained from public fund and intended for the use of the general
public. It is expected to serve all kinds of people. Public libraries in Nigeria are usually established and
maintained by state and local governments.

Services provided by the Public Library include:

6
- Lending /Circulating services: This is a service that allows users of a library to borrow library materials
for consultation or reading.
- Inter-library loan (ILL) and Document Delivery Service: This is a transaction between two libraries. A
library that does not have a particular material requested by a clientele will request for this material
from another library on behalf of the user.
- Reservation Service: This involves placing a material on reserve for use only in the library. Reasons:
Highly expensive, recommended course texts, few copies within the library.
- Reference service: This involves attending to queries from clients. It is a person-to-person service.
- Current Awareness Service: This is a service that is targeted at keeping users up to date with
happenings in their subject areas of interest.
- Exhibition and Display: This is to advertise the services and resources of a library. Display draws the
attention of library users to services being rendered by the library while exhibition is to stimulate
readers.
- Library Publications: This involves the issuing of publications by the library. Example of such
publications is Library guide.
- User Education: User education is to equip user with knowledge on the use of library.
- Information Literacy Programme: This involves teaching the users on how to search for information
independently on any aspect of knowledge using both traditional and electronic methods of accessing
information.
- Literature Search
- Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI): This is a service that is geared towards providing users
with information that will promote research and other day-to-day activities.
- Referral Service: This involves directing a reader to another library or an alternative source of
information.
- Translation Service: This service involves translating an information material in one language to
another language.
- Extension and Outreach services: Providing information services to people that cannot come to make
use of the library. For example, prisoners, sick people, etc.
- Rental of premises
- Photocopy service
- Compilation of bibliographies and indexes.

Private Libraries
This Library is set up, equipped and managed by individuals. It is usually maintained by renowned scholars
in the society. These scholars turn their collections over the years into a library. The library collections
usually reflect the areas of specialization of their owners. For example, most of the collections of a medical
doctor will be on medicine while a lawyer will have law books as his major collections.

LIBRARY RULES AND REGULATIONS

Where there is no rule, there is no sin says an adage. There are rules and regulations meant to guide the
conduct of library users and to assist the library to achieve its set goals and objectives.. The rules and
regulations are usually contained in the ‘Readers’ Guide’ or ‘Students’ Handbook’ of some tertiary
institutions. Endeavour to read it. Defaulters will be sanctioned to serve as deterrent to others.

Some of the rules and regulations are:

1. Any library materials leaving the library must be properly borrowed.

7
 2. Books in the closed access (Reference section, serials or Reserved Units) may not be removed from
the library.
3. It is an offence to keep materials (books) beyond the date specified for return.
4. Penalties (fine) will be charged for over- due books.
5. Returned books must be delivered at the loan’s desk.
6. All consulted books must be left on the reading tables.
7. No readers may enter any part of the library marked ‘private or Work-room’ unless by permission.
8. Any person who is suspected to be security risk may be ordered out of the library.
9. Indecent dressing will not be allowed into the library.
10. The use of naked light is not allowed in the library.
11. Marking or underlining of library books is not allowed.
12. Briefcases, luggage, nylon bags, bags, umbrella, sticks, camera etc. must be deposited at the room
outside the library at owner’s risk.
13. Refreshments of all kinds, Smoking etc. are not allowed in the library.
14. Pets must not be taking along with you to the library.
15. Silence must be maintained in and around the library.
16. Only registered users are allowed to use the library resources.
17. Users must present whatever materials they are carrying to the security personnel at the entrance for
checking while leaving the library.
18. The use of cell phone is prohibited in the library.
19. Reservation of seat in the library is prohibited.
20. Books mutilation, pilfering, theft are all prohibited.

ORGANISATION OF LIBRARY
Library Collections
Library resources are usually acquired by the Acquisitions Department. This unit processes the materials by
affixing the ownership stamp of the library on strategic places of the book/material and registering the
library resources in the accession register. In order to make these resources more easily accessible and
retrievable, library resources are organized into various collection using manual and online catalogues.
Online cataloguing has greatly enhanced the usability of catalogues, thanks to the Machine Readable
cataloguing-MARC standard in the 1960s. MARC was originally used to automate the creation of physical
catalogue cards, now the MARC computer files are accessed directly in the search process OPACs have
enhanced usability over traditional cards formats.

Library Catalogue / Cataloguing of Library.

In order to facilitate easy accessibility of material to the users, a number of techniques involving the use of
international rules and codes are applied in cataloguing and classification of library materials. A library
catalogue can be defined as a list of books and other related items including periodical publications and
non- print documents. Cataloguing on the other hand is defined as the physical description of library
material with full attention on information that is peculiar to the book item. Descriptive cataloguing shows
all the necessary bibliographic information required distinguishing a document as distinct from other
publication and this is recorded according to international cataloguing rules. Cataloguing department in the
library is responsible for the processing of library materials and the professionals involved in the production
of the library catalogues are the cataloguers. The cataloguers are responsible for assigning subject heading
to the book, for deriving its class mark for placement of the books in the appropriate position on the shelves.

8
The university library information resources are classified and shelved using the Library of Congress
Classification Scheme and catalogued using the internationally recognized conventions such as Anglo,
America Cataloguing Rules2 (AACR2). There are three types of catalogue: card catalogue, book catalogue
and automated catalogue. The processed bibliographic data of ’Nimbe Adedipe Library is presented in two
formats, printed catalogue cards and automated format or printed catalogue cards and online Public Access
Catalogue (OPAC).

CATALOGUE CARDS
Catalogue is available for concurrent use by several users of the library. The catalogue cards are stored in a
catalogue cabinet with dimensions and structure that allow quick and easy access by most users. The
cabinet drawers are conspicuously labelled in alphabetical order. To enable a person to find a book of
which either through the author, the title, the subject, secondly, to show what the library has; by a given
author, on a given subject and in a given kind of literature.

ONLINE PUBLIC ACCESS CATALOGUE (OPAC)

The automated catalogue is through computers for easy access and retrieval of information in the library.
The computers access points are situated next to the catalogue cabinets to provide users with options of
using either format to access the library collection. The online Public Access is available in the campus
wide information network.

The content of library information resources are made accessible through indexes in printed or computer
based formats. The university library catalogue allows for appropriate editing to keep abreast with modern
technology, contemporary practices and changing international information.

How to Access Information from Catalogue

1. Author catalogue: Entries are arranged alphabetically using authors’/editors’ surname with separate entry
for books/media by each author represented in the library stock.

2. Title catalogue: Titles covered by library stock is sorted alphabetically according to the title of the
entries.
3. Subject catalogue: This is an alphabetical list of subjects covered by the library stock .

The catalogue has the following parts:

 Author or the heading

 Title of the book
 Statement of responsibility
 Edition
 Collation; physical description of material: number of pages, illustrations and dimension.
 Imprint; Name of publisher, place and date of publication
 Series statement
 Tracing of added entries (Subject entry)
 ISBN
 Accession Number
 Call Number

Note: Students can check the University Library Guide for detail

9
LESSION III
E-RESOURCES AND DATABASE
Electronic Library (e-library)
There are many definitions of an e-library; terms such as virtual library; electronic library and digital library
are often used synonymously. The e-library is nothing but a large database for the researchers who are
working on online environment, which supports the full cycle of creation, storage, preservation,
dissemination and use of data, information and knowledge.

According to Anns (2007) an e-library is a managed collection of information with associated services
where the information is stored in digital format and accessible over a network. An e-library is an
organized collection of digital material or its holding in the digital form, which can be accessible by a
computer. It is an organized collection of multimedia and other types of resources, resources are available
in computer processable form, the functions of acquisition, storage and preservation, are carried out through
the use of digital technology. It is a type of service that allows users, without actually visiting a traditional
library, to read books and other information material, conduct research at home, in the office, or at school,
using the Internet.
In Nigeria and world over, some practical applications of the electronic library have already been
implemented. Various institutions have been working to develop an electronic library by diverse means; the
electronic library concept provides both primary and secondary information electronically through
communications networks. Electronic library is aimed at making it possible for anyone, at any time or
place, to access digitized resources over the Internet. It is only natural, however, that the contents which can
be used over an electronic library are limited to those contents which have been digitized at the library so
they can be relayed through a network. The process of digitization is a major one, involving much labor and
expense. Libraries have huge book collections and it is not possible to digitize all these resources. It is a
huge misconception, therefore, to think that anyone, at any time or place, can access any book in a library.
The electronic content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. An electronic
library serves as a type of information retrieval system.
Advantages
 Accessible – can be accessed from any computer on campus and usually any computer off campus,
any time of the day or night, so there is no need to make a trip to the library
 Easily searchable - each material/journal can be searched quick and easy often through the
complete full text of articles and via online index
 Speed - Articles/issues appear online before printed version is available
 Interactive - Rapid turnaround time means articles can be read, commented by the readers,
amended quickly and greater feedback through the web
 Links - Hypertext format can be exploited and also, links to related articles, information on other
web sites, stable URLs for individual articles and email alerts when latest issue is loaded.
 Added Value - Advantages taken on the web is to add value by using animation, virtual reality and
interactive mathematical charts.
 Inexpensive - savings can be made over printing costs, distribution costs and extra costs by new
features.
 Flexibility - E-journals evolve quickly. They are not tied to a format, printer, and distribution
network

10
Disadvantages
 Copyright: - It violates the copy right law as the thought content of one author can be freely
transferred by others without his acknowledgement.
 Speed of access: - As more and more computer are connected to the Internet, its speed of access
reasonably decreases. If new technology will not evolve to solve the problem then in near future
Internet will be full of error messages.
 Initial cost is high: - The infrastructure cost of digital library i.e. the cost of hardware, software;
leasing communication circuit is generally very high.
 Band width: - E-library will need high band for transfer of multimedia resources but the band
width is decreasing day by day due to its over utilization.
 Efficiency: - With the much larger volume of information, finding the right material for a specific
task becomes increasingly difficult.
 Environment: - e-libraries cannot reproduce the environment of a traditional library. Many people
also find reading printed material to be easier than reading material on a computer screen.
 Preservation: - Due to technological developments, resources can rapidly become out-of-date and
its data may become inaccessible.
 Networking
 Proliferation of Software/Technology obsolesce
Digital Library
Digital Library is a repository of information in digital form or collection of documents in organized
electronic form, that is, stored as data files on a computer. It is also the tool-set provided to enable search
and retrieval of the repository. Digital library" is simply library collections and services in digital form. A
digital library is a special library with a focused collection of digital objects that can include text, visual
material, audio material, video material, stored as electronic media formats (as opposed to print, microform,
or other media), along with means for organizing, storing, and retrieving the files and media contained in
the library collection. Digital libraries can vary immensely in size and scope, and can be maintained by
individuals, organizations, or affiliated with established physical library buildings or institutions, or with
academic institutions. It also serves to reinforce the fact that although digital technology provides us with
many new challenges and opportunities, the basic mission and goals of the library remain constant.
Advantages
Traditional libraries are limited by storage space; digital libraries have the potential to store much more
information, simply because digital information requires very little physical space to contain it. As such, the
cost of maintaining a digital library can be much lower than that of a traditional library. A physical library
must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintenance, rent, and additional books. Digital
libraries may reduce or, in some instances, do away with these fees. Both types of library require cataloging
input to allow users to locate and retrieve material. Digital libraries may be more willing to adopt
innovations in technology providing users with improvements in electronic and audio book technology as
well as presenting new forms of communication such as wikis and blogs; conventional libraries may
consider that providing online access to their OPAC catalog is sufficient. An important advantage to digital
conversion is increased accessibility to users. They also increase availability to individuals who may not be
traditional patrons of a library, due to geographic location or organizational affiliation. Other advantages
include:
 No physical boundary.
 Round the clock availability
 Multiple access
 Information retrieval.

11
  Preservation and conservation.
 Space.
 Added value.
 Easily accessible.
Disadvantages
Digital libraries, or at least their digital collections, unfortunately also have problems and challenges in
areas such as
 Equity of access – the digital divide.
 Interoperability between systems and software.
 User authentication for access to collections.
 Information organization.
 Interface design.
 Digital preservation.
 Training and development.
Virtual Library
Virtual library is synonymous with a digital library. Virtual Library means library without walls. The
resources are available in digital format; there is no paper, microforms etc. The resources are locally held or
accessed through computer networks. A Virtual Library is a collection of resources available on one or
more computer systems, where a single interface or entry point to the collections is provided. It is a library
in which the holdings are found in electronic stacks. It is a library that exists, without any regard to a
physical space or location. It is a technological way to bring together the resources of various libraries and
information services, both internal and external, all in one place, so users can find what they need quickly
and easily. The key point being that the user need not know where particular resources are located. It is
available via the World Wide Web or similar system wide technologies, and it includes both materials that
are purchased (proprietary) on subscription which require user authentication for remote access and
materials that are freely available to everyone.
Advantages
 It saves and/or reduces the physical space taken up by library materials.
 It often adds enhanced searching capabilities in a digital format.
 The library materials are available at the user's desktop, regardless of where the user is physically
located.
 It allows for the inclusion of materials only available on the Internet or in digital format.
 It provides the user with the capability to download and manipulate text.
 It often allows for multiple, concurrent users.
 It eliminates the problem of a book being missing or off the shelf.
 It is less labor intensive.

Disadvantages
 Every product has its own distinct user interface.
 Users need to remember different passwords for different products.
 The scope of coverage and available archives is often limited.
 There are often difficulties with downloading or printing.
 Often there is no cost savings, especially when both the virtual and print products are maintained.
 Everything is NOT available in digital format.
 There are restrictions, which vary from vendor to vendor, on how the product can be used.
 The virtual library relies on power and computer networks in order to be available for use.

12
  Users can't spread everything out in front of them and use it all at once.
 Users are most comfortable using books.
ELECTRONIC-RESOURCES (E-Resources)
An electronic resource (e-resource) is any information source that the library provides access to in an
electronic format. It can also be defined as any work encoded and made available for access through the use
of a computer. It includes electronic data available by:
(1) Remote access
(2) Direct access (fixed media)
Remote access refers to the use of electronic resources via computer networks, while Direct Access refers to
the use of electronic resources via carriers (e.g., discs/disks, cassettes, cartridges) designed to be inserted
into a computerized device or its auxiliary equipment.
The Library acquires electronic resources which rank high on the following list of criteria:
1. Usefulness in serving the current or future informational needs of students and researchers
2 Credibility and reputation of the information provider
3. Amount of unique information provided
4. Scholarly content
5. Content being available only in digital form
5. at risk (possible accidental or deliberate removal of resource)
6. Fugitive resource (e.g., grey or underground literature)
Types of Electronic Resources
Resources that can be accessed electronically include:
• Academic
– Referred journals
– Review journals
– Pre-prints
– Bulletins
• Non-academic
– Professional/trade journals
– Magazines
– Newspapers
• Subject gateways, databases and directories
The ‘Nimbe Adedipe Library subscribes to and makes available some electronic information resources
and users can access them free of charge. E-resources available at the ‘Nimbe Adedipe Library (Open
Access and Fee-Based) include:
 Health International Network Access to Research Initiatives (HINARI) www.who.int/hinari
(Request for password at the e-library /Serials Department)
 Access to Global Online Research in Agriculture (AGORA) www.aginternetwork.org (Request
for password at the e-library /Serials Department)
 Joint System to Order Resources (JSTOR): Log on to www.jstor.org to create a user account
 The Essential Electronic Agricultural Library (TEEAL): Log on to teal.library.unaab.edu.ng to
create a user account. Popline Journals contain the world’s most comprehensive collection of
population, family planning and related reproductive health and development literature.
Available at: www.popline.org
 African Journals Online (AJOL): Provides collection of peer-reviewed, African-published
scholarly journals in all disciplines. Available at: www.ajol.info/

13
  Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ): Scholarly Journals on all disciplines available
at:www.doaj.org
 BioOne: High quality, subscribed and open-access journals focused on the biological,
ecological, and environmental sciences. Log on to www.bioone.org to create a user account
Advantages of Electronic Resources
 User friendly interface.
 24 x 7 (Any Time Information available). Library users don’t have to wait for the library to open to
access them.
 Simultaneous accessibility
 They are peer reviewed information sources.
 They are huge information reservoirs.
 Multidisciplinary approach.
 Published e-resources can be updated and corrected even after publishing.
 Provide advanced searching facilities.
 Provide access to articles in multiples formats and languages.
 Articles can be displayed and printed clearly in easy to read format.
 Save physical storage space. A single CD ROM can contain many volumes of a particular journal
and thousands of full text articles with graphics.
 Provide quick information, up to date information, easy citations, various search options and special
services like SDI (Selective Dissemination of Information), Alerts etc.,
 Provide access literally to, thousands of e-journals, e-books etc., than the library could possibly
subscribe to in paper format.
 Users can search e-resources to find articles on a particular subject from many different
publications at the same time without having to search each publication separately.
 Especially useful for finding information not yet available in books, or obtaining up-to-date
information on current events or issues.
 Provide authoritative, accurate, current, objective reference material not readily available through a
search engine like Google.
Disadvantages
 Difficulty in reading computer screens: Electronic journal is the limitations of the computer
monitor, this leads to problem with reading and long reading from screen which can cause
eyestrain.
 Less permanent: Electronic version of online journal is easy to lose and their reliance on soft
wares and hard wares make them impermanent.
 Higher cost: Retrieval of some electronic articles are costly.
 License/ Copyright issues: Issues regarding revision of the licenses and copying and distributing
of resources.
 Bandwidth
 Environment
 Networking
Size of Media Storage
When referring to storage, bytes are used. When referring to transmission speeds, bits are used. Although
computer data and file size is normally measured in binary code using the binary number system (counted
by factors of two 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, etc), the prefixes for the multiples are based on the metric system.

14
A bit is a value of either a 1 or 0 (on or off).
A Nibble is 4 bits.
1 Bit = Binary Digit
8 Bits = 1 Byte
1024 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte (1 Page of a Book)
1024 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte (4 Books)
1024 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte (4,473 books)
1024 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte (4,581,298 Books)
Others big data media storages are Petabyte, Exabyte, Zettabyte, Yottabyte, Brontobyte and Geopbyte
(They contain more than 4,691,249,611 Books).
Databases
A database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed, managed, and
updated. In one view, databases can be classified according to types of content: bibliographic, full-text,
numeric, and images. As an organized collection of data, it is the collection of schemes, tables, queries,
reports, views and other objects. The data is typically organized to model aspects of reality in a way that
supports processes requiring information, such as modeling the availability of rooms in hotels in a way that
supports finding a hotel with vacancies.
Types of Databases
Databases provide various formats of information. Different databases provide different kinds of
information. Databases can be classified into the following categories:
Classification of Database by Content
1. Bibliographic Databases provide a descriptive record of an item, but the item itself is not provided in
the database. Information about the item is provided, including such things as author, title, subject,
publisher, etc. The information provided is called a citation. Sometimes a short summary or abstract of
the item is provided as well.
2. Full-text Database provides the full-text of a publication. Example: AGORA
3. Numeric: Some databases provide numeric information, such as statistics or demographic information.
Example statistical table
4. Audio: Audio files are usually compressed for storage or faster transmission. Audio files can be sent in
short stand-alone segments - for example, as files in the Wave file format. Examples: Clowdy, Deezer
5. Image. Image databases vary significantly in ease-of-use and level of functionality.
6. Multimedia. These are databases that collect only image information, audio information (MP3 or wav
files), or a combination of any of the above types.
7. Meta-Databases are databases that allow one to search for content that is indexed by other databases.
Advantages
Databases can be extremely important tools for managing large amounts of data but they also have their
own downsides
 Reduced data redundancy
 Reduced updating errors and increased consistency
 Greater data integrity and independence from applications programs
 Improved data access to users through use of host and query languages
 Improved data security
 Reduced data entry, storage, and retrieval costs
 Facilitated development of new applications program
 Increasing consistency

15
 Disadvantages
 Database systems may be complex and difficult
 It is time-consuming to design
 Substantial hardware and software start-up costs
 Damage to database affects virtually all applications programs
 Extensive conversion costs in moving from a file-based system to a database system
 Initial training is required for all programmers and users.
DOI
In the electronic world, the doi (Digital Object Identifier) plays the role of the ISBN or ISSN. The doi is
alphanumeric, it identifies content and provides link to its location on the internet and is assigned by
publisher.

LESSION IV

STUDY SKILLS

Study skills are formalized processes or strategies to effective learning, acquisition of high scores in
examinations and maintaining excellence. They include ability to concentrate, read effectively, organize
information, summarize and perform well in examinations.

Types of Study Skills

 Rehearsal and rote learning: In this case, the act of memorization is employed. This is a
deliberate mental process embarked on so as to store in memory for later recall. Examples are,
telephone numbers, appointments, addresses, diagrams and so on.
 Keywords: This is the summarization of a topic /course/ book and so on into short notes. These
notes however, can be reduced to key facts and key words (major terms used in the book). The
method of summarization depends on the topic.

 Organized summaries: These are outlines which show keywords, definitions and inter-
relationships of an idea/topic. It could be presented in the structure of a tree.
 Spider diagrams: This means linking concepts together in a spider like form. It creates a visual
summary of a topic, maintains its logical structure, and by drawing lines, the inter-relationships
between the different parts are revealed.
 Diagrams: These are good tools of effective study and can be used to portray a topic. The
advantage is that it can be more easily recalled.
 Acronyms: A new name which is easily pronounceable, can be easily remembered and is coined
from the first or first few letters or parts of a phrase or compound term (example; COLVET-
College of Veterinary Medicine.)
 Mnemonics: a code in which the abbreviations / formula are easy to remember, (example: REF for
“reference”)
 Examination Strategies: Students should read the examination instructions properly and note all
instructions; number of questions to be answered, compulsory questions, time allocated for exam,
use of separate answer scripts for different sections and so on.
 Time management, organization and lifestyle changes: Better results may be realized through
changes to things that are not directly related to the study material itself, for example, time-

16
 management, avoiding procrastination (this ensures enough time to study), sleeping and resting
when necessary and maintaining a good diet to avoid taking ill during exam.
 Memory Skills: The only way to build your memory skills is by studying and revising over and
over again! It is easier to recall what you have read over and over. Practice makes perfection!

A very effective method of study that can keep students on track is the PQRST method. This method
arranges information in a way that makes it easy for students to remember them when writing an exam.
PQRST is an acronym for Preview, Question, Read, Summary and Test.

Preview: This is the art of reading in which you allow your eyes to travel rapidly over the pages of a book.
It allows the student to look at the topic to be learned by glancing over the major headings or the points in
the syllabus.

Question: As you read along, you try to ask questions in your mind and also formulate some tentative
approaches that you will use to answer the questions.

Read: Reading is the act of reconstructing from printed page, the writer’s idea, feeling, mood and sensory
impression. At this point you should be able to bring out meaningful points from your reading as well as
choose the information that best relates to the question. When you read, be sure to read everything,
including tables, graphs and illustrations. Tables, graphs and illustrations often can convey an idea more
powerfully than written text. It may be necessary to take down notes for the following reasons:

 It helps you to maintain attentiveness as you read

 It helps you familiarize yourself with primary and secondary materials on a given subject
 It also provides you summary of the text

Make sure however, that you note and write down the bibliographical details of the book. Also your
note should be brief and at the same time full enough to still make sense in six months.

Summary: A summary is a brief recollection of your reading. You can summarize the topic and devise
your own ways of summarizing other information. This process involves notetaking, memorizing, diagrams
etc.

Test: this means you have to test yourself whether you comprehend and understand your reading. You try
and answer the question/s created in your mind as fully as possible.

The danger of Perfectionism

Perfectionists set goals that are too high to meet! This robs one of personal fulfilment. Perfectionists have
the fear of starting and finishing because they think they may not do well! They spend so much time on
assignments and never seem to finish or even submit because it never seems good enough! If the
perfectionist continues this way, he may never record many successes in life! It is better to work hard to
meet target and prepare better next time! Build up your skills and work towards perfection! Do not repeat
your mistakes. If one does not finish one assignment, how can he do another and another…?

The study skills presented here depend on your willingness to WANT to improve and do well in school .If
you really don’t want to make the effort and sacrifice, no amount of suggestion, ideas, or outlines can help

17
much. You are responsible for your action, and effective study skill can help you be a better student. To that
end, one last word of advice –work hard and smart!

How to Use Books

A book can be described as a collection of printed sheets bound together between covers. Books come in
different shapes and sizes. Books stimulate interest and satisfy the basic need for information. In spite of the
advent of information technology, books have remained indispensable in learning process. Books are
therefore essential to learning but it is very important to know how to make use of them in order to aid your
learning. It is also very important to know the different part of a book and the types of information you can
obtain from them so as to enhance effective usage.

Parts of a Book

Cover-The cover of a book is the outer part of a book. Cover means to put something over or upon, as to
protect, conceal or enclose. Hence, the cover of a book holds the leaves of the book together to protect the
book as well as make it easy to handle. The cover usually carries the title and the author of a book.

Spine-is the back part of the book and it faces outward when you shelf the book right. The spine is the
binding edge of a book. It carries the book title, author name, publisher name and sometimes the logo of the
publisher.

Half-title-Page-This page introduces the book, it may carry only the title of the book or at times both the
title and the author’s name.

Title Page-This page usually contains the title of the book the name(s) of the author and publisher. The
Title page gives you full information about the book. It tells you the who, when and where of a book i.e. the
name of the publisher, the place of publication and the year of the publication. It also shows us whether the
book is published under series agreement or not.

Copyright Page-This is usually at the back of the title page. This page gives you information about the
ownership, impress and reprints.

Dedication Page-This is the page where the author dedicates the book to someone.

Table of Contents-This is where a list of the book contents arranged by chapter, section, sub-section, etc.
are found. This tells you about the topics in the book. The table of contents in a book will help u to find the
names of the chapters in a book and the page number where each chapter begins. Each chapter in the book
will have a name and usually has a chapter number.

Foreword-On this page, there is an introductory statement preceding the text of the work, and it is written
by someone else.

Preface- This is an introductory statement at the beginning of a book and it is written by the author. It states
the scope, purpose, audience, etc. for which the book has been written.

Text-(or Body) The actual words of a book/ the main portion of a book.

Glossary-A list of difficult words used in the text with their meanings usually arranged in alphabetical
order and printed at the back of the book.

18
Bibliography-A list of books/articles used or referred to by an author at the end of the book.

Index- It tells you where to find the topics in an informational book. It is a list of names and subjects
arranged in alphabetical order at the end of the book. The index lists the topics in a book and also lists the
pages where they are discussed in the book. Knowing how to use the index can save one a lot of time.

How to use Journals

Journals are essential resources for conducting academic research. They are published periodically, ranging
in frequency from monthly to quarterly or even twice in a year. The key differences between magazines and
journals are that journals are written for and by their experts in their chosen field and that they focus on a
particular research interest, while magazines are sources of information on almost any topic. Magazines are
written with the average reader in mind and do not include the depth of coverage that an academic
researcher would need. Journals are published in every academic discipline and are used as a means for
scholars and researchers to share their research and discoveries with others who are also experts in their
discipline. Journals contain the most current and vital information on various disciplines. They usually
contain results of researches which may never be found in other forms of publications.

Parts of a Journal

 Article title
 Author’s name and affiliations
 Abstract- A brief information on what the article is about.
 Key words- Major terms used in the article
 Main text
 Tables (optional)
 Figures (optional)
 Mathematics (optional)
 Conclusions- The major findings of the study and recommendation
 References- bibliographical information: records of scholarly works used by the author

CITATIONS AND REFERENCING

Academic writings do not rely not only on the ideas of the author but also on other sources; books, journals,
etc. These sources act as backing for the author’s ideas. On the other hand, the author may be critiquing/or
discussing other sources. References direct readers to the source of ideas used in a work.
In-text Citation: A citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression within an intellectual work, which
represents a record in the references section of the work. It indicates that the idea/phrase used by the author
at the specific place the citation appears in the body of the work belongs to the person/s cited. Citations
comprise of just enough information for user to find the source in the bibliography/ reference list (this is
often, the name of original author and year of publication of source material). All in-text citations must be
entered in the reference list where full details of original source are accessed.
Purposes of Citations
 It helps one maintain intellectual honesty
 It attributes previous or unoriginal work/concepts to the precise sources
 Readers can identify and verify sources
 Readers can gauge the strength and validity of material used by author
 To acknowledge the originators of the idea/ concept

19
  To show the inter-relationship between author’s ideas and general understanding/opinion of other
authors
 Readers can compare materials referenced with author’s argument.
 Readers can determine the strength and validity of materials used.
 It helps to conform to professional standards of proof.
 To avoid plagiarism

Plagiarism: Plagiarism is the act of citing, quoting or copying other author’s work(s) without due
acknowledgement of such author or authors. It is a serious and a punishable offence in academics.
Whoever does this has stolen by tricks by indirectly claiming authorship (ownership) of the work(s) that
originates from a different source. Therefore, all works cited in the cause of one’s research or write-up or
other academic exercises must be referenced accordingly, giving credit to authors whose works have been
used at one point or the other.

Types of Plagiarism
 Verbatim copying- word for word
 Patch writing- copying few sentences from different sources
 Collusion- using other students’ work with their permission
 Purloining- using someone’s work without his permission
 Self – plagiarism: this is when an author uses his own previous works without acknowledging
himself/ source.
What should be referenced?
There is need to reference words, ideas, theories, concepts and so on copied from other people. Referencing
is important under the following conditions:
 When one uses an idea from an external source, though not using their exact words (paraphrasing
and summarising)
 Facts, Figures, Ideas and uncommon information.
 Ideas, Words, Theories and exact language of others-(quotation)
 Publications e.g. Journals, Books, Chapters in books.
Basics of Citation
 Source of information must be noted
 Determine style of citation (Each organization determines their own style, find out Maintain a
specific style for a publication
 Always quote the exact words of other people
Exceptions to the above are ideas /information that are common knowledge, for example, “all
animals breathe in oxygen”.
Dos and Don’ts of Referencing
 Know the websites that relate to your discipline
 Use websites of organizations, institutions, etc. for your research work: they are more authentic.
Avoid websites of individuals.
 Consult your referencing guide to enable you conform to the standard required by your institution.
 Familiarize yourself with the referencing style required by a publisher before sending your article
for publication.
Types of reference sources:
 Primary: Citing an author’s work which you personally read
• Secondary: Citing an author’s work not personally read by you but by someone else.
Referencing Styles

20
 There are different types of referencing styles, they include:
American Psychological Association (APA)
Australian Guide to Legal Citation (AGLC)
American Chemical Society (ACS)
Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)
Council of Science Editors (CSE)
Council of Biology Editors (CBE)
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
Modern Language Association (MLA)
University of Ibadan Manual of Style (UIMS
MLA (Modern Language Association) style for documentation is widely used in the humanities, especially
in writing on language and literature. MLA style features brief parenthetical citations in the text keyed to an
alphabetical list of works cited that appears at the end of the work. (Source: Official MLA website)

APA (American Psychological Association) Style originated in 1929, when a group of psychologists,
anthropologists, and business managers convened and sought to establish a simple set of procedures, or
style rules, that would codify the many components of scientific writing to increase the ease of reading
comprehension. As with other editorial styles, APA Style consists of rules or guidelines that a publisher
observes to ensure clear and consistent presentation of written material. It concerns uniform use of such
elements as selection of headings, tone, and length, punctuation and abbreviations, presentation of numbers
and statistics, construction of tables and figures, citation of references, and many other elements that are a
part of a manuscript. (Source: Official APA website, 2016)

USE OF APA (6TH EDITION) - EXAMPLES:

The APA style calls for three kinds of information to be included in in-text citations. The author's last
name and the work's date of publication must always appear, and these items must match exactly the
corresponding entry in the references list. The third kind of information, the page number, appears only in
a citation to a direct quotation.

(Crockatt, 1995).

Direct quote from the text

"The potentially contradictory nature of Moscow's priorities surfaced first in its policies towards East
Germany and Yugoslavia," (Crockatt, 1995, p. 1).

Using In-text Citation

Include an in-text citation when you refer to, summarize, paraphrase, or quote from another source. For
every in-text citation in your paper, there must be a corresponding entry in your reference list. Citations
comprises of just enough information for user to find the source in the bibliography/ reference list (this is
often, the name of original author and year of publication of source material).

APA in-text citation style uses the author's last name and the year of publication, for example: (Field,
2005). For direct quotations, include the page number as well, for example: (Field, 2005, p. 14). For
sources such as websites and e-books that have no page numbers, use a paragraph number. More
information on citing sources without pagination is given on the APA Style web page.

Example paragraph with in-text citation

21
 A few researchers in the linguistics field have developed training programs designed to improve native
speakers' ability to understand accented speech (Derwing, Rossiter, & Munro, 2002; Krech Thomas, 2004).
Their training techniques are based on the research described above indicating that comprehension
improves with exposure to non-native speech. Derwing et al. (2002) conducted their training with students
preparing to be social workers, but note that other professionals who work with non-native speakers could
benefit from a similar program.

References
Derwing, T. M., Rossiter, M. J., & Munro, M. J. (2002). Teaching native speakers to listen to foreign-accented
speech. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 23(4), 245-259.

Krech Thomas, H. (2004). Training strategies for improving listeners' comprehension of foreign-accented
speech (Doctoral dissertation). University of Colorado, Boulder.

How to cite web pages in text

Web pages are cited in text just like one would cite any other source, if the author and date is known. If you
do not know the author, use the title and the date as the in-text citation (if titles are long, use the first few
words). Every in-text citation should direct reader to the matching entry in the reference list. For sources
which do not have date, use n.d. (for no date) in place of the year: (Smith, n.d.). The following are
examples of using in-text citation with web pages.

Web page with author:

In-text citation
Role-play can help children learn techniques for coping with bullying (Kraiser, 2011).
Reference entry
Kraizer, S. (2011). Preventing bullying. Retrieved from http://safechild.org/categoryparents/preventing-
bullying/

Web page with no author:

In-text citation
The term Nittany Lion was coined by Penn State football player Joe Mason in 1904 (All things Nittany,
2006).
Reference entry
All things Nittany. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.psu.edu/ur/about/nittanymascot.html

Web page with no date:

In-text citation
Establishing regular routines, such as exercise, can help survivors of disasters recover from trauma
(American Psychological Association [APA], n.d.).
Reference entry
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Recovering emotionally from disaster. Retrieved from
http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/recovering-disasters.aspx

22
General Guidelines: In-text references should immediately follow the title, word, or phrase to which they are
directly relevant, rather than appearing at the end of long clauses or sentences. In-text references should
always precede punctuation marks. Below are examples of using in-text citation.
Author's name in parentheses:
One study found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech is familiarity with
the topic (Gass & Varonis, 1984).
Author's name part of narrative:
Gass and Varonis (1984) found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech is
familiarity with the topic.
Group as author:
First citation: (Nigerian Library Association [NLA], 2016)
Subsequent citation: (NLA, 2016)
Multiple works: (each work should be separated with semi-colons)
Empirical studies show that libraries have undergone a transformation from a manual system to a
technologically driven system. (Faudet & Qury, 2012; Fehintola Onifade, 2014).
Direct quote: (always include the page number)
One study found that “the listener's familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly facilitates the
interpretation of the entire message” (Gass & Varonis, 1984, p. 85).
Gass and Varonis (1984) found that “the listener’s familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly facilitates
the interpretation of the entire message” (p. 85).
Note: For direct quotations of more than 40 words, display the quote as an indented block of text without
quotation marks and include the authors’ names, year, and page number in parentheses at the end of the
quote. For example:
This suggests that familiarity with nonnative speech in general, although it is clearly not as important
a variable as topic familiarity, may indeed have some effect. That is, prior experience with nonnative
speech, such as that gained by listening to the reading, facilitates comprehension. (Gass & Varonis,
1984, p. 77)

Major Citations for a Reference List/Bibliography

Note: All second and third lines in the APA Bibliography should be indented.
Material Type Reference List/Bibliography
A book in print Pierce, W. S. (1980). Furnishing the library interior. Ohio: CRC.
A book chapter, print version Haybron, D. M. (2008). Philosophy and the science of subjective
well-being. In M. Eid & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The science of
subjective well-being (pp. 17-43). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
An eBook Millbower, L. (2003). Show biz training: Fun and effective business
training techniques from the worlds of stage, screen, and song.
Retrieved from http://www.amacombooks.org/
An article in a print journal Ocholla, D. N. (2011). An overview of issues, challenges and
opportunities of scholarly publishing in Information Studies in
Africa. African Journal of Library and Information Science, 21 (1),
1-16.
An article in a journal without DOI Carter, S., & Dunbar-Odom, D. (2009). The converging literacies
center: An integrated model for writing programs. Kairos: A
Journal of Rhetoric, Technology, and Pedagogy, 14(1), 38-48.

23
 Retrieved from http://kairos.technorhetoric.net/
An article in a journal with DOI Raimi, T.H., Odusan, O., & Fasanmade, O. (2015). High
prevalence of central obesity in rural South-western Nigeria: need
for targeted prevention. Journal of Diabetes and Endocrinology 6
(3), 12-18. doi: 10.5897/JDE2015.0084
Websites - professional or personal The World Famous Hot Dog Site. (1999, July 7). Retrieved January
sites 5, 2008, from http://www.xroads.com/~tcs/hotdog/hotdog.html
Websites - online government National Universities Commission. (2014, August 15). List of
publications accredited universities in Nigeria. Retrieved from
www.nuc.edu.ng/pages/universities.asp
Emails (cited in-text only) According to preservationist J. Mohlhenrich (personal
communication, January 5, 2008).
Mailing Lists (listserv) Stein, C.(2006, January 5). Chessie rescue - Annapolis, MD
[Message posted to Chessie-L electronic mailing list]. Retrieved
from http://chessie-l-owner@lists.best.com
Radio and TV episodes - from DeFord, F. (Writer). (2007, August 8). Beyond Vick: Animal
library databases cruelty for sport [Television series episode]. In NPR
(Producer), Morning Edition. Retrieved from Academic OneFile
database.
Radio and TV episodes - from Sepic, M. (Writer). (2008). Federal prosecutors eye MySpace
website bullying case [Television series episode]. In NPR (Producer), All
Things Considered. Retrieved from
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/
Film Clips from website Kaufman, J.C. (Producer), Lacy, L. (Director), & Hawkey, P.
(Writer). (1979). Mean Joe Greene [video file]. Retrieved from
http://memory.loc.gov/mbrs/ccmp/meanjoe_01g.ram
Film Greene, C. (Producer), del Toro, G.(Director). (2015). Crimson
peak [Motion picture]. United States: Legendary Pictures.
Photograph (from book, magazine Close, C. (2002). Ronald. [photograph]. Museum of Modern Art,
or webpage) New York, NY. Retrieved from
http://www.moma.org/collection/object.php?object_id=108890
Artwork - from library database Clark, L. (c.a. 1960's). Man with Baby. [photograph]. George
Eastman House, Rochester, NY. Retrieved from ARTstor
Artwork - from website Close, C. (2002). Ronald. [photograph]. Museum of Modern Art,
New York. Retrieved from
http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?
object_id=108890

24
How to use Et Al.
Et al., means ‘and others’. ‘The use of et al., is dependent on the number of authors and whether it is the
first time a reference is being cited in the paper. If an article has one or two authors, both names are
included in every in-text citation; articles that have between three and five authors, include all names in the
first in-text citation but use only the first author name plus et al. upon subsequent citations; while articles
with six or more authors use only the first author name plus et al. for all in-text citations. Please find
examples below:

Number of authors First text citation (either Subsequent text citations (all)
parenthetical or narrative)

One or two Broida & Atkin, 2004 Broida & Atkin, 2004
Three, four, or five Martini, Nath &Bartholomew, Martini et al., 2012
2012
Six or more Hickman et al., 2008 Hickman et al., 2008

Avoiding Ambiguity

However, sometimes abbreviating to the first author name plus et al. can create ambiguity. Here are two
example references;

Marewski, J. N., Gaissmaier, W., & Gigerenzer, G. (2010). Good judgments do not require
complex cognition. Cognitive Processing, 11, 103–121. doi:10. 1007/s10339-009-0337-0

Marewski, J. N., Gaissmaier, W., & Gigerenzer, G. (2010). Good judgments do not
require complex cognition. Cognitive Processing, 11, 103–121.
doi:10.1007/s10339-009-0337-0

Marewski, J. N., Gaissmaier, W., Schooler, L. J., Goldstein, D. G., & Gigerenzer, G.
(2010). From recognition to decisions: Extending and testing recognition-based
models for multi-alternative inference. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 287–
309. doi:10.3758/PBR.17.3.287

The first in-text citations to each of these would be as follows:

 (Marewski, Gaissmaier, & Gigerenzer, 2010)

 (Marewski, Gaissmaier, Schooler, Goldstein, & Gigerenzer, 2010)

25
For the subsequent in-text citations we would usually abbreviate these studies to the first author name plus
et al.; however, doing so here would produce two Marewski et al. (2010) citations, leaving the reader
unable to tell which one you mean (if the citations were from different years we would not have this
problem, because the years would tell them apart). The solution here is to spell out as many names as
necessary (here, to the third name) upon subsequent citations to tell the two apart:

 (Marewski, Gaissmaier, & Gigerenzer, 2010)

 (Marewski, Gaissmaier, Schooler, et al., 2010)

Please note that all citations in the first reference include all three names, while for the second reference, the
two other names are abbreviated to et al.

Difference between Reference list and Bibliography

Reference list: This is a list of all the materials/sources which are cited in the text of a work and it is listed
alphabetically by the surnames of the authors, while a Bibliography may consist of resources that were
consulted in the work and a brief description of each of them. Bibliographies may be arranged by subject or
according to the order in which they appear in the work rather than alphabetically.

26
REFERENCES

Edoka, B. E. (2000). Introduction to library science. Enugu: Snapp Press, 191p.

Gbadamosi, B.O. and Asiru, S.M. (ed.) (2003). Fundamentals of Library Education in tertiary
institutions. Oyo: Odumatt Pub. 63p.

Imam, A. et al. (2008). Library and Information Studies: An Introductory Text for Students in Tertiary
Institutions. Abeokuta: Eagle Publishers. 130p.

American Psychological Association (2011) Retrieved from http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2011/11/the-

proper-use-of-et-al-in-apa-style.html?_ga=1.19007096.1365358072.1456162621 on 22/03/16

University of Pittsburg (2016) http://psu.libguides.com/apaquickguide on 22/03/16

Library catalog: (2010) Retrieved from www.wikipedia on 26th July, 2010.

American Psychological Association (2016): How to Cite. Retrieved from

http:www.apastyle.org/learn/quick-guide-on-references.aspx on

Massey University (2016): Referencing Styles OWLL. Retrieved from http://owll ac.nz.massey/referencing/
on

FURTHER READING
Attached, are notes on how best to use Search Engines, Social Media and Mobile Apps as academic tools;
Courtesy: ICTREC, FUNAAB.

27