Marine Hydrodynamics

NAOE 3109

Dr. S M Rashidul Hasan

Assistant Professor
Department of Naval Architecture and Offshore Engineering
Objectives of the course

Objectives: The objective of this course is to give students an understanding of the

characteristics of the flow of ideal and real fluid and introduce various equations of
motion and theorems related to fluid and flow.

Learning outcomes: On successful completion of this unit, students should be able to:
 appreciate and understand influence of marine hydrodynamics in marine
technology
 correlate relevant daily problem to marine hydrodynamics
 be creative and innovative engineers
 appreciate the importance of the theory of marine hydrodynamics and model
testing
 analyze and solve hydrodynamics related problem
Performance Evaluation

a. Class Attendance : 05%

b. Class Participation/Observation : 05%
c. Term Paper/Assignment : 05%
d. Class Tests/Quiz : 05%
e. Mid Term Examination (01 Exam) : 20%
f. Term Final Examination : 60%
Course Content and Weekly progress
Week Contents
1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics: Basic Definitions,
Classifications and Properties of Fluid; Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid:
Why the concept of Ideal Fluid is necessary? Equation of continuity.
2 Equation for steady flow of an incompressible fluid, Boundary Layer,
Streamlines, streak lines and path lines;
3 Two-dimensional flow patterns, Rotational and irrotational flows, Stream
functions, Velocity potential functions,
4 Euler’s equation of motion, Bernoulli’s equation; Velocity and pressure
distribution.
5 Class Test -1 over Chapter 1 and 2.
Course Content and Weekly progress
Week Contents
6 Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow: Uniform flow; Source, Sink
7 Source and Sink, Doublet; Irrotational vortex; Circulation
Assignment 1: To be submitted after Midterm Exam
8 Mid term Exam
9 Mid term Exam
10 Flow past a half body; Cylinder and Rankine body; Virtual mass and
Magnus effect.
11 Chapter 4: Analytic functions; Singularities; Cauchy-Riemann
equations; Complex potential; Application of conformal
transformation to some flow cases;
Course Content and Weekly progress
Week Contents
12 Joukowski’s hypothesis; Lift of an infinite aerofoil; Theorems of
Green, Stokes, Cauchy and Blasius and their application to some
hydrodynamic problems.
13 Chapter 5: Flow of a real fluid - Navier-Stokes equations;
Displacement, momentum, and energy thickness of the boundary
layer, Characteristics of flow around a ship hull.
14 Class Test -2 over Chapter 4 and 5. Chapter 6: Slender body in an
unbounded fluid; Slender bodies in waves
15 Strip theory for ship motions.
16 Recap and Discussion
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics

• Hydrodynamics (or Marine Hydrodyanmics) is the scientific study of the

motion of fluids, especially incompressible liquids, under the influence
of internal and external forces and the forces acting on solid bodies
immersed in them.

• Studying marine hydrodynamics provides a greater understanding of a

wide range of phenomena of considerable complexity involving fluids.

• Another benefit is that it allows predictions to be made in many areas of

practical importance.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics
1.1 Basic Definitions, Classifications and Properties of Fluid
1.1.1 What is a Fluid?

• Fluid is any liquid or gas or any material that is unable to withstand a

shearing or tangential force, when at rest. When the said forces are
applied to the fluid, it continuously changes in shape. Fluid is a
substance that does not possess a definite shape and easily yields to
external pressure.

• Fluids are substances with zero shear modulus, i.e they cannot resist the
shear force applied to them.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics
1.1 Basic Definitions, Classifications and Properties of Fluid
1.1.2 Classification of Fluid

a) Ideal fluid: It is a fluid that does not have viscosity and cannot be
compressed (That is, density is constant). This type of fluid cannot exist
practically.

b) Real fluid: All types of fluids that possess viscosity are classified as real
fluids. Examples: Kerosene and castor oil.

c) Newtonian fluid: A real fluid that abides by Newton’s law of viscosity

is known as a Newtonian fluid. Example: Hydrogen and water
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics
1.1 Basic Definitions, Classifications and Properties of Fluid
1.1.2 Classification of Fluid

d) Non-Newtonian fluid: Fluids that do not abide by Newton’s law of

viscosity are known as non-Newtonian fluid. Example: Oobleck and
flubber.

e) Ideal plastic fluid: When the shear stress is proportional to the

velocity gradient and shear stress is more than the yield value. Example:
Toothpaste.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics
1.1 Basic Definitions, Classifications and Properties of Fluid
1.1.2 Classification of Fluid

f) Incompressible fluid: If a fluid’s density does not vary with the

application of force, it is known as an incompressible fluid. No real
incompressible fluid exists, but if the change is very small, the fluid can
be said to be incompressible. Examples include water and oil. This is the
reason why oil is used in hydraulic systems, such as the braking system.

g) Compressible fluid: If a fluid’s density varies with the application of

force, it is called a compressible fluid. Example: gas, vapour, and steam.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics
1.1.3. Properties of Fluids
a) Density: Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a fluid. The
density of a substance varies as per the volume of a substance. The SI unit
of density is kg.m-3.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

b) Viscosity: Viscosity determines the amount of resistance offered by

the fluid to shear stress. A fluid that offers no resistance to shear stress is
called an inviscid fluid.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics
1.1.3. Properties of Fluids
c) Temperature: The degree of hotness or coldness of the body is
determined by the temperature. The temperature of the fluid is measured
using Kelvin or Celsius or Fahrenheit. According to the International
System of Units, the Kelvin scale is used.

d) Pressure: The pressure of a fluid is the force applied by it per unit area.
Fluid pressure takes place in two conditions: open condition and closed
condition. The pressure at any given point of a static fluid is called
hydrostatic pressure.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics
1.1.3. Properties of Fluids
e) Specific Volume: It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the material
to its mass. Specific volume is the reciprocal of the density of the material.
Specific volume is inversely proportional to density. The SI unit of specific
volume is m3.kg-1.

f) Specific Weight: The specific weight (γ) of a fluid is defined as the

weight per unit volume. The SI unit of specific weight is N/m3. Specific
weight is related to density as γ = ρg. The specific weight of fluid varies
with temperature.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics
1.1.3. Properties of Fluids
g) Specific Gravity: It is the ratio of the specific weight of the given fluid
to the specific weight of standard fluid. Specific Gravity is also known as
relative density. It is represented by the letter ‘S’ and has no unit.

h) Surface Tension: It is the tendency of liquid surfaces to shrink in

minimum surface area. Surface tension is caused by cohesive forces
between the liquid molecules.

Note: Surface tension is the main reason for most insects to float on the
water despite being denser than water.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Marine Hydrodynamics
1.1.3. Properties of Fluids
i) Vapour Pressure: The vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure of a
vapour above its liquid. The vapour pressure of a liquid varies with
temperature. As the temperature increases, the vapour pressure also
increases.

j) Cavitation: The process of cavitation happens when bubbles or voids

form within a fluid. This process takes place when the pressure drops
instantaneously below the vapour pressure.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.1. Why the concept of Ideal Fluid is necessary?
• Though ideal fluid does not exist, the concept is useful to consider
simplifying a real problem. Like any theory that involves an
'idealization’, the intention is to simplify a phenomenon or an
occurrence of nature in such a way that it is easy to understand and at
the same time it does a decent job of describing what's happening in
real life.

• Describing a phenomenon of nature exactly involves a lot of variables

and can become complex and messy. While this may be necessary in
certain conditions, a lot of the time we don't need these huge
equations. Rather we'd just like to know how one variable influence
another. For example: Is it directly proportional or exponentially
related, for example. In such cases, an idealization or simplification
greatly helps!
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.2. Equation of Continuity
‘The rate at which mass enters a system are equal to the rate at which
mass leaves the system plus the accumulation of mass within the
system’.
2.2.1 Derivation (Flow
direction along the axis)

 Consider an elemental
parallelepiped of dimensions
dx, dy, dz, through which
fluid is flowing.

 Consider the centre of the

element is at (x, y, z) Figure 1.1: Equation of Continuity. Mass flows in the x-direction across the
faces of a parallel piped in three dimensional flows
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.2. Equation of Continuity
2.2.1 Derivation (Flow direction along the axis)

 Consider the velocity components at the time ‘t’ at the centre of the element (x,
y, z) are respectively u, v and w.

 Therefore, the mass flow rate past the centre, through the element in the x-
direction is = Fluid Density (kg/m3)* velocity (m/s)* Cross Sectional area(m2)
= rudydz (kg/s).

1
 The mass flow rate in through the face which is at a distance of− δx from the
2
center is =
𝜕 ρu 1
𝜌𝑢δyδz − δxδyδz
𝜕𝑥 2
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.2. Equation of Continuity
2.2.1 Derivation (Flow direction along the axis)
1
 The mass flow rate out through the face which is at a distance of + δx from the
2
center is =
𝜕 ρu 1
𝜌𝑢δyδz + δxδyδz
𝜕𝑥 2
 The net gain in mass per unit time, within the element from these two faces is =
𝜕 ρu 1 𝜕 ρu 1 𝜕 ρu
𝜌𝑢δyδz − δxδyδz − 𝜌𝑢δyδz − δxδyδz = − δxδyδz
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.2. Equation of Continuity
2.2.1 Derivation (Flow direction along the axis)

 Similarly, the gains in mass per unit time from the other two pairs of faces are
𝜕 ρv 𝜕 ρw
− δxδyδz and − δxδyδz.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

 The total gain in mass per unit time from all faces is =
𝜕 ρu 𝜕 ρv 𝜕 ρw
− + + δxδyδz
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
which must equal the time rate of increase in mass
𝜕(ρδxδyδz)
𝜕𝑡
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.2. Equation of Continuity
2.2.1 Derivation (Flow direction along the axis)

 Therefore
𝜕(ρδxδyδz) 𝜕 ρu 𝜕 ρv 𝜕 ρw
= −( + + )δxδyδz
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 ρδxδyδz 𝜕 ρu 𝜕 ρv 𝜕 ρw
𝑜𝑟, + + + δxδyδz = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕ρ 𝜕 ρu 𝜕 ρv 𝜕 ρw
𝑜𝑟, +( + + ) = 0,
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

which is the Equation of Continuity.

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.2. Equation of Continuity
2.2.1 Derivation (Flow direction along the axis)

 It is applicable throughout all fluids, except at isolated singularities.

 For incompressible fluids, with density p constant, the Equation of

Continuity reduces to
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

 If the velocity component is constant in one direction say, the -direction, the
corresponding term disappears from the continuity equation which reduces
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
to the two-dimensional form + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.2. Equation of Continuity
2.2.2 Derivation (steady flow of an incompressible fluid)

 The tube-shaped volume

in Fig. 1.2 is so located
in the flow that fluid
flows only axially along
it; flow does not occur
inwards or outwards
through its sides but only
across its ends.

Figure 1.2: Equation of Continuity. Mass flows across the faces of

a stream tube
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.2. Equation of Continuity
2.2.2 Derivation (steady flow of an incompressible fluid)

If its cross-sectional area and the mean velocity of flow midway along its length are
respectively ‘A’ and ‘V’, both being functions of the distance, ‘s’, along the axis of
the tube, an approach like that adopted above yields the relationship

𝜕 ρA 𝜕 ρAV
+ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠

For incompressible fluids with density ‘r’ constant and area ‘A’ a function of distance
‘s’ and time ‘t’, as in unsteady open-channel flow
𝜕 A 𝜕 AV
+ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑠
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.2. Equation of Continuity
2.2.2 Derivation (steady flow of an incompressible fluid)
𝜕
And for steady flow, = 0,
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 AV
hence = 0,
𝜕𝑠

Therefore, AV = Constant.

In this form the continuity equation for steady flow of an in compressible fluid
relates the mean velocity in each direction to the flow cross-sectional area normal
to that direction.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.3. Boundary Layer
• Let us consider a flow of fluid over a flat plate.
• The velocity of the fluid approaching the plate is uniform at V.
• The fluid can be considered as adjacent layers on top of each other’s.
• Assuming no slip condition at the wall, the velocity of the layer of fluid adjacent to
the plate is 0.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.3. Boundary Layer
• The motionless layer slows down the particles of the neighboring fluid layers
because of friction between the two adjacent layers.
• The presence of the plate is felt up to some distance from the plate beyond which the
fluid velocity V remains unchanged. This region is called Boundary Layer.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.3. Boundary Layer
• Boundary layer region is the region where the viscous effects and the velocity
changes are significant, and the inviscid region is the region in which the frictional
effects are negligible, and the velocity remains essentially constant.

• The flow in boundary layer starts as smooth and streamlined which is called laminar
flow. At some distance from the leading edge, the flow turns chaotic, which is called
turbulent, and it is characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly disordered
motion.

• The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over some region which is
called transition region.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.3. Boundary Layer
• The boundary layer thickness, 𝛿 is frequently defined as the distance from the
boundary to the point at which the actual velocity is 1% of that for irrotational flow
past the boundary.

• For the laminar boundary layer in flow along a flat plate,the thickness is given by
the expression, derived analytically by Blasius-

𝛿𝑙𝑎𝑚 . 5 5 7)
= = 1 (𝑅 < 10
𝑥 𝑈𝑥
𝑅𝑒2
𝜈
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.3. Boundary Layer
• For a wholly turbulent boundary layer the thickness, based upon the assumption
that the Boundary is smooth and that the velocity distribution across a normal to it
is of the form 𝑢 = 𝑘𝑦1/7, is given by

𝛿𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏. 0.38
= 1 (𝑅 < 107 )
𝑥
𝑅𝑒5
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.4. Stream Lines
•A line which is at all points tangential to the velocity vectors at a given instant is.

•For example, in the two-dimensional flow pattern in Fig. 1.5, the streamline passing
through the point P (x,y) is tangential to the velocity vector ‘V’ at ‘P’. If ‘u’ and ‘v’ are
the x- and y-components of ‘V’,

Figure 1.4: Examples of three-dimensional axisymmetric flow

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.4. Streamlines
•A line which is at all points tangential to the velocity vectors at a given instant is.

•For example, in the two-dimensional flow pattern in Fig. 1.5, the streamline passing
through the point P (x,y) is tangential to the velocity vector ‘V’ at ‘P’. If ‘u’ and ‘v’ are
the x- and y-components of ‘V’,

𝑣 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑢 𝑣

𝑜𝑟, 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 0 Figure 1.5: Definition of Streamlines

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.4. Streamlines
For three-dimensional flow, the corresponding relationship is

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
It is evident that no flow occurs across a
streamline. A surface, across which no
flow occurs, in three-dimensional flow,
is a stream surface and a stream
surface in the form of a tube is a
stream tube.

Figure 1.6: Streamlines on ship hull (Courtesy: Wartsila)

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.5. (a) Streak Lines
•A streak line represents all the points that have passed through a certain location.

•This line can be considered a snapshot at one instant in time of all the particles which
passed through a particular point.

•For this situation, where the streak line can be likened to represent the smoke trail
from a chimney, the streak line goes to the south during the first 10 seconds because all
the smoke is going south. Then, when the wind shifts to the east, all the smoke particles
that were initially heading south (emitted for Time < 10 seconds) start to be offset to the
east. The newer smoke particles (emitted for Time > 10 seconds) head directly east.
After 20 seconds the streak line is at a right angle as shown on the right in Figure
1.7(a).
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.5. (a) Streak Line

Figure 1.7(a): Development of Streak line

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.5. (b) Path Lines
•A path line is the track followed by a
particle of fluid.

•A path line goes to the south during the

first 10 seconds just as the streak line. The
path line can be thought of as the path
traced by a balloon floating in the air. When
the wind shifts to the east, the balloon starts
moving east. The path line goes to the east
from the point where the wind direction has
been changed. As a result, after 20 seconds
the path line bends at a right angle as Figure 1.7 (b): Development of Path line
shown on the right in Figure 1.7(b).
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.6. Two-Dimensional Flow

•It appears that any physical flow is generally three-dimensional.

•But these are difficult to calculate and call for as much simplification as possible.

•This is achieved by ignoring changes to flow in any of the directions, thus

reducing the complexity.

•It may be possible to reduce a three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional

one, even a one dimensional one at times
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.6. Two-Dimensional Flow

•Consider flow through a circular pipe. This flow is complex at the position where
the flow enters the pipe. But as we proceed downstream the flow simplifies
considerably and attains the state of a fully developed flow.

•Velocity for this flow is given by

𝑟 2
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 1−
𝑅

• This represents a typical one-dimensional

flow because velocity varies only in radial
Direction.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.6. Two-Dimensional Flow

• Now consider a flow through a diverging duct as shown in Fig. 1.9. Velocity at
any location depends not only upon the radial distance ‘r’ but also on the x-
distance. This is therefore a two-dimensional flow.

Figure 1.9: Example of One-Dimensional Flow

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.6. Two-Dimensional Flow Pattern

(1) Since a streamline is tangential to the velocity vector at all points, there can be
no finite component of velocity normal to it, that is, there can be no flow across a
streamline.

(2) The streamline spacing varies inversely as the velocity, so that relatively
narrow spacings indicate relatively high velocities. Streamlines converging in the
direction of flow indicate an increase in velocity with respect to distance, that is, a
convective acceleration.

(3) Streamlines do not cross. This would not be possible theoretically as it will
mean two velocities at a single point.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.6. Two-Dimensional Flow Pattern

(4) A point in the flow where the direction

of boundary streamline changes abruptly is a
stagnation point (isolated points of zero
velocity) if the included angle, measured
within the fluid, is less than 180°; and a
point of theoretically infinite velocity if
the angle exceeds 180°. In Fig. 1.10, the
point B is a stagnation point, and the point C
is a point at which the velocity is
Figure 1.10: Effects of abrupt changes in
theoretically infinite.
boundary alignment on the velocity
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.6. Two-Dimensional Flow Pattern

(5) In steady flow, the configuration of the pattern of streamlines does not change with
time. In unsteady flow with a free surface or with a moving internal or external
boundary, the flow pattern referred to a stationary origin does change with time.

(6) Solid, stationary boundaries are streamlines if separation of the flow from the
boundary does not occur. However, in unsteady flow patterns, the moving boundary,
whether a solid or a free surface, is not a streamline.

(7) Certain cases of unsteady flow patterns resulting from the movement of a solid or free
surface boundary at a constant velocity relative to the observer can be transformed into
steady flow patterns by the superposition of a pattern of constant velocity in the direction
opposite to that of the boundary motion
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.7. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

• A fluid particle in flow

in a straight or curved
path may suffer
distortion or rotation, or
both, during its motion
(Fig. 1.11). If none of
the particles in a region
of fluid suffers rotation,
the flow is said to be
irrotational in that
region.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid
2.7. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

• A particle is said to have zero rotation in a plane if the average of the angular
velocities of two mutually perpendicular linear elements of the particle in that
plane is zero. For example, if one line rotates in an anticlockwise direction at the
same rate as the other rotates in a clockwise direction (Fig. 1.12), the particle is
distorting, but not rotating.

Figure 1.12: Flow around a curved path (a) Distortion without rotation (b) Rotation
without appreciable distortion
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.7. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

In Fig. 1.13, which shows a rectangular

element in two-dimensional flow, the
broken lines indicate the displacement of
the element relative to one of its points, A,
in the period δt.

The angular velocity of AB about the z-

axis is
𝜕𝑣
δθ1 δxδt 𝜕𝑣
lim = lim 𝜕𝑥 =
δt→0 δt δt→0 δxδt 𝜕𝑥
Figure 1.13: Definition of rotation
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.7. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

and of AD,
δθ2 𝜕𝑢
lim =−
δt→0 δt 𝜕𝑦

The average of the angular velocities of

these two-line elements is known as the
rotation, w. Therefore,
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔= ( − )
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Figure 1.13: Definition of rotation

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.7. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

When w is not zero at a point or region, the flow is

rotational and 'vorticity’ (it measures the local
rotation of a fluid parcel), z, which is numerically
equal to 2w, is said to exist at that point or region.

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜁= −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
The condition for two-dimensional flow to be Figure 1.13: Definition of rotation
irrotational is that the rotation, and hence the velocity, is
everywhere zero, i.e.,
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.7. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

In the case of three-dimensional flow, rotation is possible about each three axes which is
parallel to the x, y and z axes respectively.

There are then three possible components of rotation, 𝜔𝑥 , 𝜔𝑦 , 𝜔𝑧 , and three

corresponding components of velocity, ξ, η, and ζ.

1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 1 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 1
𝜔𝑥 = − = 𝜉, 𝜔𝑦 = − = 𝜂
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑧 = ( − ) = 𝜁
2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.7. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

The condition for irrotationality in three-dimensional flow is that, throughout the

flow,

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= ; = ; =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

There may be isolated points or lines in an otherwise irrotational flow where these
conditions are not satisfied. Such points or lines are known as singularities. They
are points or lines where velocity is zero or theoretically infinite.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.7. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.7. Rotational and Irrotational Flow

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

• An adequate description should convey

the notion of the shape of the
boundaries, the shapes of the
streamlines and the scale or magnitude
of the flow, or of the velocity
components at one or more
representative points in the flow.
• It would take several lines to convey
such a description in words even for a
pattern so elementary as flow at a corner
Figure: 1.14: Irrotational flow at a 900
(Fig. 1.14).
corner
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

In steady two-dimensional flow in the x-y plane, the Stream Function (ψ) is a function
of the variables x and y. Therefore,
ψ = f(x,y)

Stream function has the following convenient properties:

(i) When the stream function of a particular flow pattern is

equated to a constant, there results the general equation for
the streamlines of that pattern, different constants defining
different streamlines.
(ii)When the stream function is differentiated with respect to
‘y’ and to ‘x’, in order, the general equations for the
velocity components ‘u’ and ‘v’ are obtained.
Figure: 1.14: Irrotational flow at a 900 corner
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

Stream function has the following convenient properties:

(iii) In a flow pattern, the volume flow rate from left to right between any two
streamlines ψ = C1 and ψ = C1 is dQ = dψ= C2 – C1.

(iv) The effect of combining different flow patterns is easily determined, for the stream
function of the resulting pattern is simply the sum of the stream functions of the
component patterns.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

As an example, the characteristics of the stream
function for steady, two-dimensional, irrotational
flow at a 90° corner can be stated (Fig. 1.14). It will
be seen from subsequent considerations that, for this
pattern, the stream function is

ψ = axy
Figure: 1.14: Irrotational flow at a 900 corner
As the general equation for streamline is ψ =
constant, that is
axy=C
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

axy=C

The coefficient, ‘a’, determines the scale or magnitude of the flow and different
values of ‘C’ define different streamlines. Further, the velocity components, ‘u’ and
‘v’, at any point (x, y) are given by the following partial differentiations,

𝜕𝜓
𝑢= = +𝑎𝑥
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜓
𝑣=− = −𝑎𝑦
𝜕𝑥
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

If ‘a’ is unity, the velocity components, ‘u’ and ‘v’, and

total velocity V, at any point, say P(3,4), in Figure 1.14
are therefore respectively

u = +x = 3, v = - y = -4
𝑉 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 5
−1
𝑣 4
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− ) = −530 6′
−1
𝑢 3

The flow rate between any two streamlines, say, 𝜓2 =

𝑥𝑦 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜓3 = 𝑥𝑦 = 15 is

𝛿𝑄 = 𝛿𝜓 = 𝜓3 − 𝜓2 = 15 − 10 = 5m3/sec.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

• The above characteristics can be established by defining a stream function so that it

possesses any one of the characteristics and then by showing that it must possess the
others also.

• Thus, a stream function is required to have the property of yielding velocity

components on differentiation.

• Therefore, to begin with, it is defined as a function of x and y (and t, for the

general case of unsteady flow) such that when differentiated with respect to y, it
yields u; and when differentiated with respect to x, it yields - v.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

• This sign convention is adopted to give to 𝜓, in addition, the characteristic (i) above.
Hence, by definition, for all stream functions,
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= and 𝑣 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Putting the values of ‘u’ and ‘v’ to the streamline equation which is

𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

And therefore, the total differential,

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

• Therefore, 𝜓 = constant, along a streamline. In other words, the general equation

for the streamlines in a flow pattern is obtained by equating the stream function of
the pattern to a constant, different constants defining different streamlines.

• This is the first of the consequences of the above definition of 𝜓.

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

For irrotational flow, it has been shown that

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
− =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
Substituting − for ‘v’ and for ‘u’ yields
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
2
+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
In two-dimensional cartesian co-ordinate, the above equation is known as Laplace
Equation. The corresponding three-dimensional form is
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
2
+ 2+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.8. Stream Function

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

• The Velocity Potential Function (φ) is defined as a function of ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘t’
such that, when differentiated with respect to distance in any direction, it
yields the velocity in that direction. Hence, for any direction ‘s’, in which the
velocity is vs

𝜕φ
= 𝑣𝑠
𝜕𝑠

For the ‘x’- and ‘y’-directions, therefore,

𝜕φ 𝜕φ
𝑢= and 𝑣 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

• When Velocity Potential is equated in turn to each member of a sequence of

constraints it yields the equations of a family of velocity potential lines, each of
which crossed the streamlines at right angles.

• The streamlines and potential lines form a mesh, or grid of lines, all
intersections being at right angles.

• An important difference between φ and ψ functions lies in the fact that that
φ function exists only for irrotational flows, while ψ functions are not
restricted to irrotational flows.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

Figure 1.15: Streamlines and equipotential lines

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

• At any instant, φ- is a function only of ‘x’ and ‘y’, even though, over an interval
of time, it varies also with ‘t’ in unsteady flow. At any instant φ- is constant
along any φ- line. Therefore,

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑑𝜑 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0, along aφ-line.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Substituting the values of ‘u’ and ‘v’,

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑑𝜑 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣𝑑𝑦 = 0along a φ-line
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑢
whence = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑣
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

• The slope of the φ-line at any point is seen to be equal to the negative reciprocal
𝑢
of the slope of the ψ-line at that point, that is, the line of constant φ-value
𝑣
intersects the streamline at the point at right angles.

• The second consequence of the definition of φ-follows from substitution for

‘u’ and ‘v’ in the continuity equation, which is
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝜑 𝜕2𝜑
2
+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

• The above equation shows that the φ- function, like ψ-function for irrotational
flow, is a solution of the Laplace equation.

• Finally, upon substituting for ‘u’ and ‘v’ in the irrotational flow equation, which is
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
− = 0 , it can be seen that
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝜑 𝜕2𝜑
− =0
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
• The above equation shows that φ-satisfies the conditions for irrotational flow,
• In other words, the existence of a velocity potential implies that flow is irrotational.
• Conversely, it is also true that the condition of irrotationality implies the existence
of a velocity potential.
• On the other hand, stream functions are not restricted to irrotational flow.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

The interrelationship of φ,ψ-functions and velocity components ‘u’ and ‘v’ at any
point (x, y) in the cartesian co-ordinate system can be summarized in the following
two equations
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓
𝑣= =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
In terms of natural co-ordinates ‘s’ and ‘n’, where ‘s’ is the distance measured in the
direction of flow along a streamline and ‘n’ is the distance measured across the flow
along an equipotential line
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓
𝑉= =
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑛
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.9. Velocity Potential Function

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.10. Stream and Velocity Potential Function in Polar Coordinate

In many cases of flow, it is more

convenient to work with the polar co-
ordinates, ‘r’ and ‘θ’, than with ‘x’ and ‘y’.
From Fig. 1.16 it is evident that, for any
point C (r, θ)

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃; 𝑟
−1
𝑦
= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑥
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.10. Stream and Velocity Potential Function in Polar Coordinate

Therefore, the total differential of stream function in polar coordinate can be
represented by

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑(𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) + 𝑑(𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕(𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝜕(𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
=0

For small angle, sin θ = θ and cos θ = 1, therefore the above equation in polar
coordinates becomes
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑(𝑟𝜃) + 𝑑𝑟 = 0
𝜕(𝑟𝜃) 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃 + 𝑑𝑟 = 0
𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.10. Stream and Velocity Potential Function in Polar Coordinate

1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
Comparing the above equation with streamline equation, 𝑣𝑟 = and 𝑣𝜃 = −
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝜑 1 𝜕𝜑
For potential function, 𝑣𝑟 = and 𝑣𝜃 =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Therefore,

1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑
𝑣𝑟 = =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜑
𝑣𝜃 = − =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.11. Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

• In this method, x, y and z define a general point in space and they do not vary
with time. Consideration is given to the velocities and accelerations of
particles as they pass through the general point rather than to the variations of the
velocities and accelerations of particles as they follow their various paths.

• If u, v and w are, in order, the components of velocity in the x, y and z-

directions at the point (x, y, z) at time t, then u, v and w are functions of
position (x, y, z) and time (t).

• For a particular value of t, they define the motion at all points in the fluid; and
for a particular point, (x, y, z), they are simply functions of time, providing a
history of the velocity variations at the point.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.11. Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

• It is assumed that u, v and w are finite and continuous functions of x, y andz
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒘
and their space derivatives, , are everywhere finite.
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙

• First, the components of acceleration at a point are considered and then the
Newton’s second law of motion, incorporating these components of
acceleration, is applied to a fluid mass.

• A particle at the point (x, y, z) at time t, will move, in the time dt, a distance
• dx = udt in the x-direction
• dy= vdt in the y-direction
• dz= wdt in the z-direction.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.11. Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

• The change, du, in the
particle’s u-component
of velocity will be the
sum of the convectional
changes, due to the
changes dx, dy and dz in
position (Figure 1.16),
and the local change,
due to change with the
passage of time dt, at
the point x, y and z.
Figure 1.16: Acceleration. Conventional components of the change in
velocity in the x-direction of a fluid particle as it moves from P1 to P2 in the
interval dt. There is, in addition, the local component.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.11. Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

Mathematically,

𝑢 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢
𝛿𝑢 = 𝛿𝑡 + 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑦 + 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑧
= + + +
𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑡

If 𝛿𝑡 be considered to approach zero, the total

acceleration in the x- direction is obtained, which is

𝑑𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑢
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.11. Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

Similarly, the total accelerations in the y- and z- directions, respectively, are

𝑑𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝑑𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤 𝛿𝑤
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧

• In these equations, the first terms on the right-hand sides are known as 'local'
accelerations, since they arise from changes in velocity with time at the point x, y, z.

• the remaining terms are known as 'convectional' acceleration since they arise from
changes of velocity with change of position.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.11. Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

• Applications of Newton's second law
of motion in the three co-ordinate
directions yield the equations known
as Euler's Equations of motion for a
non-viscous fluid.

• Let ‘p’ be the pressure and ρ the

density at the centre point P(x, y, z),
of the element whose dimensions are
δx, δy, δz (Fig. 1.17); and let X, Y
and Z be the components of body
force per unit mass in the x, y, z, Figure 1.17: Equation of motion, forces acting in the direction
directions at the time t. on an element of fluid in three-dimensional non-viscous flow
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.11. Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

• Since force-per-unit-mass is
dimensionally an acceleration and since,
in hydraulic engineering, the only
common body force is the weight force,
X, Y and Z can be regarded as the
components of g.
• The product of the mass of the element
and its total acceleration in the x-
direction must equal the sum of the
components of force acting on the
element in that direction.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.11. Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥
= 𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧𝑋 + (𝑝 − )𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑥
− (𝑝 + )𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2
Therefore,

𝑑𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕𝑝
=𝑋 −
𝜌 𝜕𝑥
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.11. Euler's equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid

Similarly,

𝑑𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =𝑌 −
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝
= +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =𝑍 −
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑧

These are the Euler equations of motion for a non-viscous fluid.

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.12 The Bernoulli Equation

• Bernoulli's principle states that ‘An increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in
the fluid's potential energy.

•The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation of

energy principle appropriate for flowing fluids.

• The qualitative behavior that is usually labeled with the term "Bernoulli effect" is
the lowering of fluid pressure in regions where the flow velocity is increased.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.12. The Bernoulli Equation

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.12. The Bernoulli Equation

Assignment 1:
1. How the ship named ‘Evergreen’ clogged Suez Canal? Explain with
the help of Bernoulli’s theorem.

Help:
1. https://www.bibalex.org/SCIplanet/en/Article/Details?id=13706#:~:te
xt=This%20is%20Bernoulli's%20theorem%3B%20the,of%20water%
20surrounding%20the%20ship.
2. https://massivesci.com/articles/ever-given-suez-canal-physics-width/
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.12. The Bernoulli theorem (Proof)

Bernoulli's principle states that

‘An increase in the speed of a
fluid occurs simultaneously with
a decrease in static pressure or a
decrease in the fluid's potential
energy.

This means, the sum of the

energies possessed by a flowing
ideal liquid at a point is constant
provided that the liquid is
incompressible and non-viscous
and flows in streamline.
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.12. The Bernoulli theorem (Proof)

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.12. The Bernoulli theorem (Proof)

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.12. The Bernoulli theorem (Proof)

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.12. The Bernoulli theorem (Proof)

 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.13. Velocity and Pressure Distribution

Distributions of pressure in steady irrotational flow are determined from the

velocity distributions through application of the Bernoulli Equation, the elevation
term being written henceforth as
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.13. Velocity and Pressure Distribution

In this equation the first three terms refer to any point in the flow and those with the
subscript to an arbitrary reference point. If gravity effects are absent, as in a pattern of
flow in a horizontal plane, the elevation head (h) terms disappear and equation becomes

Multiplying the above equation by

.
Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.13. Velocity and Pressure Distribution

The above equation enables the pressure at any point to be determined in terms
of the reference quantities P0 and V0
.
Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

2.13. Velocity and Pressure Distribution

At stagnation point, velocity V is zero, therefore

becomes
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

Problem:
 Chapter 2: Flow of an Ideal Fluid

Problem:
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

Introduction

There are four elementary patterns of two-dimensional irrotational flow, namely

uniform flow, a source (and a sink), a vortex and a doublet. Consideration is
then given to some of the combinations which have been found to yield patterns of
practical interest:

(1) A source and a sink

(2) A vortex pairs
(3) A source and a vortex (spiral vortex)
(4) A source and uniform flow (flow past a half-body)
(5) A doublet and uniform flow (flow past a cylinder)
(6) A doublet, vortex, and uniform flow (flow past a cylinder, with circulation)
(7) A source and sink and uniform flow (flow past a Rankine body).
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.1 Uniform flow

For uniform, or parallel, steady, irrotational flow

with a velocity ‘V’, inclined at an angle ‘a’ to the
x-axis (Figure 3.1)
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓
𝑢 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.1𝑎)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = =− . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.1𝑏)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Integrating equation 3.1(a) and 3.1(b), we get,

𝜑1 = 𝑉𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 and 𝜑2 = 𝑉𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼

𝜓1 = 𝑉𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 and 𝜓2 = −𝑉𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.1 Uniform flow

Therefore,
𝜑 = 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 = 𝒙𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑦𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 … … … … (3.2𝑎)
𝜓 = 𝜓1 + 𝜓2 = 𝒚𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑥𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑢𝑦 − 𝑣𝑥 … … … … (3.2𝑏)

In polar co-ordinates, equations 3.2 become

𝜑 = 𝑥𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑦𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑉𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼

= 𝑉𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼)
= 𝑉𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃 − 𝛼). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.3𝑎)
𝜓 = 𝒚𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑥𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑉𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
= 𝑉𝑟(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼)
= 𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 − 𝛼). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.3𝑏)
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.2 Source and Sink

• If the pattern of flow in the x-y plane is radially

outward from a point and symmetrical in all
directions in the plane of reference, the point is
called a 'Simple Source'.
• If the flow is radially inwards the point is known
as a 'Sink’.
• Sources involves in continual creation of fluid at a
point, the sink involves continual annihilation.
• The concept of sources and sinks lies in the fact
that, in combination with other simple patterns,
they produce more complex patterns which closely Figure 3.2: Source at the origin

resemble flow patterns occurring in nature.

.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.2 Source and Sink

• The strength of a source is defined as the total

flow per unit of time, Q; for a sink the strength
is - Q.
• At any radius, r, from a source the tangential
1 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜓
velocity, 𝑣𝜃 = = are zero.
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟

• Therefore, in case of a source, the velocity

potential function 𝝋 varies only with r and
stream function 𝝍 only with θ.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.2 Source and Sink

• In section 2.10, the relationship between radial and tangential velocity with
1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑
stream and velocity potential function, which are 𝑣𝑟 = = , and 𝑣𝜃 =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜑
− =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

• The above equation for source can be written as,

𝑄 1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑
𝑣𝑟 = = =
2𝜋𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.2 Source and Sink
• Therefore,
𝑄 1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜑
𝑣𝑟 = = =
2𝜋𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
𝑄 1
𝜑= 𝑙𝑛𝑟 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
2 2
2𝜋 2
𝑄 −1
𝑦
𝜓= 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜃 = 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛
2𝜋 𝑥
𝑄
Where, 𝑚 = a constant for a given source.
2𝜋
• For a Sink, which is simply a negative source, the 𝜑 and 𝜓 values will be,
𝑄 1
𝜑= − 𝑙𝑛𝑟 = −𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛 + =𝑥2 𝑦2 − 𝑚𝑙𝑛(𝑥 2
+ 𝑦2)
2𝜋 2
𝑄 −1
𝑦
𝜓 = − 𝜃 = −𝑚𝜃 = −𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛
2𝜋 𝑥
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.3 Doublet
• A source and a sink of
numerically equal
strengths, Q, are
considered to approach one
another under such
conditions that, as the
distance, δs, between them
approaches zero their
strengths increase in such
a manner that the product
𝑸
𝜹𝒔 = 𝒎𝜹𝒔 , tends
𝟐𝝅
towards a particular finite
value, ‘μ’. Figure 3.3: (a) and (b) Source-sink combination
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.3 Doublet

• The final result is a doublet of

strength ‘μ’, with its axis in the
direction of δs, reckoned positive
from sink to source (Fig 3.3 b).

• Therefore, at any point ‘P’

𝑄
𝜑𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑙𝑛𝑟 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟1
2𝜋
𝑄
𝜑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = − 𝑙𝑛𝑟 = −𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟2
2𝜋
Their sum is,
𝑟1
𝜑 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟1 − 𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟2 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛( )
𝑟2
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.3 Doublet
When δs, between them approaches zero δθ approaches
zero too and it is reasonable to assume r1 = r2 + δr.

Therefore,
𝑟2 +𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
𝜑 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛( ) = 𝑚𝑙𝑛(1 + )
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
𝐴𝑠, << 1, 𝑙𝑛(1 + ) ≃
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟2
Therefore,
𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 − 𝛿𝜃)
𝜑=𝑚 =𝑚
𝑟2 𝑟2
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.3 Doublet
Therefore,
𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 − 𝛿𝜃)
𝜑=𝑚 =𝑚
𝑟2 𝑟2

As 𝛿𝜃 approaches to zero, 𝑚𝛿𝑠

approaches to ‘μ’ and therefore 𝜑
approaches to

𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.3 Doublet

Similarly,
𝑄 𝑄
𝜓𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = − 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜃2
2𝜋 2𝜋

Therefore,
𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜓 = 𝑚𝜃1 − 𝑚𝜃2 = 𝑚 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = −𝑚𝛿𝜃 ≃ −𝑚 = −𝑚
𝑟2 𝑟2

As 𝛿𝑠 approaches zero, 𝑚𝛿𝑠 approaches to ‘μ’ and therefore 𝜓 approaches to

𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
−
𝑟
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.3 Doublet
Hence the functions for doublet are

𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜇𝑥 𝜇𝑥
𝜑= = 2= 2
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥 + 𝑦2
𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜇𝑦 𝜇𝑦
𝜓=− =− 2 =− 2
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥 + 𝑦2

The velocity components at any point in a doublet pattern are

1 𝜕𝜓 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑣𝑟 = =− 2
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟
𝜕𝜓 𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑣𝜃 = − =− 2
𝜕𝑟 𝑟
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.3 Doublet

And the absolute value of the velocity at the point is therefore

2 2
𝜇
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝜃 = 2
𝑟
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.4 Irrotational Vortex

• A flow pattern in which the streamlines are concentric circles is known as a circular
vortex.
• If the fluid particles rotate as they revolve around the vortex center, the vortex is said
to be a rotational or ‘forced’.
• If the particles do not rotate, the vortex is irrotational or ‘free’ and it is this type which
is now considered.
• Natural occurrences which approach the condition of irrotational vortex are the vortex
which forms as a container is trained through an orifice in its base and the air vortex
known as the tropical hurricane or tornado.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.4 Irrotational Vortex
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.4 Irrotational Vortex
• In the computation of the velocity distribution
in an irrotational vortex use is made of the
facts that the pressure due to centrifugal
effects varies radially and the Bernoulli
equation is applicable across the
streamlines, that is, radially.
𝑣𝜃2
• In figure 3.4 the centripetal acceleration of
𝑟
the element of fluid equals the net pressure
force acting radially inwards divided by the
mass.

Figure: 3.4: Flow in a curved path

.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.4 Irrotational Vortex
• If the mean cross-sectional area of the element in the plane
normal to the radius is dA.

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑝𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑝𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑝 𝑔 𝑣𝜃2

=𝛾 =𝛾 = =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑟 𝛾 𝑑𝑟 𝑟
𝑔 𝑔
𝑑𝑝 𝑣𝜃2
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑑𝑟 3.4
𝛾 𝑔𝑟
Bernoulli’s equation for flow in a horizontal plane is
𝑝 𝑉2
+ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 2𝑔
𝑑𝑝 𝑣𝜃 𝑑𝑣𝜃
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, = 3.5
𝛾 𝑔
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.4 Irrotational Vortex
From Equation 3.4 and 3.5
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.4 Irrotational Vortex
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.5 Circulation

• Circulation is a mathematical concept of importance in

the theory of aero foils, fans, propellers, pumps and
turbines.

•Circulation is defined as the line integral of the velocity

vector around a closed curve within the fluid.

•The line integral, L, of the velocity vector between two

points A and B (Figure 3.5a) is the integral of the
product of the line element, ds, and the component,
Vcosα, of velocity in the direction of ds.
Figure 3.5(a): Line integral of velocity, and
circulation
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.5 Circulation

Figure 3.5(b): Line integral of velocity, and

circulation
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.5 Circulation
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.6 Source and Uniform Flow (Flow past a half body)
• The combination of a source (m),
placed for convenience at the
origin, and uniform flow (U)
yields the pattern of Fig. 3.6.

• The central streamline in the

approaching uniform flow
divides at ‘S’ and the two
branches enclose the whole of the
flow from the source.

Figure 3.6: Pattern of flow pas a half-body

.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.6 Source and Uniform Flow (Flow past a half body)
• These branch lines can be regarded
together as the solid boundary of a
round-nosed body such as an island
or bridge pier, which extends
downstream to a distance large
compared with its width.
• In each case, stagnation occurs in
theory at S but, in fact, the central
streamline may separate a small
distance upstream, with the result
that two stagnation vortices are
formed near ‘S’, as sketched in Fig.
3.6. Figure 3.6: Pattern of flow pass a half-body
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.6 Source and Uniform Flow (Flow past a half body)
Any streamline can be regarded as a solid boundary and the velocity and pressure
distributions along it can be determined analytically.

(i) Addition of the component 𝜓-function yields from section 3.1 and 3.2 for uniform
flow and source,
𝜓 = 𝑈𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑚𝜃

(ii) The equation of the half-body profile is that of the 𝜓-line passing through the
stagnation point S, which is the only point, apart from infinity, where the velocity is
known initially. At S, V = 0 for here the uniform flow velocity is nullified by the
source velocity which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to it at this point.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.6 Source and Uniform Flow (Flow past a half body)
Therefore, at S (rs, π)
𝑄 𝑚
𝑉=𝑈− = 𝑈− =0
2𝜋𝑟𝑠 𝑟𝑠
𝑚
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑠 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑆.
𝑈

Also, at S, θ = π and sinθ = sinπ = 0

Therefore,
𝑚
𝜓 = 𝑈 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 + 𝑚𝜋
𝑈
𝑄 𝑄
𝑜𝑟, 𝜓 = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚 =
2 2𝜋
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.6 Source and Uniform Flow (Flow past a half body)
The equation of the 𝜓 line through ‘S’ is
therefore,

𝑄 𝑄
𝜓 = 𝑈𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜃=
2𝜋 2
𝑄(𝜋 − 𝜃) 𝑚(𝜋 − 𝜃)
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟 = =
2𝜋𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Which is the equation of the half-body

profile.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.6 Source and Uniform Flow (Flow past a half body)
(iii) The half-width of the body at any point (𝑟 ′ ,
𝜃 ′ ) is therefore

𝑄(𝜋 − 𝜃 ′)
ℎ = 𝑟 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ′ =
2𝜋𝑈

and the limiting value, as 𝜃 ′ → 0 is

𝑄
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑈

At this width, the velocity of the flow from the

source is equal to that of the uniform flow.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.7 Doublet and Uniform Flow (Flow past a Cylinder)
Addition of the 𝜓-function for a
doublet at the origin with its axis
in the negative x-direction and
the 𝜓-function for uniform flow
in the positive x-direction yields

𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜓=− + 𝑈𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟
𝜇
𝑜𝑟, 𝜓 = 𝑈𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(𝑟 − )
𝑈𝑟
𝑎2
𝑜𝑟, 𝜓 = 𝑈𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟 −
𝑈𝑟
𝜇 Figure 3.7- Irrotational flow past a cylinder (a)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑎 =
𝑈 Steady pattern (b) unsteady pattern
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.7.1 Virtual Mass
• It is appropriate here to consider what is known as the virtual mass of a solid
moving through a fluid.

• The total kinetic energy of the solid, and of the fluid set in motion by it, can be
regarded as the kinetic energy of a solid of the same dimensions, but of
increased mass, the increase being known as the 'virtual mass’.

• For the cylinder moving with a velocity, U, through a fluid, initially at rest, the fluid
velocity at any point has the magnitude, as seen from the equation 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑟 2 + 𝑣𝜃 2 =
𝜇
(Section 3.3), of
𝑟2
𝜇 𝑎2
𝑉= 2 = 2𝑈
𝑟 𝑟
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.7.2 Virtual Mass
The total kinetic energy of the fluid per unit length of cylinder is

∞
1 2
= 𝑇′ 𝑉 𝑑𝑀
𝑟=𝑎 2
∞ ∞ ∞
1 2 1 𝑎4 2 1 𝑎4 2
= 𝜌𝑉 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 𝜌 4 𝑈 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 𝜌 3 𝑈 2𝜋𝑑𝑟
𝑟=𝑎 2 𝑟=𝑎 2 𝑟 𝑟=𝑎 2 𝑟

∞
𝑑𝑟 1 1 ′ 2
= 𝜌𝜋𝑎4 𝑈 2 3
2 2
= 𝜌𝜋𝑎 𝑈 = 𝑀 𝑈
𝑟=𝑎 𝑟 2 2

Where, 𝑀′ = 𝜌𝜋𝑎2 , the mass of fluid with a volume equal to the cylinder volume.
1
The total kinetic energy of the fluid and cylinder is 𝑇 = (𝑀 + 𝑀′ )𝑈 2
2
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.8 Magnus Effect
• Magnus effect is described
as a phenomenon that is
mainly characterized by a
spinning object that is
moving through a fluid
(gas or liquid) wherein there
is relative motion between
the spinning body and the
fluid.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.8 Magnus Effect
• When the Magnus effect takes place, the path of the spinning object is usually
deflected in a way that is completely different from when the object is not spinning. The
deflection that occurs can be described by the difference in pressure of the fluid that is
present on the opposite sides of the spinning object.

• In simple terms, there is a generation of a sidewise force on a spinning object. Magnus

effect is greatly affected by the speed of rotation, or we can say that it is dependent on
it. The Magnus effect is why a football player can bend a football into the goal around a
5-person wall and the movement of the cricket ball as seen in conventional swing
bowling.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.8 Magnus Effect
• The effect is named after the German physicist Heinrich Gustav Magnus, who described
the effect in 1852. Other scientists like Sir Issac Newton have explained this effect
before Magnus, but it was Magnus who got honored. We shall learn more about this
topic below.

3.8.1 Does the Magnus Effect depend on Bernoulli’s Principle?

According to Bernoulli’s principle in a non-viscous fluid, the pressure decreases when

there is an increase in the speed of the fluid. However, considering the example of a
spinning ball in the Magnus effect, the rotating ball creates a whirlpool of fluid (air) around
it and experiences a force perpendicular to the direction of motion. We consider the
viscosity of the fluid in the Magnus effect whereas Bernoulli’s principle is mainly
applicable for fluid without viscosity. Therefore, the Magnus effect does not depend on
Bernoulli’s principle.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.8 Magnus Effect
3.8.2 How does the Magnus Effect work?

In order to get the ball to turn left while moving in the air, you need to get the ball spin in
an anticlockwise direction while moving forward. If you are kicking with your right leg,
you need to kick it hard from the inside of your foot so that the ball spins anti-clockwise
while moving forward. Basically, you need to kick it off-centre. When the ball moves
forward, the ball faces air coming from the opposite direction. Now, the air on the left side
of the ball moves along the direction of the spinning ball. This column of air moving on the
left side of the ball gets accelerated and turns towards the centre of the ball.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.8 Magnus Effect
3.8.2 How does the Magnus Effect work?
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.8 Magnus Effect
3.8.2 How does the Magnus Effect work?

The air on the right side of the ball moves in

the direction opposite to the spinning ball.
This column of air moving on the right side
of the ball gets slowed down and continues
moving straight. The air on this side of the
ball doesn’t move towards the centre. So,
now you see that the movement of air
around the ball is not symmetrical to the
original direction of the ball. There is a net
force exerted towards the direction shown
by the arrow in the figure.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.8 Magnus Effect
3.8.2 How does the Magnus Effect work?

Now, Newton’s Third Law of Motion comes into

effect. Newton’s third law of motion states that
every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Just like how a rocket accelerates upwards when the

gas is pushed downwards. In this case, the force
depicted by the violet arrow in the figure causes a
counter-force in the opposite direction depicted by
the pink arrow. So, now there is a direction change
caused on the ball. The process repeats itself to
cause further turning of the ball as it moves ahead.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.8 Magnus Effect
3.8.3 Application of Magnus Effect

 Magnus effect is mainly applied in games like football, golf, cricket, tennis, baseball and
many more. This concept is important in understanding the physics behind many ball
sports.
 Some aircraft have been built that use the Magnus effect to lift using a rotating cylinder
at the front of a wing, this allows the flight at lower horizontal speeds.
 It is used in external ballistics. The combined sideways wind component of the wind
causes a Magnus force to act on the bullet.
 Rotor ships use Flettner rotors which are mast-like cylinders that are mounted vertically
on the ship’s deck. These help in propulsion. As the wind starts blowing from the side,
due to the Magnus effect a forward thrust is created.
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.9 Source, sink and uniform flow (flow past a' Rankine' body)
• Flow past a cylinder (uniform flow and a
doublet) can be regarded as a special case of flow
past Rankine Body, which is the pattern resulting
from the combination of a source and a sink in
uniform flow (Fig 3.8).

• The composite stream and potential functions are

𝜓 = 𝑚𝜃1 − 𝑚𝜃2 + 𝑈𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃

𝑜𝑟, 𝜓 = 𝑚(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑈𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃
and
𝜙 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟1 − 𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟2 + 𝑈𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝜙 = 𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟1 − 𝑚𝑙𝑛𝑟2 + 𝑈𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.9.1 Length of the Rankine Body
• The spacing of the source and sink being 2a, the
half-length, ‘rs,’ of the body can be determined
from the consideration of the stagnation point,
‘S’, for which,
𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑠 + 𝑎

• Velocity at Stagnation point, ‘S’ is zero, which

can be expressed as

𝑚 𝑚
𝑉=𝑈− + =0
𝑟1 𝑟2
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.9.1 Length of the Rankine Body
𝑚 𝑚
𝑉 =𝑈− + =0
𝑟1 𝑟2
1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈 − 𝑚( − )=0
𝑟𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑟𝑠 + 𝑎
𝑟𝑠 + 𝑎 − 𝑟𝑠 + 𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈 − 𝑚( )=0
(𝑟𝑠 −𝑎)(𝑟𝑠 +𝑎)
2𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈 − 𝑚( 2 2
)=0
(𝑟𝑠 − 𝑎 )
2𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 2 2
=𝑈
𝑟𝑠 − 𝑎

2𝑚
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑠 = 𝑎 ( + 1)
𝑎𝑈
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.9.2 Profile of the Rankine Body
• At ‘S’ since 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 = 𝜋, 𝜓 = 0, that is the x-
axis and the profile through ‘S’ constitutes the
streamline 𝜓 = 0 . The profile equation is
therefore,

𝜓 = 𝑚(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑈𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
𝑚(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟 =
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
.

Chapter 3: Standard Patterns of Flow

3.9.3 Width of the Rankine Body
For the point 𝑃′ on the body (𝑃′ is perpendicular from the
center) of the Rankine profile,
𝜋
𝜃1 = 𝛼, 𝜃2 = 𝜋 − 𝛼, 𝜃 =
2
Therefore,
𝑚 𝜃2 − 𝜃1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑚
ℎ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = 𝜋 − 2𝛼
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑈
𝜋 𝑈ℎ
𝛼= −
2 2𝑚
Since,ℎ = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
The solution of the equation becomes,
𝜋 𝑈ℎ 𝑈ℎ
ℎ = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛( − ) = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑡
2 2𝑚 2𝑚
Which is the value of the half width, h.
.

Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid

4.1 Ideal Fluid
A fluid that has no viscosity, no surface tension and incompressible is defined as an ideal
fluid. For such a fluid, no resistance is encountered as it moves. Ideal fluid does not exist
in nature, however fluids with low viscosity such as air, water may however be treated as
ideal fluid, which is reasonable and well accepted assumption.

4.2 Real Fluid

A fluid that has viscosity, surface tension and is compressible which exists in nature is
called real or practical fluid. The properties of real fluid are: -

i. Property of viscosity.
ii. Surface tension.
iii.Capacity to vaporize.
.

Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid

4.3 Effect of Viscosity
 Differences in the behavior of a real fluid from that of the ideal fluid of classical
hydrodynamics arise primarily from the existence in the real fluid of the property of
viscosity.
 Viscosity results in the development of shearing stresses within a fluid wherever there
is relative motion of adjacent fluid masses, the magnitude of the shear stress in one-
directional flow being given by

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
 These shearing stresses can be regarded as internal surface forces acting tangentially
over the surfaces of elemental fluid masses, in addition to the gravity body forces and
the surface forces due to the existence of pressure gradients, which are included in the
Euler equations of motion.
.

Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid

4.4 Laminar Flow
A flow is said to be laminar if the fluid particles move along straight parallel paths in
layers such that the path of the individual fluid particles do not cross those of the
neighboring particles. This type of flow occurs when the viscous forces dominate the
inertia forces at low velocities. Laminar flow can occur in flow through pipes, open
channels and even through porous media.

4.5 Turbulent Flow

A flow is said to be turbulent when the fluid particles move in an entirely random or
disorderly manner that results in a rapid and continuous mixing of the fluid leading to
momentum transfer as flow occurs. A distinguishing characteristic of turbulence is its
irregularity, there being no definite frequency, as in wave motion and no observable
pattern, as in case large eddies.
.

Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid

4.6 Navier-Stokes Equation
• Navier-Stokes equation, in fluid mechanics, a Partial Differential Equation that
describes the flow of incompressible fluids.
• The equation is a generalization of the equation devised by Swiss mathematician
Leonhard Euler in the 18th century to describe the flow of incompressible and
frictionless fluids. In 1821 French engineer Claude-Louis Navier introduced the
element of viscosity (friction) for the more realistic and vastly more difficult problem
of viscous fluids.
• Throughout the middle of the 19th century, British physicist and mathematician Sir
George Gabriel Stokes improved on this work, though complete solutions were
obtained only for the case of simple two-dimensional flows.
• The complex vortices and turbulence, or chaos, that occur in three-dimensional fluid
(including gas) flows as velocities increase have proven intractable to any but
approximate numerical analysis methods.
.

Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid

4.6 Navier-Stokes Equation
Fig. 4.1 shows a small element in an
incompressible viscous flow in the x-
direction. The element is subject to
viscous shear stresses owing to the
𝜕𝑢
existence of a velocity gradient across
𝜕𝑦
the flow. The shear stress parallel to the
x-axis are

Figure 4.1: Shear stresses acting in the

direction of flow in two-dimensional parallel
viscous flow
.

Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid

4.6 Navier-Stokes Equation
If the area of the shear face of
the element is S, the net force
on the element is

𝜇
Where, 𝜈= , the kinetic
𝜌
viscosity of the fluid and 𝛿𝑚 =
𝜌𝑆𝛿𝑦 is the mass of the element.
.

Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid

4.6 Navier-Stokes Equation
𝜕𝑢
• Hence the viscous force per unit mass due to the velocity gradient is
𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑢
𝜈 2
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
• In the general case, the velocity gradients , , the total viscous force per nut
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
mass acting in the x-direction, can be shown to be

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢

𝜈 2
+ 2+ 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑜𝑟, 𝜈∇2 𝑢
.

Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid

4.6 Navier-Stokes Equation
Inclusion of this term in the first Euler equation yields

𝑑𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
=𝑋− + 𝜈∇2 𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
=𝑌− + 𝜈∇2 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝
=𝑍− + 𝜈∇2 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑧

These are the Navier-Stokes equations for the motion of a viscous fluid.
 Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid
4.7 Characteristics of Flow around ship hull

The flow of fluid around a

body can be divided into
two general types of flow:
laminar flow and turbulent
flow. The extent of the
viscous resistance on a
body depends on the type
of flow it is experiencing.
A typical flow pattern
around a ship’s hull
showing laminar and
turbulent flow is shown in
Figure.
 Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid
4.7 Characteristics of Flow around ship hull

Laminar flow is characterized by fluid

flowing along smooth lines in an
orderly fashion with a minimal amount
of frictional resistance. For a typical
ship, laminar flow exists for only a
very small distance along the hull. As
water flows along the hull, the laminar
flow begins to break down and
become chaotic and well mixed. This
chaotic behavior is referred to as
turbulent flow and the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow occurs at the
transition point shown in Figure.
 Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid
4.7 Characteristics of Flow around ship hull

Turbulent flow is
characterized by the
development of a layer
of water along the hull
moving with the ship
along its direction of
travel. This layer of
water is referred to as
the “boundary layer.”
Water molecules closest
to the ship are carried
along with the ship at
the ship’s velocity.
 Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid
4.7 Characteristics of Flow around ship hull
• Moving away from the hull, the velocity of water
particles in the boundary layer becomes less, until at
the outer edge of the boundary layer velocity is nearly
that of the surrounding ocean.
• Formation of the boundary layer begins at the
transition point and the thickness of the boundary
layer increases along the length of the hull as the flow
becomes more and more turbulent.
• For a ship underway, the boundary layer can be seen
as the frothy white band of water next to the hull.
• As ship speed increases, the thickness of the boundary
layer will increase, and the transition point between
laminar and turbulent flow moves closer to the bow.
 Chapter 4: Flow of a Real Fluid
4.7 Characteristics of Flow around ship hull

Mathematically, laminar, and turbulent flow can be described using the

dimensionless coefficient known as the Reynolds Number in honor of Sir Osborne
Reynolds’ (1883) contribution to the study of hydrodynamics. For a ship, the
Reynolds Number is calculated using the equation below:
𝐿𝑉
𝑅𝑛 =
𝜈

Where, ‘Rn’ is the Reynolds number, L = Ship length, V = velocity, ν = kinematic

viscosity

For external flow over flat plates (or ship hulls), typical Reynolds number
magnitudes are as follows:
Laminar flow: Rn< 5 x 105, Turbulent flow: Rn> 1 x 106,Transition from Laminar to
Turbulent Flow: 5 x 105 <Rn< 1 x 106
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.0 Conformal Transformation
• Conformal Transformation is a powerful analytical method of determining two-
dimensional patters of irrotational flow.

• This approach extends greatly the range of boundary forms which can be treated
and provides, for each pattern, a single expression embodying both the stream
function and the potential function.

• The method is known as ‘Conformal Transformation or Conformal Mapping’

and it requires some knowledge of complex variable theory, elements of which are
introduced below.
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.0.1 Complex Variable
• A number consisting of two distinct scalar parts, a and b and written in the form
a+ ib, where is called a complex number.

• ‘Z’ is regarded as a complex number whose real part is ‘x’ and whose imaginary
part is ‘y’. This complex number, which really represents the position vector , is
therefore

• The modulus, or absolute value, of ‘z’ is the magnitude, ‘Oz’, of the position
vector and it is designated by ‘r’, and sometimes by . Hence,
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.0.1 Complex Variable
• The argument of z is the direction, θ, of the position
vector measured from the positive x-axis in an
anticlockwise direction. It therefore has the value
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.0.1 Complex Variable
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.0.2 Functions of a Complex Variable
• If ‘x’ and ‘y’ are variables, the complex number z = x+iy is called a ‘Complex Variable’.

• Suppose that another variable, ‘w’, is defined as, say, w = z2 or w = ln z, or w = cosh-1z,

then ‘w’ is said to be a function of the complex variable ‘z’, that is, w = f(z).

• ‘w’ itself is a complex variable with a real part and an imaginary part. The real part is
usually designated ‘φ’ and the imaginary part, ‘ψ’ being, in general, functions of ‘x’ and
‘y’.

• Hence w = φ+iψ = f1(x,y)+if2(x,y)

 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.0.2 Functions of a Complex Variable
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.0.2 Functions of a Complex Variable
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.0.2 Functions of a Complex Variable
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.0.2 Functions of a Complex Variable
• Whatever form the function w = f(z) may take, the pattern on the w-plane is always that
of parallel flow from left to right, as in Fig. 5.5; and the pattern on the z-plane is always
the physical pattern under investigation.

• The function w = f(z) may be regarded as transforming the z-plane pattern to the
uniform flow pattern of the w-plane.

• Once the transforming function, w = f(z)=f1(x,y)+i f2(x,y) for a particular physical

pattern, is known, its real part, φ = f1(x,y), equated to a constant yields the equation of the
equipotential lines in the physical or z-plane; and its imaginary part, ψ = f2(x,y), equated
to a constant, yields the equation of the streamlines in the z-plane. Each line has its own
particular constant.
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.1 Analytic Functions

• The condition that the transformed pattern of φ-lines in the z-plane does in fact
represent a possible pattern of irrotational flow is that the function φ = f1(x,y)
satisfies the conditions of continuity and irrationality or, in other words, that φ
satisfies the Laplace equation which embodies these two conditions.

• Similarly, the ψ lines will represent a possible irrotational flow pattern if ψ satisfies
the Laplace equation.

• These limitations on φ and ψ restrict w to a class of function known in the theory

of the complex variable as analytic.
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.2 Singularities
• It may be stated that a function w = f(z) may be analytic for all values of z, or
possibly for all but one or some finite number of values of z; that is, for all points, or
all but a finite number of points in the z-plane.

•The exceptions are called ‘Singularities or Singular points. Hence the statement that
function is analytic 'within a region' or domain implies that there are no singular
points in the area under consideration.

•A function, w = f(z), is said to be analytic within a region of the z-plane only if, for
each point in that region (that is for each value of z):

(a) there is one and only one corresponding value of ‘w’ and that value is finite, and
(b) 𝑑𝑤 is single-valued and neither zero nor infinite.
𝑑𝑧
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.2 Singularities
• At singular points, where these conditions are not satisfied, the transformation
process is not applicable, although at a very small distance from them it may be.

• In diagrams, singular points are frequently encircled, to indicate the fact that
they are isolated from the transformation or mapping process. Examples of
analytic functions with singular points are-
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.3 Some simple transformations
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.3 Some simple transformations
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.4 Green’s theorem

• Green's theorem is simply a relationship between the

macroscopic circulation around the curve ‘C’ and the
sum of all the microscopic circulation that is inside ‘C’.
• If ‘C’ is a simple closed curve in the plane (remember,
we are talking about two dimensions), then it surrounds
some region ‘D’ (shown in red) in the plane. ‘D’ is the
“interior” of the curve ‘C’.
• Green's theorem says that if you add up all the
microscopic circulation inside ‘C’ (i.e., the microscopic
circulation in ‘D’), then that total is exactly the same as
the macroscopic circulation around ‘C’.
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.4.1 Application of Green’s theorem

•They come in handy when we have to break down the line

integral into line integrals with shorter paths.

•This theorem is also helpful when we want to calculate the

area of conics using a line integral.

•We can apply Green’s theorem to calculate the amount of

work done on a force field.

•We can also calculate flux and water flow using Green’s
theorem.
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.5 Stoke’s Theorem

Stokes’ Theorem can be regarded as a higher-dimensional version of Green’s

Theorem.

 Green’s Theorem relates a double integral over a plane region D to a line

integral around its plane boundary curve.

 Stokes’ Theorem relates a surface integral over a surface S to a line integral

around the boundary curve of S (a space curve).

 Stokes’ theorem relates the surface integral of the curl of the vector field to
a line integral of the vector field around some boundary of a surface.
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.5.1 Application Stoke’s Theorem

• It is also useful for the interpretation of the curl of the vector field of any kind. This
theorem is often useful in physics, especially in the area of electromagnetism. Stokes’
theorem and its customized form are very important for finding line integral of some
particular curve as well as in determining the curl of a bounded surface.

•The Stokes formula is used to determine the viscosity of oils by letting a sphere of
known diameter fall freely in the liquid. Following the initial acceleration, when the
external drag on the surface and buoyancy, both act upwards and in opposite directions
to the motions.

•The stokes theorem has numerous applications in physics. It aids in the creation of
numerous useful formulae and equations. The stokes theorem in electromagnetic theory,
for example, is well-known in Physics.
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.6 Cauchy’s Integral Theorem
 Chapter 5: Conformal Transformation
5.6 Blasius’s Theorem