COMPUTER NETWORKING

BY

NAME

MATRIC

BEING A PROJECT SUBMMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER

SCIENCE, FACULTY OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES, NASARAWA STATE

UNIVERSITY, KEFFI IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.SC.) DEGREE IN COMPUTER SCIENCE

APRIL, 2022

i
 DECLARATION
I NAME humbly declare that this work entitled COMPUTER NETWORKING is as a result of

my research effort carried out under the supervision of NAME and submitted to the Computer

Science Department, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Nasarawa State University, Keffi,

Nasarawa State, Nigeria for the award of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) Degree in Computer

Science.

__________________________________

NAME

MATRIC NO

ii
 CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project was analyzed, designed and implemented by NAME with

matriculation number MATRIC NO in partial fulfillment for the award of B.Sc. in the

department of Computer Science, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, under my supervision.

_______________________ ______________________

NAME Date

Project Supervisor

__________________________ _______________________

NAME Date

Head of Department

__________________________ _______________________

Examiner name Date

External Examiner

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I offer my profound gratitude to Jehovah, the Almighty, who gave me life, sustenance and

support throughout my sojourn in this citadel of learning and during the course of this work.

I acknowledge my ever supporting supervisor, NAME for his assistance, time, devotion,

encouragement and advice throughout the project.

I wish to also acknowledge the Head of Department (HOD) of computer science, NAME and the

Project Coordinator, NAME for their guide in the course of this project development.

I thank and acknowledge all my lecturers who took their time to coach and guide me throughout

my sojourn in this citadel of learning.

I am also thankful to my parents and my siblings for their support and encouragement during the

course of this project.

I still wish to acknowledge my aunts, uncles, relative, course mates and friends for their

continuous prayers in the duration of the programme.

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 ABSTRACT
This project report, implementation of computer networking is written to serve as a reference

book for computer network in the future whenever it is desired. This report explains the survey

consideration, hardware consideration, end-user consideration and principle of networking. In

addition, YOUR SCHOOL NAME this professional body have done a lot of work to make

computer network had numerous option to choose a suitable type of networking.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION..............................................................................................................................................ii
CERTIFICATION...........................................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….V

CHAPTER ONE
INTERODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study..............................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problems..........................................................................................................5
1.3 Purpose of the Study...................................................................................................................6
1.4 Significant of the Study................................................................................................................6
1.5 Scope of the Study.......................................................................................................................7
1.6 Operational Definitions of Terms.................................................................................................7
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Concept of Computer Networking...............................................................................................9
2.1.1 What is a Computer Network?................................................................................................9
2.1.2 Types of Computer Network....................................................................................................9
2.1.3 Advantages of a computer networking system......................................................................14
2.1.4 Disadvantages of Computer Network....................................................................................15
2.2 Important Terms and Concepts.................................................................................................16
2.2.1 Examples of computer networks...........................................................................................17
2.3 Computer networks and the internet........................................................................................18
2.3.1 How do they Work?...............................................................................................................19
2.4 Architecture...............................................................................................................................19
2.4.1 Main types of network architecture......................................................................................19
2.5 Network topology......................................................................................................................20
2.5.1 Security..................................................................................................................................21
2.6 Mesh networks..........................................................................................................................22
2.6.1 Type of mesh networks..........................................................................................................22
2.6.2 Load Balancers and Networks................................................................................................22

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2.6.3 Content delivery networks.....................................................................................................23
2.6.4 Computer networking solutions and IBM..............................................................................23
2.7 What Is Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)..........................................................................24
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Analysis of the Old System.........................................................................................................27
3.2 Devices Needed to Set up a LAN................................................................................................28
3.2.1 Router....................................................................................................................................28
3.2.2 Switches.................................................................................................................................29
3.2.3 LAN cable...............................................................................................................................29
3.2.4 Printers..................................................................................................................................30
3.3 LAN Topology.............................................................................................................................30
3.3.1 Star Topology.........................................................................................................................30
3.3.2 Ring Topology........................................................................................................................31
3.3.3 Bus Topology..........................................................................................................................31
3.4 Analysis of the Proposed Networking System............................................................................32
3.4.1 Request Analysis of the Proposed Networking System..........................................................32
3.4.2 WLAN Topology.....................................................................................................................33
3.4.3 Channel Management...........................................................................................................35
3.5 Advantage of WLAN...................................................................................................................35
3.6 Conclusion................................................................................................................................36
CHAPTER FOUR
IMPLEMENTATION AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Networking Requirements.........................................................................................................37
4.1.1 System Hardware Requirement.............................................................................................37
4.1.2 System Software Requirement..............................................................................................37
4.2 Implementation of Networking.................................................................................................39
4.2.1 Local Area Network................................................................................................................40
4.2.2 HUB........................................................................................................................................40
4.2.3 Switch....................................................................................................................................40
4.2.4 ROUTER..................................................................................................................................40
4.2.5 IP Address..............................................................................................................................40

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4.2.6 OSI.........................................................................................................................................41
4.2.7 Addressing Scheme................................................................................................................42
4.3 Network Layers..........................................................................................................................44
4.3.1 TCP/IP Model.........................................................................................................................45
4.4 Security Software and Operating System Updates....................................................................50
4.4.1 Personal Firewalls Personal firewall.......................................................................................51
4.4.2 Anti-Virus (A/V)......................................................................................................................51
4.4.3 Anti-Spyware (A/S).................................................................................................................52
4.4.4 Encrypted File Systems (EFS).................................................................................................52
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary....................................................................................................................................53
5.2 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................53
5.3 Recommendations.....................................................................................................................54
REFERENCE............................................................................................................................................55

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study

Networking is referred as connecting computers electronically for the purpose of sharing

information. Resources such as files, applications, printers and software are common information

shared in a networking. The advantage of networking can be seen clearly in terms of security,

efficiency, manageability and cost effectiveness as it allows collaboration between users in a

wide range. Basically, network consists of hardware component such as computer, hubs,

switches, routers and other devices which form the network infrastructure. These are the devices

that play an important role in data transfer from one place to another using different technology

such as radio waves and wires. There are many types of networks available in the networking

industries and the most common network are Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area

Network (WAN). LAN network is made up of two or more computers connected together in a

short distance usually at home, office buildings or school. WAN is a network that covers wider

area than LAN and usually covers cities, countries and the whole world. Several major LAN can

be connected together to form a WAN. As several devices are connected to network, it is

important to ensure data collision does not happened when these devices attempt to use data

channel simultaneously. A set of rules called Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision detection

are used to detect and prevent collision in networks.

The Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before.

The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this

unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting

capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and

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interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location. The

Internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment

and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the

early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in

evolving and deploying this exciting new technology. Today, terms like “bleiner@computer.org”

and “http://www.acm.org” trip lightly off the tongue of the random person on the street.

The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking

was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his

“Galactic Network” concept J.C.R. Licklider & W. Clark, (1962). He envisioned a globally

interconnected set of computers through which everyone could quickly access data and programs

from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internet of today. Licklider was the

first head of the computer research program at Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency,

starting in October 1962. While at Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency he convinced

his successors at Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor,

and MIT researcher Lawrence G. Roberts, of the importance of this networking concept.

Leonard Kleinrock at MIT published the first paper on packet switching theory in July 1961 L.

Kleinrock, (1961) and the first book on the subject in 1964 L. Kleinrock, (1964). Kleinrock

convinced Roberts of the theoretical feasibility of communications using packets rather than

circuits, which was a major step along the path towards computer networking. The other key step

was to make the computers talk together. To explore this, in 1965 working with Thomas Merrill,

Roberts connected the TX-2 computer in Mass. to the Q-32 in California with a low-speed dial-

up telephone line creating the first (however small) wide-area computer network ever built [10].

The result of this experiment was the realization that the timeshared computers could work well

2
together, running programs and retrieving data as necessary on the remote machine, but that the

circuit switched telephone system was totally inadequate for the job. Kleinrock's argument for

packet switching was confirmed.

In late 1966 Roberts went to DARPA to develop the computer network concept and quickly put

together his plan for the “ARPANET”, publishing it in 1967 L. Roberts, (1967). At the

conference where he presented the paper, there was also a paper on a packet network concept

from the UK by Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of natural language processing.

Scantlebury told Roberts about the natural language processing work as well as that of Paul

Baran and others at Rural Area Network Aesign. The Rural Area Network Aesign group had

written a paper on packet switching networks for secure voice in the military in 1964V. G. Cerf,

(1974). It happened that the work at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (1961- 1967), at

Rural Area Network Aesign (1962-1965), and at NPL (1964-1967) had all proceeded in parallel

without any of the researchers knowing about the other work. The word “packet” was adopted

from the work at natural language processing and the proposed line speed to be used in the

ARPANET design was upgraded from 2.4 kbps to 50 kbps.

In August 1968, after Roberts and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency funded

community had refined the overall structure and specifications for the Advanced Research

Projects Agency Network (ARPANET), an Request for Quotation was released by Defense

Advanced Research Projects Agency for the development of one of the key components, the

packet switches called Interface Message Processors (IMP's). The Request for Quotation was

won in December 1968 by a group headed by Frank Heart at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN).

As the BBN team worked on the Interface Message Processors (IMP's) with Bob Kahn playing a

major role in the overall Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)

3
architectural design, the network topology and economics were designed and optimized by

Roberts working with Howard Frank and his team at Network Analysis Corporation, and the

network measurement system was prepared by Kleinrock's team at UCLA.

Due to Kleinrock's early development of packet switching theory and his focus on analysis,

design and measurement, his Network Measurement Center at University of California, Los

Angeles was selected to be the first node on the Advanced Research Projects Agency

Network (ARPANET). All this came together in September 1969 when BBN installed the first

IMP at University of California, Los Angeles and the first host computer was connected. Doug

Engelbart's project on “Augmentation of Human Intellect” (which included NLS, an early

hypertext system) at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) provided a second node. SRI supported

the Network Information Center, led by Elizabeth (Jake) Feinler and including functions such as

maintaining tables of host name to address mapping as well as a directory of the RFC's. One

month later, when SRI was connected to the ARPANET, the first host-to-host message was sent

from Kleinrock's laboratory to SRI. Two more nodes were added at UC Santa Barbara and

University of Utah. These last two nodes incorporated application visualization projects, with

Glen Culler and Burton Fried at UCSB investigating methods for display of mathematical

functions using storage displays to deal with the problem of refresh over the net, and Robert

Taylor and Ivan Sutherland at Utah investigating methods of 3-D representations over the net.

Thus, by the end of 1969, four host computers were connected together into the initial

ARPANET, and the budding Internet was off the ground. Even at this early stage, it should be

noted that the networking research incorporated both work on the underlying network and work

on how to utilize the network. This tradition continues to this day.

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Computers were added quickly to the ARPANET during the following years, and work

proceeded on completing a functionally complete Host-to-Host protocol and other network

software. In December 1970 the Network Working Group (NWG) working under S. Crocker

finished the initial ARPANET Host-to-Host protocol, called the Network Control Protocol

(NCP). As the ARPANET sites completed implementing NCP during the period 1971-1972, the

network users finally could begin to develop applications.

In October 1972 Kahn organized a large, very successful demonstration of the ARPANET at the

International Computer Communication Conference (ICCC). This was the first public

demonstration of this new network technology to the public. It was also in 1972 that the initial

“hot” application, electronic mail, was introduced. In March Ray Tomlinson at BBN wrote the

basic email message send and read software, motivated by the need of the ARPANET developers

for an easy coordination mechanism. In July, Roberts expanded its utility by writing the first

email utility program to list, selectively read, file, forward, and respond to messages. From there

email took off as the largest network application for over a decade. This was a harbinger of the

kind of activity we see on the World Wide Web today, namely, the enormous growth of all kinds

of “people-to-people” traffic.

1.2 Statement of the Problems

These are the problems that are being encountered in when trying to networking computer

system together. There are:

I. High Bandwidth Usage

II. High Central processing unit Usage

III. Physical Connectivity Issues

IV. Domain name system Issues

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1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this project is to show how data and resources can be shared between different

computers with the aid of computer networking, Reviewing the different computer networking type,

Most efficient and secured types of computer system networking, The important of computer

networking.

1.4 Significant of the Study

From the viewpoint of the networking; the connections will provide among other things the

following:

I. Resource sharing: To make all programs, equipment, and especially data available to

anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the resource and the

user.

II. High reliability: As all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if one of

them is unavailable (due to hardware failure), the other copies could be used.

III. Scalability: It is the ability to increase system performance gradually as the workload

grows just by adding more processors.

IV. A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium along widely

separated employee.

V. The use of networks to enhance human-to-human communication will probably prove

more important than technical goals such as improved reliability.

These are the requirement with respect to companies but computer networking is required even

in the normal day to day life as we have to access the internet to get information about what all

new happening in the world, to have communication with people staying far away using the e

6
mail service. These are the reasons that forced the inventers to invent the networking devices,

models and protocols etc.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The study is covers most of the cybercafé computer networking, how there are physically

connected together, how the café handles large number of customers, how files are shared across

the network and the hardware/software that are involved in the connection. This study covers the

types of networking and the disadvantage and advantage of using either type.

1.6 Operational Definitions of Terms

I. IP: Internet Protocol

II. FTP: File Transfer Protocol

III. SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

IV. HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

V. LANs: Local Area Networks

VI. MANs: Metropolitan Area Networks

VII. WANs: Wide Area Networks

VIII. SAN: Storage Area Network

IX. VPN: Virtual Private Network

X. Internet: It is a computer network system that connects the computers of the world. It is

normally connecting through WAN and LAN.

XI. Intranet: It is a close room computer network system, as it covers a small area and only

authorized people can access it.

XII. Extranet: It is also a sort of Internet the access to which is granted only to a few.

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 XIII. World Wide Web (WWW): It is the service that is used on Internet to view and search

contents (in the form of web-pages).

XIV. Instant messaging (IM): It is an online facility that facilitates us to chat or talk. Such

service is provided by Skype, Google Talk, Windows Live Messenger, Yahoo

Messenger, etc.

XV. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): It is a Protocol, which is used especially for voice

transfer over IP network. Likewise, it facilitates users to make phone-calls by using

internet.

XVI. Really Simple Syndication (RSS): It is a technique, which is used for the dissemination

of information, articles, etc. Users normally subscribe to the RSS channel in order to

receive news. After subscription, users do not need to visit the respective website rather

they receive emails regarding the same.

XVII. Web log: It is a sort of online inventory (normally on a specialized topics) that consists of

a series of entries. These entries are arranged in opposite chronological order. The person

who maintains the weblog regularly update it with a new information.

XVIII. Podcast: It is a digital file that normally contains audio or video record and is available on

the Internet as well.

XIX. Social networking websites: It refers to the websites that facilitate users with a common

platform where they can share their message (in text, audio, or even video form), images,

videos, etc. For example, Facebook, Google+, Twitter, LinkedIn, MySpace, etc.

8
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Concept of Computer Networking

2.1.1 What is a Computer Network?

A computer network comprises two or more computers that are connected—either by cables

(wired) or WIFI (wireless)—with the purpose of transmitting, exchanging, or sharing data and

resources. You build a computer network using hardware (e.g., routers, switches, access points,

and cables) and software (e.g., operating systems or business applications).

Geographic location often defines a computer network. For example, a LAN (local area network)

connects computers in a defined physical space, like an office building, whereas a WAN (wide

area network) can connect computers across continents. The internet is the largest example of a

WAN, connecting billions of computers worldwide. You can further define a computer network

by the protocols it uses to communicate, the physical arrangement of its components, how it

controls traffic, and its purpose. Computer networks enable communication for every business,

entertainment, and research purpose. The internet, online search, email, audio and video sharing,

online commerce, live-streaming, and social networks all exist because of computer networks.

2.1.2 Types of Computer Network

As networking needs evolved, so did the computer network types that serve those needs. Here

are the most common and widely used computer network types:

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 I. LAN (local area network): A LAN connects computers over a relatively short distance,

allowing them to share data, files, and resources. For example, a LAN may connect all

the

computers in an office building, school, or hospital. Typically, LANs are privately owned

and managed.

II. WLAN (wireless local area network): A WLAN is just like a LAN but connections

between devices on the network are made wirelessly. WLAN should not be confused

10
 with the Wi-Fi Alliance's Wi-Fi trademark. First of all, although some may use the terms

“Wi-Fi” and “WLAN” interchangeably, there are some semantic differences in play.

Where “Wi-Fi connection” refers to a given wireless connection that a device uses, the

WLAN is the network itself, which is different.

III. WAN (wide area network): As the name implies, a WAN connects computers over a

wide area, such as from region to region or even continent to continent. The internet is

the largest WAN, connecting billions of computers worldwide. You will typically see

collective or distributed ownership models for WAN management. Wide-area network as

a computer network that connects smaller networks. Since WANs are not tied to a

specific location, they allow localized networks to communicate with one another across

great distances. They also facilitate communication and the sharing of information

between devices from anywhere in the world.

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IV. MAN (metropolitan area network): MANs are typically larger than LANs but smaller

than WANs. Cities and government entities typically own and manage MANs. A

metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that connects computers within

a metropolitan area, which could be a single large city, multiple cities and towns, or any

given large area with multiple buildings. A MAN is larger than a local area network

(LAN) but smaller than a wide area network (WAN). MANs do not have to be in urban

areas; the term "metropolitan" implies the size of the network, not the demographics of

the area that it serves.

V. P A N ( p e r s o n a l

iPhone and a Mac, it’s very likely you’ve set up a PAN that shares and syncs content—

text messages, emails, photos, and more—across both devices.

VI. SAN (storage area network): A SAN is a specialized network that provides access to

block-level storage—shared network or cloud storage that, to the user, looks and works

12
 like a storage drive that’s physically attached to a computer. (For more information on

how a SAN works with block storage, see Block Storage: A Complete Guide.)

VII. CAN (campus area network): A CAN is also known as a corporate area network. A

CAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. CANs serve sites such as colleges,

universities, and business campuses.

VIII. VPN (virtual private network): A VPN is a secure, point-to-point connection between

two network end points (see ‘Nodes’ below). A VPN establishes an encrypted channel

that keeps a user’s identity and access credentials, as well as any data transferred,

inaccessible to hackers.

2.1.3 Advantages of a computer networking system

I. User access control: Modern networks almost always have one or more servers which

allows centralized management for users and for network resources to which they have

access. User credentials on a privately-owned and operated network may be as simple as

a user name and password, but with ever-increasing attention to computing security

issues, these servers are critical to ensuring that sensitive information is only available to

authorized users.

II. Information storing and sharing: Computers allow users to create and manipulate

information. Information takes on a life of its own on a network. The network provides

both a place to store the information and mechanisms to share that information with other

network users.

III. Connections: Administrators, instructors, and even students and guests can be connected

using the network.

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 IV. Internet: The network can provide network users with access to the internet, via an

internet gateway.

V. Computing resources: The network can provide access to special purpose computing

devices which individual users would not normally own. For example, a school network

might have high-speed, high-quality, printers strategically located around for use.

VI. Flexible Access.: Networks allow users to access their information from connected

devices throughout the network. Users can begin an assignment in their classroom, save

part of it on a public access area of the network, then go to the media center after school

to finish their work. Students can also work cooperatively through the network.

VII. Workgroup Computing: Collaborative software allows many users to work on a

document or project concurrently. For example, educators located at various schools

within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new curriculum

standards to the same document, spreadsheets, or website.

2.1.4 Disadvantages of Computer Network

I. Expensive to Install: Large campus networks can carry hefty price tags. Cabling, network

cards, routers, bridges, firewalls, wireless access points, and software can get expensive,

and the installation would certainly require the services of technicians. But, with the ease

of setup of home networks, a simple network with internet access can be setup for a small

campus in an afternoon.

II. Requires Administrative Time: Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable

time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to find that they did not

budget for the necessary administrative support.

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 III. Servers Fail: Although a network server is no more susceptible to failure than any other

computer, when the files server "goes down" the entire network may come to a halt.

Good network design practices say that critical network services (provided by servers)

should be redundant on the network whenever possible.

IV. Cables May Break; The Topology chapter presents information about the various

configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the

inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the

entire network.

V. Security and compliance

2.2 Important Terms and Concepts

The following are some common terms to know when discussing computer networking:

I. IP address: An IP address is a unique number assigned to every device connected to a

network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. Each IP address identifies the

device’s host network and the location of the device on the host network. When one

device sends data to another, the data includes a ‘header’ that includes the IP address of

the sending device and the IP address of the destination device.

II. Nodes: A node is a connection point inside a network that can receive, send, create, or

store data. Each node requires you to provide some form of identification to receive

access, like an IP address. A few examples of nodes include computers, printers,

modems, bridges, and switches. A node is essentially any network device that can

recognize, process, and transmit information to any other network node.

15
III. Routers: A router is a physical or virtual device that sends information contained in data

packets between networks. Routers analyze data within the packets to determine the best

way for the information to reach its ultimate destination. Routers forward data packets

until they reach their destination node.

IV. Switches: A switch is a device that connects other devices and manages node-to-node

communication within a network, ensuring data packets reach their ultimate destination.

While a router sends information between networks, a switch sends information between

nodes in a single network. When discussing computer networks, ‘switching’ refers to

how data is transferred between devices in a network. The three main types of switching

are as follows:

Circuit switching: which establishes a dedicated communication path between nodes in

a network. This dedicated path assures the full bandwidth is available during the

transmission, meaning no other traffic can travel along that path.

Packet switching: involves breaking down data into independent components called

packets which, because of their small size, make fewer demands on the network. The

packets travel through the network to their end destination.

Message switching: sends a message in its entirety from the source node, traveling from

switch to switch until it reaches its destination node.

V. Ports: A port identifies a specific connection between network devices. Each port is

identified by a number. If you think of an IP address as comparable to the address of a

hotel, then ports are the suites or room numbers within that hotel. Computers use port

16
 numbers to determine which application, service, or process should receive specific

messages.

VI. Network cable types: The most common network cable types are Ethernet twisted pair,

coaxial, and fiber optic. The choice of cable type depends on the size of the network, the

arrangement of network elements, and the physical distance between devices.

2.2.1 Examples of computer networks

I. The wired or wireless connection of two or more computers for the purpose of sharing

data and resources form a computer network. Today, nearly every digital device belongs

to a computer network.

II. In an office setting, you and your colleagues may share access to a printer or to a group

messaging system. The computing network that allows this is likely a LAN or local area

network that permits your department to share resources.

III. A city government might manage a city-wide network of surveillance cameras that

monitor traffic flow and incidents. This network would be part of a MAN or metropolitan

area network that allows city emergency personnel to respond to traffic accidents, advise

drivers of alternate travel routes, and even send traffic tickets to drivers who run red

lights.

IV. The Weather Company worked to create a peer-to-peer mesh network that allows mobile

devices to communicate directly with other mobile devices without requiring WIFI or

cellular connectivity. The Mesh Network Alerts project allows the delivery of life-saving

weather information to billions of people, even without an internet connection.

17
2.3 Computer networks and the internet

The internet is actually a network of networks that connects billions of digital devices

worldwide. Standard protocols allow communication between these devices. Those protocols

include hypertext transfer protocol (the ‘http’ in front of all website addresses). Internet protocol

(or IP addresses) are the unique identifying numbers required of every device that accesses the

internet. IP addresses are comparable to your mailing address, providing unique location

information so that information can be delivered correctly.

Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and Network Service Providers (NSPs) provide the

infrastructure that allows the transmission of packets of data or information over the internet.

Every bit of information sent over the internet doesn’t go to every device connected to the

internet. It’s the combination of protocols and infrastructure that tells information exactly where

to go.

2.3.1 How do they Work?

Computer networks connect nodes like computers, routers, and switches using cables, fiber

optics, or wireless signals. These connections allow devices in a network to communicate and

share information and resources. Networks follow protocols, which define how communications

are sent and received. These protocols allow devices to communicate. Each device on a network

uses an Internet Protocol or IP address, a string of numbers that uniquely identifies a device and

allows other devices to recognize it.

Routers are virtual or physical devices that facilitate communications between different

networks. Routers analyse information to determine the best way for data to reach its ultimate

destination. Switches connect devices and manage node-to-node communication inside a

18
network, ensuring that bundles of information traveling across the network reach their ultimate

destination.

2.4 Architecture

Computer network architecture defines the physical and logical framework of a computer

network. It outlines how computers are organized in the network and what tasks are assigned to

those computers. Network architecture components include hardware, software, transmission

media (wired or wireless), network topology, and communications protocols.

2.4.1 Main types of network architecture

There are two types of network architecture:

peer-to-peer (P2P): In P2P architecture, two or more computers are connected as “peers,”

meaning they have equal power and privileges on the network. A P2P network does not require a

central server for coordination. Instead, each computer on the network acts as both a client (a

computer that needs to access a service) and a server (a computer that serves the needs of the

client accessing a service). Each peer makes some of its resources available to the network,

sharing storage, memory, bandwidth, and processing power.

client/server: In a client/server network, a central server or group of servers manage resources

and deliver services to client devices in the network. The clients in the network communicate

with other clients through the server. Unlike the P2P model, clients in a client/server architecture

don’t share their resources. This architecture type is sometimes called a tiered model because it's

designed with multiple levels or tiers.

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2.5 Network topology

Network topology refers to how the nodes and links in a network are arranged. A network node

is a device that can send, receive, store, or forward data. A network link connects nodes and may

be either cabled or wireless links.

Understanding topology types provides the basis for building a successful network. There are a

number of topologies but the most common are bus, ring, star, and mesh:

i. A bus network topology is when every network node is directly connected to a main

cable.

ii. In a ring topology, nodes are connected in a loop, so each device has exactly two

neighbors. Adjacent pairs are connected directly; non-adjacent pairs are connected

indirectly through multiple nodes.

iii. In a star network topology, all nodes are connected to a single, central hub and each node

is indirectly connected through that hub.

iv. A mesh topology is defined by overlapping connections between nodes. You can create a

full mesh topology, where every node in the network is connected to every other node.

You can also create partial mesh topology in which only some nodes are connected to

each other and some are connected to the nodes with which they exchange the most data.

Full mesh topology can be expensive and time-consuming to execute, which is why it's

often reserved for networks that require high redundancy. Partial mesh provides less

redundancy but is more cost effective and simpler to execute.

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2.5.1 Security

Computer network security protects the integrity of information contained by a network and

controls who access that information. Network security policies balance the need to provide

service to users with the need to control access to information. There are many entry points to a

network. These entry points include the hardware and software that comprise the network itself

as well as the devices used to access the network, like computers, smartphones, and tablets.

Because of these entry points, network security requires using several defence methods.

Defences may include firewalls—devices that monitor network traffic and prevent access to parts

of the network based on security rules.

Processes for authenticating users with user IDs and passwords provide another layer of security.

Security includes isolating network data so that proprietary or personal information is harder to

access than less critical information. Other network security measures include ensuring hardware

and software updates and patches are performed regularly, educating network users about their

role in security processes, and staying aware of external threats executed by hackers and other

malicious actors. Network threats constantly evolve, which makes network security a never-

ending process. The use of public cloud also requires updates to security procedures to ensure

continued safety and access. A secure cloud demands a secure underlying network. Read

about the top five considerations (PDF, 298 KB) for securing the public cloud.

2.6 Mesh networks

As noted above, a mesh network is a topology type in which the nodes of a computer network

connect to as many other nodes as possible. In this topology, nodes cooperate to efficiently route

data to its destination. This topology provides greater fault tolerance because if one node fails,

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there are many other nodes that can transmit data. Mesh networks self-configure and self-

organize, searching for the fastest, most reliable path on which to send information.

2.6.1 Type of mesh networks

There are two types of mesh networks—full mesh and partial mesh:

I. In a full mesh topology, every network node connects to every other network node,

providing the highest level of fault tolerance. However, it costs more to execute. In a

partial mesh topology, only some nodes connect, typically those that exchange data most

frequently.

II. A wireless mesh network may consist of tens to hundreds of nodes. This type of network

connects to users over access points spread across a large area.

2.6.2 Load Balancers and Networks

Load balancers efficiently distribute tasks, workloads, and network traffic across available

servers. Think of load balancers like air traffic control at an airport. The load balancer observes

all traffic coming into a network and directs it toward the router or server best equipped to

manage it. The objectives of load balancing are to avoid resource overload, optimize available

resources, improve response times, and maximize throughput.

2.6.3 Content delivery networks

A content delivery network (CDN) is a distributed server network that delivers temporarily

stored, or cached, copies of website content to users based on the user’s geographic location. A

CDN stores this content in distributed locations and serves it to users as a way to reduce the

distance between your website visitors and your website server. Having cached content closer to

your end users allows you to serve content faster and helps websites better reach a global

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audience. CDNs protect against traffic surges, reduce latency, decrease bandwidth consumption,

accelerate load times, and lessen the impact of hacks and attacks by introducing a layer between

the end user and your website infrastructure.

Live-streaming media, on-demand media, gaming companies, application creators, e-commerce

sites—as digital consumption increases, more content owners turn to CDNs to better serve

content consumers.

2.6.4 Computer networking solutions and IBM

Computer networking solutions help businesses enhance traffic, keep users happy, secure the

network, and easily provision services. The best computer networking solution is typically a

unique configuration based on your specific business type and needs.

Content delivery networks (CDNs), load balancers, and network security—all mentioned above

—are examples of technologies that can help businesses craft optimal computer networking

solutions. IBM offers additional networking solutions, including:

I. Gateway appliances are devices that give you enhanced control over network traffic, let

you accelerate your network’s performance, and give your network a security boost.

Manage your physical and virtual networks for routing multiple VLANs, for firewalls,

VPN, traffic shaping and more.

II. Direct Link secures and accelerates data transfer between private infrastructure, multi-

clouds, and IBM Cloud.

III. Cloud Internet Services are security and performance capabilities designed to protect

public-facing web content and applications before they reach the cloud. Get DDoS

protection, global load balancing and a suite of security, reliability and performance

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 capabilities designed to protect public-facing web content and applications before they

reach the cloud.

Networking services in IBM Cloud provide you with networking solutions to enhance your

traffic, keep your users happy, and easily provision resources as you need them.

2.7 What Is Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

Carrier Sense Multiple Access is one of the popular ways to transmit information packets across

networks. Packets is referred as data bits which are sent over a network. According to Wikipedia,

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)) is a “probabilistic Media Access Control (MAC)

protocol in which a node verifies the absence of other traffic before transmitting on a shared

transmission medium, such as an electrical bus, or a band of the electromagnetic spectrum”. In a

simple word, CSMA will check to ensure the line is not being used before the data is sent, if it is

in use, it waits until the line is idle before proceeding with transmitting.

Ethernet networks use this method to send information packets. One of the important purpose

CSMA was developed is to minimize the chances of collision and improve the performance by

preventing computers from exchanging information at same time. Collision occurs when

computers attempt to send information to each other at the same time. Thus, the data does not

reach its destination or destroyed. With CSMA, collision can be reduced as it will hold the data

and wait until the line is clear before data is transmitted to the particular computer and user.

According to Wikipedia, "Carrier Sense" describes how transmitter uses feedback from a

receiver to detect existence of encoded signal from any other station before trying to transmit.

The chances of collision can be reduced if the station can sense the medium before it is used.

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Station should listen to medium about ongoing transmission in process before sending its own

information. CSMA is based on the principle "sense before transmit" or "listen before talk".

"Multiple Access" means that more than one device can listen and waiting to transmit at a time.

Multiple stations may share multiple access medium. This means every data bits transmitted by a

station is generally received by all the stations using that medium.

CSMA actually uses several different methods where they wait for the medium to become idle,

known as the persistence strategy. Persistence strategy defines the procedures for a station that

senses a busy medium. Below are three persistent strategies in Figure 1.0 that have been

developed:

1-persistent method: In this strategy, the station will sense the channel and transmit packets

immediately if the channel is sensed free. If the medium is busy it will wait until the channel

becomes idle.

P-persistent method: In P-persistent protocol, when the line is free the sender will transmit

frame with probability p. If the medium is busy, it will wait until the line is free before sending

the packet with probability p. If the station chooses to hold back, it will not transmit with the

probability 1-p. The sender will wait and the process will be repeated until the frame is sent with

the same probability p when the next time slot is available. The strategy is used in WIFI and

packet radio systems.

Non-persistent method Station will send immediately if the line is idle or the station will have to

wait for a random amount of time and then sense the line again to check its status. The advantage

of this strategy is that, it reduces the chances of collision since it is out of ordinary for two station

to wait for the same period of time before retrying concurrently.

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26
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Analysis of the Old System

A network is categories into three types such as Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area

Network (MAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN). And in this project, research different café

to find out most still uses Local Area Network (LAN).

Local area network is the computer network that connects computers within the limited area such

as schools, colleges or universities, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks. They

provide a useful way of sharing resources between end users. The resources such as printers, file

servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among other connected computers in a

network. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:

i. Their transmission technology

ii. Their size

iii. Their topology

Transmission Technology used in LANs

Local area networks use either Wi-Fi or Ethernet to connect computer and devices in a network.

A typical Wi-Fi LAN operates one or more wireless access points that devices within coverage

area connect to. These access points, manage network traffic which is flowing to and from the

connected devices. In our home, school, office’s LAN, wireless broadband routers perform the

functions of an access point.

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A typical Ethernet LAN consisting of an ethernet cable to which all the machines are attached,

like in our school labs, number of computers connected to each other through the common

ethernet cable. Though Ethernet and Wi-Fi are usually used in most home and office-based Local

area networks, because of both the low cost and speed requirements, you can also set up a LAN

with fiber optics which is more costly and provide better communication speed compared to

Ethernet LAN or Wi-fi LAN.

3.2 Devices Needed to Set up a LAN

3.2.1 Router

Routers are one of the most commonly used connection devices. They are used to send data

signals across the internet. Routers work by storing the addresses of computers on the network.

They then determine the most suitable route for sending data. Routers are also commonly used in

homes. Home routers usually contain a hub and a WAP, enabling a small peer-to-peer network to

be formed. They also contain a modem, which allows users to connect to the internet.

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3.2.2 Switches

A network switch is a device that operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model—Layer 2. It

takes in packets being sent by devices that are connected to its physical ports and sends them out

again, but only through the ports that lead to the devices the packets are intended to reach. They

can also operate at the network layer--Layer 3 where routing occurs.

Switches are a common component of networks based on ethernet, Fibre Channel, Asynchronous

Transfer Mode (ATM), and InfiniBand, among others. In general, though, most switches today

use ethernet.

3.2.3 LAN cable

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to

another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs We would need

LAN cables to make connections overall on the network to connect computers with switches and

router. RJ-45 connector cable is used for this purpose.

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3.2.4 Printers

We can also add Printers to the network. It is essential in network computers to have a printer but

it is not recommended or compulsory. Normally Printer ranges from £40 that is all in one, which

is better for home and office purposes as it includes Printer, Scanner and Copier.

3.3 LAN Topology

Topology is defined as the pattern of interconnection between the nodes of the network. The

three basic topologies of LAN are:

i. Star Topology

ii. Ring Topology

iii. Bus Topology

3.3.1 Star Topology

In this network, all the nodes are connected to Central Node. The devices are not connected to

each other and transmits the messages to the Central Node. The central node is responsible for

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transmitting the message to the required destination. It is the most widely used topology for

LAN’s.

3.3.2 Ring Topology

In this network, the nodes are interconnected to make a closed loop. Each node communicates

with the nodes on its either side with the help of Token (information passing). The nodes with

Token are allowed to transmit data. This topology eliminates the connection of nodes with the

central node i.e. there is no need of Network Server to control other devices.

3.3.3 Bus Topology

In this network, all the nodes including computers and servers are connected to a single cable

termed as Bus. This network is easier compared to other networks and is economical. Source

node transmits a signal which is broadcast to all the other nodes via Bus cable. Though the

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message is broadcast, the intended recipient receives the signal. The recipient can accept the

signal if its MAC Address or IP Address matches and data transmission occurs in a single

direction.

3.4 Analysis of the Proposed Networking System

The campus is a special place for the students to learn something new and campus network has

become an important platform to gain deeper knowledge. Due to this, the construction of the

network in the campus environment has become an important necessity. The number of students

who uses their own device is increasing rapidly, this increase the stress on the network. Only

using the devices available on the campus is not enough and it cannot meet the requirement of

the students. Many universities have switched to wireless network, which is easy to access and

cost efficient. The advantages of the wireless network cannot be matched by the wired network.

3.4.1 Request Analysis of the Proposed Networking System

In this project, the basic goal is using wireless network technology to expand teaching area

network and make it possible for students connect to the network at anytime and anywhere. In

the real environment, it’s impossible to expand signals to every corner by using wired networks,

that’s one of the reasons why we need WLAN.

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The goals of campus WLAN should focus on efficiency, stability and safety. And, easy to install,

maintain and manage. The WLAN should have a better performance and low cost at the same

time. It should provide teachers a flexible teaching platform and students an effective study

environment. The establishment of campus WLAN mainly consider about the following aspects

of requirements. The first is the teacher's teaching requirements. WLAN will make full use of the

multimedia resources, so the teachers can use the WLAN at any time to obtain the relevant

teaching resources and course information, then all the valuable information will pass to the

students clearly and accurately. The second is the student's learning requirements. Students can

access information resources, submit assignments or conduct group activities in a WLAN

environment. The third is the number of ports requirements. There are many of the existing

network terminal equipment in campus. And, there are large demand of network ports in library

or classroom environment. The WLAN will meet the needs of information points. The fourth is

the construction wiring requirements. The WLAN allows smooth communication between

various buildings in campus. The wireless networks can coverage the signals to the places where

there are difficult to arrangement of wires.

3.4.2 WLAN Topology

In this part I planned a basic topology for the WLAN, as shown in figure 3.

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In this figure, 1 shows the simple network topology of the elastic WLAN system. Raspberry Pi is

used for the AP and a Linux laptop PC is for the server and the host. The server can manage and

control all the APs and the hosts by using the administrative access to them. The APs are

connected to the server through wired connections. The hosts and the APs are connected through

wireless connections.

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3.4.3 Channel Management

I introduced channels in the theory part and here I will elaborate which channel I will use for

each building by using the HiveManager NG tool. And, I will also explain why I select that

channel. Here I planned channels for each building. For the main building, each floor uses 4 APs

and all the APs work on the 2.4GHz bandwidth, so I used the channels 1, 6 and 11. As shown in

Figure 14, channels will not overlap each other. What’s more, I used different permutations to

manage the APs for each floor. It means that I used different channels for the same locations of

the neighboring floors. I will also use this method for other buildings.

3.5 Advantage of WLAN

i. It’s a reliable sort of communication.

ii. As WLAN reduces physical wires so it’s a versatile way of communication.

iii. WLAN also reduces the value of ownership.

iv. It’s easier to feature or remove workstation.

v. It provides high rate thanks to small area coverage.

vi. You’ll also move workstation while maintaining the connectivity.

vii. For propagation, the sunshine of sight isn’t required.

viii. The direction of connectivity are often anywhere i.e. you’ll connect devices in any

direction unless it’s within the range of access point.

ix. Easy installation and you would like don’t need extra cables for installation.

x. WLAN are often useful in disasters situation e.g. earthquake and fire. WIreless network

can connect people in any disaster

xi. it’s economical due to the tiny area access.

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xii. The amount of power it requires is more as it uses transmitter; therefore, the battery life

of laptops can be affected

3.6 Conclusion

This has been concluded from this project that it is reliable and secure network. It can easily give

access to all the computers equally. There is less risk of virus spreading over the network as

secure switches have been used which gives the high profile for Firewall and other activities.

This project uses the latest technology routers and switches which enables the network to

communicate more effectively. Also, this project is cost effective, and it allows less cost to be

spent over the network. Computers have been used with moderate specifications which are

compatible to run over network properly.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
IMPLEMENTATION AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Networking Requirements

4.1.1 System Hardware Requirement

i. Network Interface Card (NIC) Any computer that is to be connected to a network, needs

to have a network interface card (NIC).

ii. Network Cable. To connect together different devices to make up a network, you need

cables

iii. Hub

iv. Switch

v. Router

vi. Proxy Server

vii. Bridge

viii. Firewall.

4.1.2 System Software Requirement

Application characteristics must be analysed if this traffic is to flow over the WLAN. It is

essential to outline this in the policy to protect and ensure scalability as planned. Performance is

not limited to throughput that a client can achieve. It is also directly related to the client keeping

its network connection and communication session intact. When roaming from one AP to

another, there is a small amount of time during either authentication or association during which

the client will effectively be without a link. The duration of the lost link will determine if and

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how applications will be impacted. Note that last roaming was specifically conceived to make

this link loss during authentication almost unnoticeable to end users. Applications exhibit a

distinctive sensitivity to the duration of a lost link. Transactional applications such as e-mail and

web browsing are relatively insensitive, whereas real-time applications such as voice and video

are highly sensitive. Ensure that fast roaming is enabled to make authentication occur promptly

enough to not affect the core WLAN application suite.

Application bandwidth requirements can be analysed by the software vendor’s specification or

manuals. A common issue with networked applications is that they are developed with little or

no consideration for the resources they require from the communications infrastructure.

Application developers take into consideration the notion of the network, but typically fail to

consider bandwidth an latency implications. The (false) assumption is that the network is always

available, that bandwidth is unlimited and that congestion and delays do not occur. As such, even

though the applications and the network are tightly coupled, they are typically developed and

deployed as independent components. It is exactly this decoupling that creates the burden of

carefully planning a WLAN for successful support of the extension of applications to the

wireless environment. Hence, start with the premise that the average application is not aware of

the transport medium it is using. They treat the network—wired or wireless—identically. The

challenge of applications not being aware the network is compounded with WLANs. Indeed,

most applications are developed for wired environments; however, they will likely be developed

specifically for the one- to-one initiatives in the education sector. Specific characteristics of

WLANs are their lower throughput and higher latency than their wired equivalents. This is

typically not a problem for the burst applications. However, WLAN can cause additional

challenges for applications that demand high data rates or deterministic behaviour. The

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interaction between applications and the network is only one of the challenges that must be

tackled when defining WLAN architecture. Defining a wireless architecture to support voice and

video also introduces specific problems that must be considered. The considerations include

provisioning sufficient bandwidth for latency-sensitive applications, implementing a quality of

service (QoS) solution, and ensuring fast-roaming capabilities between cells. Perhaps today’s

students will be in one classroom and it is unlikely that they will be roaming between APs, which

sounds like a rational and fair statement. However, recall that this WLAN investment is meant to

last districts up to five years. In the world of technology, five years is a very long time, and it

may very well be that a district will want to implement other applications and devices to run over

the WLAN. One such example, which could be used by students or more likely teachers, is that

of Voice over WLAN handsets.

4.2 Implementation of Networking

We have to work on internet cafe. Cafe has 3 floors and we have arranged 75 computers over

three floors. We have to place 3 computers for server purpose. We can divide 25 computers on

three floors and also 3 computers as server on third floor. To make a network local, we connect

computers first using switch. On first floor, we will place 25 computers, and we have connected

these 25 computers using Fibre cable for LAN (Local Area Network). Also, we need 3 printers to

share on three floors and we connect 1 printer on each floor. We connect all 25 computers and 1

printer with switch. This process has to be repeated on three floors, and then we have to connect

them with router. Server computers will be connected with router directly but through switch.

When server is directly connected with router, it enables firewall implementation and sharing

among the network with secure authentication.

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4.2.1 Local Area Network

LAN is used to connect computers within local area and make a network between them. We use

this network in this case to connect computers within the same building. After connecting them

through LAN cable, we connect them to Switch.

4.2.2 HUB

HUB is also called concentrator or multi station access unit (MAU). A normal hub contains 8 to

24 ports for the computers and other devices. It works as a multiple port repeater. It receives a

digital signal and re amplifies or regenerates that signal. It then forwards the digital signal to all

ports on the hub without looking at any data.

4.2.3 Switch

Switch is also used for the same purpose as hub but it is more intelligent device. It operates at

data link layer of OSI model. The biggest benefit of using switches instead of hubs is that each

switch port has its own collision domain. Switch plays really an important role in network. Once

they are connected with hub or switch, they will be connected with ROUTER.

4.2.4 ROUTER

ROUTER is a device which connects multiple networks using similar or different protocols. It

manages the route between any two communication networks.

4.2.5 IP Address

IP address will remain the same because there is just one router and it will supply access to all

four switches. Each Switch which is having 25 computers and 1 printer on three floors and third

one is also having server computers on it will connect with switch which will lead to router. Each

computer will have different IP but their ISP will be one only as this will be provided by service

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provider. After three sets of 75 computers and three printers connected with Switch which is

connected to router, after this process we connect one more switch with router which has 3

server computers on it. One server would be file server or printer server, and one would be

DHCP/Authentication/Certification server and DNS server. This server system would help in file

or printer sharing along the network to protect the computers with firewall option and also to

provide certification to computers for different task over the network.

4.2.6 OSI

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. It is a set of protocols that allows any two different

systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architectures. This physical connection of

router with switch and computers comes in Physical Layer of OSI model. Physical layer relates

the electrical, optical, mechanical and functional interface to the cable as it defines how the cable

is attached to the network adaptor card. Connection of computers with Switch includes Data

Link Layer of OSI model. It sends data frames from network later to physical layer. Router is

supplying single IP address, and each computer has different IP address. This concept involves

Network Layer of OSI model which is responsible for putting data segments into packets.

Transport layer works after Network Layer which is responsible segmenting data. It ensures that

packets are delivered free of errors with no loss.

For implementation of Network especially of Internet cafe, some software’s have also been

recommended. Cyber cafe management and installation of networking protocols like IPX, SPX

and TCP/IP. This thing comes in Session Layer. The main purpose of session layer is to establish

a connection through application running on two different computers. Presentation layer and

Application layer are after session layer. Presentation layer is used to determine the format of

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exchanging the data among network. Application layer handles network access, control the flow

and recover errors.

4.2.7 Addressing Scheme

Addressing scheme plays an important role in network. TCP/IP, IPv4, IPv6 are essentials of

Network scheme. They are normally set to default but they can be changed according to the

requirements. Each network system must be identified as unique. This is done through MAC

address of device. Each machine always has different IP address on the network.

TCP/IP is known as transmission control protocol/Internet protocol. It is a technology that is

used to manage the transmission of data by breaking it into packets. These packets travel through

router. TCP/IP addressing scheme is used in implementation of this network. This network

scheme is normally used for sharing of computers over the network and gives them internet

access. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) addressing scheme is really important in a network.

The most important aspect of IPv4 is its size. It is most widely organized internet layer protocol.

It is a connectionless protocol used for packet switching link layer. IPv4 can establish more than

256 connections. Its range starts from 0 – 255. This connection is really helpful in internet cafe

setup. Normally IPv4 is set to default which detects IP automatically, but we can define IPv4

manually as well which can be allocated. Manual configuration can change IP of the system for

some purposes as well.

Sub-netting plays an important role in networking. It is a subdivision of an IP network or when

the network is divided into several small networks. It results in logical division of an IP address.

Subnetting an IP can be done for the various reasons which generally include different physical

media, address space, security, control network traffic etc. Subnetting makes it easier to manage

the smaller network as well. Subnet masks are also used with IP. Computer performs a bitwise

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logical AND operation between the address and subnet mask in order to find the Network

Address or number. The general syntax for Subnetting is 255.255.255.0. There are generally

three classes used for Subnet masks:

i. Class A: 255.0.0.0

ii. Class B: 255.255.0.0

iii. Class C: 255.255.255.0

Calculations of Network Subnetting:

We have to implement a network with single registered IP which is given by our service

provider. 195.5.20.0

This is known an IP address. The default subnet mask for this one would be 255.255.255.0

We have to implement 4 networks and they should be provided with different IP addresses. We

use the following steps to find out the network and host computers over the network and range as

well

195.5.20.0

255.255.255.0

We use 8 bits for binary written form.

255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

This is default Subnet of network.

We have to implement four networks in a network, so we will do with 4 in binary

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24

22–0

1–0

4 Decimal = 100 binaries

We will take 3 bits as a result of binary conversion from bit scale.

The bit scale helps in implementing a network more easily

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

We will take 3 bits for new subnet mask and new Subnet mask will be

11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000

This will be equal to 255.255.255.224

Our new IP range will be

195.5.20.0 – 195.5.20.31

195.5.20.32 – 195.5.20.63

195.5.20.64 – 195.5.20.95

195.5.20.96 – 195.5.20.127

This is our range of new 4 Networks made by Single registered IP.

4.3 Network Layers

While networking is often discussed in terms of topology in a horizontal way, between hosts, its

implementation is layered in a vertical fashion throughout a computer or network. What this

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means is that there are multiple technologies and protocols that are built on top of each other in

order for communication to function more easily. Each successive, higher layer abstracts the raw

data a little bit more, and makes it simpler to use for applications and users. It also allows you to

leverage lower layers in new ways without having to invest the time and energy to develop the

protocols and applications that handle those types of traffic.

The language that we use to talk about each of the layering scheme varies significantly

depending on which model you use. Regardless of the model used to discuss the layers, the path

of data is the same. As data is sent out of one machine, it begins at the top of the stack and filters

downwards. At the lowest level, actual transmission to another machine takes place. At this

point, the data travels back up through the layers of the other computer. Each layer has the ability

to add its own “wrapper” around the data that it receives from the adjacent layer, which will help

the layers that come after decide what to do with the data when it is passed off.

4.3.1 TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model, more commonly known as the Internet protocol suite, is another layering

model that is simpler and has been widely adopted. It defines the four separate layers, some of

which overlap with the OSI model:

I. Application: In this model, the application layer is responsible for creating and

transmitting user data between applications. The applications can be on remote systems,

and should appear to operate as if locally to the end user. The communication is said to

take place between peers.

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 II. Transport: The transport layer is responsible for communication between processes.

This level of networking utilizes ports to address different services. It can build up

unreliable or reliable connections depending on the type of protocol used.

III. Internet: The internet layer is used to transport data from node to node in a network.

This layer is aware of the endpoints of the connections, but does not worry about the

actual connection needed to get from one place to another. IP addresses are defined in

this layer as a way of reaching remote systems in an addressable manner.

IV. Link: The link layer implements the actual topology of the local network that allows the

internet layer to present an addressable interface. It establishes connections between

neighbouring nodes to send data.

As you can see, the TCP/IP model, is a bit more abstract and fluid. This made it easier to

implement and allowed it to become the dominant way that networking layers are categorized.

V Interfaces

Interfaces are networking communication points for your computer. Each interface is associated

with a physical or virtual networking device. Typically, your server will have one configurable

network interface for each Ethernet or wireless internet card you have.

In addition, it will define a virtual network interface called the “loopback” or localhost interface.

This is used as an interface to connect applications and processes on a single computer to other

applications and processes. You can see this referenced as the “lo” interface in many tools. Many

times, administrators configure one interface to service traffic to the internet and another

interface for a LAN or private network.

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In Digital Ocean, in datacentres with private networking enabled, your VPS will have two

networking interfaces (in addition to the local interface). The “eth0” interface will be configured

to handle traffic from the internet, while the “eth1” interface will operate to communicate with

the private network.

Vi Protocols

Networking works by piggybacking a number of different protocols on top of each other. In this

way, one piece of data can be transmitted using multiple protocols encapsulated within one

another. We will talk about some of the more common protocols that you may come across and

attempt to explain the difference, as well as give context as to what part of the process they are

involved with. We will start with protocols implemented on the lower networking layers and

work our way up to protocols with higher abstraction.

Vii Medium Access Control

Medium access control is a communications protocol that is used to distinguish specific devices.

Each device is supposed to get a unique media access control address (MAC address) during

the manufacturing process that differentiates it from every other device on the internet.

Addressing hardware by the MAC address allows you to reference a device by a unique value

even when the software on top may change the name for that specific device during operation.

Medium access control is one of the only protocols from the link layer that you are likely to

interact with on a regular basis.

Viii IP

The IP protocol is one of the fundamental protocols that allow the internet to work. IP addresses

are unique on each network and they allow machines to address each other across a network. It is

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implemented on the internet layer in the IP/TCP model. Networks can be linked together, but

traffic must be routed when crossing network boundaries. This protocol assumes an unreliable

network and multiple paths to the same destination that it can dynamically change between.

There are a number of different implementations of the protocol. The most common

implementation today is IPv4, although IPv6 is growing in popularity as an alternative due to the

scarcity of IPv4 addresses available and improvements in the protocols capabilities.

Ix ICMP

ICMP stands for internet control message protocol. It is used to send messages between devices

to indicate the availability or error conditions. These packets are used in a variety of network

diagnostic tools, such as ping and traceroute. Usually, ICMP packets are transmitted when a

packet of a different kind meets some kind of a problem. Basically, they are used as a feedback

mechanism for network communications.

X TCP

TCP stands for transmission control protocol. It is implemented in the transport layer of the

IP/TCP model and is used to establish reliable connections. TCP is one of the protocols that

encapsulates data into packets. It then transfers these to the remote end of the connection using

the methods available on the lower layers. On the other end, it can check for errors, request

certain pieces to be resent, and reassemble the information into one logical piece to send to the

application layer.

The protocol builds up a connection prior to data transfer using a system called a three-way

handshake. This is a way for the two ends of the communication to acknowledge the request and

agree upon a method of ensuring data reliability. After the data has been sent, the connection is

48
torn down using a similar four-way handshake. TCP is the protocol of choice for many of the

most popular uses for the internet, including WWW, FTP, SSH, and email. It is safe to say that

the internet we know today would not be here without TCP.

Xi UDP

UDP stands for user datagram protocol. It is a popular companion protocol to TCP and is also

implemented in the transport layer. The fundamental difference between UDP and TCP is that

UDP offers unreliable data transfer. It does not verify that data has been received on the other

end of the connection. This might sound like a bad thing, and for many purposes, it is. However,

it is also extremely important for some functions.

Because it is not required to wait for confirmation that the data was received and forced to resend

data, UDP is much faster than TCP. It does not establish a connection with the remote host, it

simply fires off the data to that host and doesn’t care if it is accepted or not. Because it is a

simple transaction, it is useful for simple communications like querying for network resources. It

also doesn’t maintain a state, which makes it great for transmitting data from one machine to

many real-time clients. This makes it ideal for VOIP, games, and other applications that cannot

afford delays.

Xii HTTP

HTTP stands for hypertext transfer protocol. It is a protocol defined in the application layer that

forms the basis for communication on the web. HTTP defines a number of functions that tell the

remote system what you are requesting. For instance, GET, POST, and DELETE all interact with

the requested data in a different way.

Xiii FTP

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FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is also in the application layer and provides a way of

transferring complete files from one host to another. It is inherently insecure, so it is not

recommended for any externally facing network unless it is implemented as a public, download-

only resource.

Xiv DNS

DNS stands for domain name system. It is an application layer protocol used to provide a

human-friendly naming mechanism for internet resources. It is what ties a domain name to an IP

address and allows you to access sites by name in your browser.

Xv SSH

SSH stands for secure shell. It is an encrypted protocol implemented in the application layer that

can be used to communicate with a remote server in a secure way. Many additional technologies

are built around this protocol because of its end-to-end encryption and ubiquity.

There are many other protocols that we haven’t covered that are equally important. However,

this should give you a good overview of some of the fundamental technologies that make the

internet and networking possible.

4.4 Security Software and Operating System Updates.

Desktop and laptop patch management should be deployed to ensure the latest product patches

are pushed to all clients. This will help to increase security, reduce compatibility challenges,

keep interfaces consistent and decrease support costs over time. Have a comprehensive desktop

management strategy that includes all mobile devices and laptops. A comprehensive, centralized

dashboard to monitor, maintain, manage and report on all desktop management aspects. Do not

50
settle for just patch management software. The feature and functionality set of the chosen

management system should be comprehensive and in one simple Graphical User Interface (GUI).

4.4.1 Personal Firewalls Personal firewall

software should be deployed on each and every laptop. Ideally, these software firewalls will

function within a centrally controlled system that can enforce usage with and is compatible with

your hardware firewalls. All laptops with a wireless NIC must have a personal firewall installed

that supports connection-specific policies. As laptops are often outside the protection of the

district firewall, every laptop should have a personal firewall installed. This will be critical for

students taking their laptops home and then returning, with potential infections, to the WLAN.

The firewall built into Vista may provide sufficient baseline security for student laptop use,

although software client licenses compatible with your firewall solution at either the district head

office is better. What is built into Windows XP is not sufficient. The personal firewall should be

configured to block split tunneling and any ad hoc WLAN connections.

4.4.2 Anti-Virus (A/V)

Anti-Virus protects and minimizes threats, and is essential for all laptops because new viruses

proliferate daily and spread quickly. Anti-Virus should be centrally controlled so the definitions

can be monitored. If not, definitions may not be updated and laptops would eventually get a

virus. MacAfee, Symantec, Trend Micro, Computer Associates and many other vendors have

central control and monitoring. Despite offerings for stand alone, typically consumer versions,

do not implement these as they do not have central management and require maintenance and

updates. Some small districts may have this in place on guest or even existing legacy laptops

accessing their WLANs. This practice should stop immediately.

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4.4.3 Anti-Spyware (A/S)

Anti-Spyware protects against threats through the Internet browser. Protecting against this will

dramatically reduce the level one technical support requirements and support time and costs.

Fewer users asking to have their system cleaned means more time for more important projects or

additional training. Pop-ups can be frustrating and will impact a user’s experience. Anti-Spyware

can protect against these as well.

4.4.4 Encrypted File Systems (EFS)

Security certificates and critical data will be accessible to a savvy user who happens to come

across a lost or stolen laptop, and includes all access settings to the WLAN and other resources

including applications, VPN and more. Using EFS, systems will make it challenging, if not

impossible, even for a highly skilled user to crack and gain access without the user’s network

password. In this scenario, password policy and enforcement is critical. The key to address here

is that if a laptop is lost, no one could access the data on it. Imagine if a principal’s laptop were

stolen while travelling and all of the private data therein were exposed to a thief

52
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary

We are now in a new era of information and it has become the core factor of social and economic

development. Information technology has become the trend of the world. The use of the

networks is more closely linked to human society, political, economic and daily work, and all

aspects of life. What’s more, the computer networks will be destined to become the most

important infrastructure for the 21st century global information society.

The WLAN is the product that combine computer technology and wireless communication

technology. It brings a lot of convenience to people's lives. The aim of the project was to create a

WLAN for campus. In theory part I gained deep knowledge of the features of WLANs, including

the advantages and limitations of WLANs, technical standards of WLANs, security and

authentications of WLANs, components of WLANs and different kind topologies of WLANs.

After that, I successfully built a topology for the WLAN in the practical part by using the VISIO

tool. I also managed channels and APs. Then, I selected the suitable security methods and

hardware for the WLAN.

5.2 Conclusion

I had to put tremendous amount of thought and planning into wireless network solution. IT staff s

are highly organized and committed, and this is reflected in the design and implementation of the

proposed wireless network. Its solution is innovative and functional and can be a cost-effective

design for districts of all sizes implementing wireless networks.

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5.3 Recommendations

The first strategy is to accept the recommended client-to-AP ratio as published by the WLAN

equipment vendor. Even though this is the easiest solution, there is potential for over- or under-

provisioning the number of APs because the information provided by the vendor does not

consider your specific user-base requirements. However, use the WLAN vendor’s published

recommendations as a rough guideline.

It is recommended that at minimum a WLAN Intrusion Detection System (IDS) or an integrated

Intrusion detection and prevention solution. The latter not only identifies intrusions, but also

addresses them automatically.

Centralized control is generally recommended as it eases administration burden and can give

management high level reports of the entire organization’s activity. Also, it is strongly

recommended to use centrally manageable security appliances.

It is strongly recommended that you use your core expertise in understanding the fundamentals

of delivering education to grow students’ experience and knowledge as the base of your decision

making.

Recommended to have standard device type(s). This can be one single laptop make and model

for every eligible staff across the district, or, multiple standard laptops and PDAs for association

one to-one initiatives.

Design a strong and encompassing wireless networking policy. One clause strongly

recommended is that wireless APs must only be attached to a dedicated network segment, and

not to a segment containing other network resources.

54
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