Ravi Shankara.M.N.

ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore

Associate Professor ravishankarmn@sapthagiri.edu.in

Module-1(b) - BJT AC Models

Syllabus - Base Biased Amplifier, Emitter Biased Amplifier, Small Signal Operation, AC Beta, AC
Resistance of the emitter diode, Two transistor models, Analyzing an amplifier , h - parameters, relations
b/n r and h parameters. Voltage Amplifiers: Voltage gain, loading effect of input impedance. . CC Amplifier, Output
Impedance.

Coupling Capacitors and Bypass Capacitors

Q1. What is the role of Coupling and bypass capacitors in electronic amplifiers?
Explain how Coupling Capacitors and Bypass Capacitors are chosen.
Coupling capacitors are used to couple an input ac signal into an amplifier and output of
the amplifier to an external load without disturbing Q point.
For a coupling capacitor to work properly, its reactance must be much
smaller than the resistance at the lowest frequency of the ac source.
For Good coupling: XC < 0.1R ------- 10 :1 rule
The reactance should be at least 10 times smaller than the resistance at the lowest
frequency of operation.
Bypass Capacitor
A bypass capacitor it is used to create an ac ground in an electronic amplifier without
disturbing its Q point..
When the frequency is high enough, the
capacitive reactance is much smaller than the
resistance. In this case, almost all the ac
source voltage appears across the resistor.
Emitter E is effectively shorted to ground.
When used in this way, the capacitor is called a bypass capacitor because it bypasses or
shorts point E to ground.
For a bypass capacitor to work properly, its reactance must be much smaller than the
resistance at the lowest frequency of the ac source.
• Good bypassing: XC < 0.1R
When this rule is satisfied, it can be replaced by short circuit.
Any well-designed circuit satisfies the 10:1 rule, two approximations for a capacitor are
• 1. For dc analysis, the capacitor is open.
• 2. For ac analysis, the capacitor is shorted.

Problem - In Fig shown, the input frequency of V is 1 kHz (i) What value of C is needed
to effectively short point E to ground? (ii) Find the value of C needed if R1 is 50

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Solution – (i) For R1 = 600

Thevenin’s resistance seen form the capacitor side is
given by
RTh = 600||1000 = 375
Using 10:1 rule for good bypassing - at f = 1kHz
XC  0.1RTh = 37.5 
1 1
C= = = 4.2μF
2πfXC 2π 37.5 (1000)
(ii) For R1 = 50
Thevenin’s resistance seen form the capacitor side is given by
RTh = 50||1000 = 47.61
Using 10:1 rule for good bypassing - at f = 1kHz
XC  0.1RTh = 4.76 

Problem – (i) If R = 2k and the frequency range is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, find the value of
C needed to act as a good coupling capacitor. (ii) Find the value of C when the lowest
frequency is 1 kHz and R is 1.6 k.

Solution – (i) Using 10 : 1 rule; At f = 20 Hz, XC  0.1R = 0.1(2000) = 200

1 1
C= = = 39.8 μF
2πfXC 2π 20 (200)
(ii) Using 10 : 1 rule; At f = 1000 Hz, XC  0.1R = 0.1(1600) = 160
1 1
C= = = 1 μF
2πfXC 2π 1000 (160)

Problem – For the RC circuit shown in figure (i) What is the lowest frequency at which
good coupling exists? (ii) If the load resistance is changed to 1 k, what is the lowest
frequency for good coupling? (iii) If the capacitor is changed to 100 µF, what is the
lowest frequency for good coupling? (iv) If the lowest input frequency is 100 Hz, what C
value is required for good coupling?
Solution – (i) Using 10 : 1 rule; At f = fL, XC  0.1R = 0.1(10000) = 1000
1 1
fL = 2πCX = 2π = 3.38 Hz
C 47×10 −6 (1×10 3 )

(ii) Using 10 : 1 rule; At f = fL, XC  0.1R = 0.1(1000) = 100

1 1
fL = = = 33.8 Hz
2πCXC 2π 47 × 10−6 (100)
(iii) Using 10 : 1 rule; At f = fL, XC  0.1R = 0.1(10000) = 1000

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1 1
fL = = = 1.59 Hz
2πCXC 2π 100 × 10−6 (1000)
(iv) Using 10 : 1 rule; At fL,=100Hz, XC  0.1R = 0.1(10000) = 1000
1 1
C= = = 1.6μF
2πfXC 2π 100 (1000)
1 1
C= = = 33.43μF
2πfXC 2π 4.76 (1000)

Base Biased Amplifier

Q2. With a neat circuit diagram explain the working of Base biased CE amplifier
A base-biased amplifier has instructional value because its basic ideas can be used to build
more complicated amplifiers. Figure shows the circuit diagram of a base biased amplifier
and its DC bias circuit.

DC Analysis
Applying KVL to Base loop,
VCC – IBRB – VBE =0
V CC −V BE
IB = and IC = IB
RB

KVL to Collector emitter loop,

VC = VCE = VCC – IC RC
The Q point is located at (VCEQ, ICQ)

Circuit Operation
The coupling capacitors C1 and C2 couples the input to the amplifier and output of the
amplifier to the load respectively and prevent the ac source and load resistance from
changing the Q point.
The input ac voltage produces an ac base current that is added to the existing dc base
current. In other words, the total base current will have a dc component and an ac
component. An ac component is superimposed on the dc component. On the positive half-
cycle, the ac base current adds to the dc base current IB and on the negative half-cycle, it
subtracts from it. The ac base current produces an amplified variation in collector current
because of the current gain.
The amplified collector current flows through the collector resistor, produces a varying
voltage across the collector resistor RC. The collector voltage is swinging sinusoidally above
and below the dc level of VC. Also, the ac collector voltage is inverted (180° out of phase
with the input voltage). The output coupling capacitor couples the ac collector voltage to

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the load resistor. The load voltage is a pure ac signal with an average value of zero. The
current and voltage waveforms are shown below.

Voltage Gain
The voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of ac output voltage to the ac input
vO
voltage. AV =
v in

Emitter Biased Amplifier or Voltage Divider Bias (VDB) Amplifier

Q3. With a neat circuit diagram explain the working of Base biased CE amplifier
An emitter-biased amplifier which gives stable Q point is widely used instead of base biased
amplifier. Figure shows a VDB amplifier and its corresponding DC circuit.

DC Analysis
V CC R 2
RB = RTh = R1||R2 VBB = VTh =
R 1 +R 2

Applying KVL to base-emitter loop VB – IBRB – VBE – IERE =0

IE
Using IB = in the above equation results
(β+1)

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VBB − VBE IE VBB − VBE IC = β IB

IE = IB = =
R β + 1 R B + R E (β + 1)
RE + B
β+1
Applying KVL to Collector-emitter loop VCC – ICRC – VCE – IERE =0
Using IE  IC in the above equation,
General thumb rule is that the
V CC −V C E
VCE = VCC – IC(RC +RE) or IC = voltages are selected as
R C +R E VCE = 0.5VCC; VE = 0.1VCC for
The Q point is located at (VCEQ, ICQ) most of the requirements

.Circuit Operation
Coupling capacitors are used between the source and base as well as between the collector
and the load resistance. The bypass capacitor is used between the emitter and ground
facilitates larger voltage gain by coupling the entire ac input voltage vin into the base and all
of this ac voltage appears across the base-emitter diode. The ac base current then produces
an amplified ac collector voltage.
The ac input voltage is a small sinusoidal voltage with an average value of zero. The base
voltage is an ac voltage superimposed on a dc voltage of VB.
The collector voltage is an amplified and inverted ac voltage superimposed on the dc
collector voltage of VC. The load voltage is the same as the collector voltage, except that it
has an average value of zero.
Voltage Gain
The voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of ac output voltage to the ac input
vO
voltage. AV =
v in

Q4. Define (a) Small-Signal current (b) DC current gain (c) AC current gain (d) AC
resistance of the emitter diode
The total emitter current consists of a dc component and an ac component.
IE = IEQ + ie
Due to higher values of ie, the Q point can move to either saturation or cut-off which results
in output distortion (clipping of peaks). To minimize distortion, the peak-to-peak value of ie
must be small compared to IEQ.
• For small-signal operation
• ie(p-p) < 0.1IEQ ------ 10 percent rule

The Current Gain

The Current gain or DC current gain is defined as
Collector Current at Q point IC
dc = =
Corresponding Base current IB

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The ac current gain is different and is defined as

ac collector current iC
ac =  =
ac base current ib
the value of the ac current gain is different from the dc current gain. (dc  ac)
AC Resistance of the Emitter Diode(r|e)
When a small ac voltage is across the emitter diode, it produces the ac emitter current. The
value of this ac emitter current depends on the location of the Q point.
The total emitter current has a dc component and an ac component and similarly Base to
emitter voltage.
IE = IEQ + ie VBE = VBEQ + vbe
The sinusoidal variation in VBE produces a sinusoidal variation in IE.
The ac emitter resistance of the emitter diode re | equal to the ac base-emitter voltage vbe divided by the ac
emitter current ie.
vbe
re | = ohms
ie
Note - The ac emitter resistance always decreases when the dc emitter current increases because vbe is
essentially a constant value.
Using solid-state physics and calculus, the ac emitter resistance is approximated as
25 mV
re | = ohms
IE
The reason re’ is important is that it determines the voltage gain. The smaller it is, the higher the voltage gain.

Problem – For the circuits shown, calculate the (i) maximum small signal current
(ii) emitter resistance.

Solution
For the Base bias circuit For the VDB circuit
RB = RTh = R1||R2 =1.8 k
VCC − VBE 30 − 0.7
IB = = = 29.3μA VB = VTh =
V CC R 2
= 1.8 V
RB 1 × 106 R 1 +R 2

Assuming =100 and VBE = 0.7V Assuming =100 and VBE = 0.7V

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IC ≅ IE ≅ IB = 100 29.3μA = 2.9 mA VB − VBE 1.8 − 0.7

IE = = = 1.08 mA
RB 1.8
Using the 10 percent rule for small-signal RE + 1 + 101
β+1
operation,
Using the 10 percent rule for small-signal
small signal current ie(p-p) < 0.1IEQ
operation,
ie(p-p)  0.1(2.9) = 290 µA small signal current ie(p-p) < 0.1IEQ

25 mV  ie(p-p)  0.1(1.08) = 108 µA

Emitter resistance re | = 25 mV
IE Emitter resistance re | =
IE
25 mV 25 mV
re | = = 8.6 re | = = 23.15
2.9 × 10−3 1.08 × 10−3

Two Transistor Models

Q5. Explain the transistor models
To analyze the ac operation of a transistor amplifier, an ac-equivalent circuit or a model for
the transistor that simulates how it behaves when an ac signal is present is required.
There are two models are primarily used
(i) The T Model (ii) The  Model
The T Model (Ebers-Moll model )
As far as a small ac signal is concerned, the emitter diode of a transistor acts like an ac
resistance r’e and the collector diode acts like a current source ic and it is represented as T
model.
When an ac input signal drives a transistor amplifier, an ac base-emitter voltage vbe is

across the emitter diode, this produces an ac base current ib.

The ac voltage source has to supply this ac base current so that the transistor amplifier
will work properly. Stated another way, the ac voltage source is loaded by the input
impedance of the base. Looking into the base of the transistor, the ac voltage source sees
an input impedance zin(base).

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Applying Ohm’s law to the emitter diode vbe = ie re|

At low frequencies, this impedance is purely resistive and defined as
v be i e re |
zin (base ) = = = re | --------(A)
ib ib

The  Model
The equation (A) is implemented using the  model. The  model is easier to use than the T
model because the input impedance is not obvious when you look at the T model.

Analyzing an Amplifier
Q6. Explain the procedure for analyzing the amplifiers
Amplifier analysis is complicated because both dc and ac sources are in the same circuit.
To analyze amplifiers, the effect of the dc sources and ac sources are to be considered
using the principle of superposition. The analysis split into two parts: a dc analysis and an
ac analysis.
In the dc analysis, the dc voltages and currents are calculated considering all capacitors
are open circuit.. Using the value of dc emitter current, the emitter resistance r’e required
for the ac analysis is determined.
In ac analysis, (a) Short all coupling and bypass capacitors. (b) Visualize all dc supply
voltages as ac grounds. (c) Replace the transistor by its T model or  Model. (d) Draw the
ac-equivalent circuit and determine the voltage gain of the amplifier.

Base Biased Amplifier

Q7. Explain the analysis of Base biased amplifier using (i) – model (ii) T – Model and
derive the expression for voltage gain
Figure shows the Base biased amplifier, its DC equivalent and ac equivalent circuit for
analysis.
DC Analysis
V CC −V BE
IB = RB
IC ≅ IE ≅ IB

VCE = VCC - ICRC Q Point (VCEQ, ICQ)

Using the 10 percent rule,
Maximum small signal current ie(p-p) < 0.1IEQ
25 mV
Emitter resistance re | = IE

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The collector acts a current source of

iC and this current flows through the
ac collector resistance rc = (RC||RL)
The output voltage is given by
Vout = ic(RC||RL) = ib rC -------(2)
From equations (1) and (2)
vout βib rc
Voltage gain AV = =
AC Analysis vin ib βre |
rc
Applying Ohm’s law to the base circuit, AV = |
re
vin =ib re| --------(1)

AC Analysis
By Ohm’s law to the base circuit,
vin =iere|  ibre| --------(1)
The collector acts a current source of
iC and this current flows through the
ac collector resistance rc = (RC||RL)
Vout = ic(RC||RL) = ib rC)
vout βib rc
Voltage gain AV = =
vin ib βre |
rc
AV = |
re

Voltage Divider Bias (VDB) Amplifier

Q8. Explain the analysis of VDB amplifier using (i) – model (ii) T – Model and derive
the expression for voltage gain.
Figure shows the VDB amplifier, its DC equivalent and ac equivalent circuit for analysis.
VDB Amplifier -Figure shows the ac equivalent circuits for a VDB amplifier.
By Ohm’s law to base circuit,
VBB – IBRB – VBE –IERE= 0
V −V
IE ≅ R B +RBE [ using IE   IB]
B B

IC = IB and IE = IB + IC
KVL to Collector emitter loop
VCE = VCC – IC (RC +RE)
Q Point (VCEQ, ICQ)
DC Analysis Using the 10 percent rule,
RB = RTh = R1||R2 Maximum small signal current ie(p-p) < 0.1IEQ
V CC R 2
and VBB = VTh = Emitter resistance re | =
25 mV
R 1 +R 2 IE

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AC Analysis The collector acts a current source

of iC and this current flows through
the ac collector resistance rc =
(RC||RL)
The output voltage is given by
Vout = ic(RC||RL) = ib rC -------(2)
From equations (1) and (2)
vout βib rc
Voltage gain AV = =
vin ib βre |
rc
Applying Ohm’s law to the base circuit, AV = |
re
vin =ib re| --------(1)

AC Analysis
By Ohm’s law to the base circuit,
vin =iere|  ibre| --------(1)
The collector acts a current source
of iC and this current flows through
the ac collector resistance rc =
(RC||RL)
Vout = ic(RC||RL) = ib rC)
vout βib rc
Voltage gain AV = =
vin ib βre |
rc
AV = |
re

The Loading Effect of Input Impedance

Q9. Explain the effect of loading input impedance in CE amplifiers
Consider the input ac voltage source vg with an internal resistance of RG. Some of the ac

source voltage is dropped across its internal resistance RG. As a result, the ac voltage
between the base and ground is less as the ac generator has to drive the input impedance
of the stage zin(stage).This input impedance includes the effects of the biasing resistors R1 and
R2, in parallel with the input impedance of the base zin(base).

zin (stage ) = βre | ||(R1 ||R 2 )

Using voltage divider rule, the input voltage can be expressed as

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z in stage
vin = vg Note – normal value of RG < 0.01zin(stage)
R G +z in stage

Problem – (i) Determine the output voltage for the amplifier circuit shown below given
that the input source has an internal resistance of 600 and  = 300 (ii) Change the
RG to 50 and solve for the new amplified output voltage (iii) repeat the calculations
for  = 50 and RG = 600
Solution –
RB = RTh = R1||R2 =10||2.2 =1.8 k
V CC R 2 10(2.2)
VB = VTh = = = 1.8 V
R 1 +R 2 10+2.2

Assuming VBE = 0.7V and given =300

V B −V BE 1.8−0.7
IE = R = 1.8 = 1.093 mA
RE + B 1+
β+1 301

Using the 10 percent rule for small-signal operation

Small signal current ie(p-p) < 0.1IEQ  ie(p-p)  0.1(1.093) = 109.3 µA
25 mV 25 mV
re | = = = 22.86 
IE 1.093 × 10−3
ac collector resistance rc = RC ||RL = (3.6| 10 = 2.64k
rc 2640
Voltage gain AV = = = 116
re | 22.86
zin (stage ) = βre | | R1 ||R 2 = 300 22.86 | 1.8 = 1.42k
Given RG = 600
zin stage 1.42 × 2 × 10−3
vin = vg = = 1.405 mV
R G + zin stage 0.6 + 1.42
vout
Voltage gain AV = or vout = AV vin = 116 1.405 = 163 mV
vin
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(ii) Given RG = 50

When  decreases,
zin (stage ) = βre | | R1 ||R 2 = 300 22.86 | 1.8 = 1.42k the input impedance
of the base decreases,
zin stage 1.42 × 2 × 10−3 the input impedance
vin = vg = = 1.993 mV of the stage decreases,
R G + zin stage 0.05 + 1.42 the input voltage
decreases, and the
vout
Voltage gain AV = or vout = AV vin = 116 1.993 = 231 mV output voltage
vin decreases.

(iii) Given  = 50 and RG = 600

zin (stage ) = βre | R1 ||R 2 = 50 22.86 1.8 = 699 
z in stage 0.699×2×10 −3
Given RG = 600vin = vg = = 1.07 mV
R G +z in stage 0.6+0.699

vout
Voltage gain AV = or vout = AV vin = 116 1.07 = 124 mV
vin
Common Collector (CC) Amplifier
Q10. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of emitter follower. Also derive the
expressions for voltage gain, input and output impedance.
The Emitter follower is also called a common-collector (CC) amplifier. The input signal is
coupled to the base, and the output signal is taken from the emitter.

Operation
Because the collector is at ac ground, the circuit is a CC amplifier. The input voltage is
coupled to the base. This sets up an ac emitter current and produces an ac voltage across
the emitter resistor. This ac voltage is then coupled to the load resistor. The total voltage
between the base and ground has a dc component and an ac component, the ac input
voltage rides on the quiescent base voltage VBQ. Similarly the total voltage between the
emitter and ground. This time, the ac input voltage is centered on a quiescent emitter
voltage VEQ. The ac emitter voltage is coupled to the load resistor.

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This output voltage is a pure ac voltage. This output voltage is in phase and is
approximately equal to the input voltage. The reason the circuit is called an emitter follower
is because the output voltage follows the input voltage.
Since there is no collector resistor, the total voltage between the collector and ground
equals the supply voltage. There is no ac signal on the collector because it is an ac ground
point.
AC Emitter Resistance
The ac signal coming out of the emitter sees RE in parallel with RL. The ac emitter
resistance is defined as re = RE||RL
Note - This is the external ac emitter resistance, which is different from the internal ac emitter resistance r e’.
Voltage gain
Figure shows the ac equivalent circuits for a emitter follower using T model and  model.

Using Ohm’s law to the B-E circuit Negative Feedback

The emitter follower
vin = ie(re + re|) and vout = iere uses negative feedback
and the feedback
vout ie re re resistance equals all of
Voltage gain Av = = |
= 1 for (re ≫ re | ) the emitter resistance
vin ie (re + re ) (re + re | ) and is very high. As a
result, the voltage gain
Input Impedance of the Base is ultrastable, the
distortion is almost
Consider the  model nonexistent, and the
The input impedance of the base : zin(base) = (re + re|)  re input impedance of the
base is very high.
Input Impedance of the Stage Because of these
characteristics, the
zin(stage) = R1 || R2 || (re + re)  R1 || R2 || re emitter follower is
often used as a
Output Impedance zout - Consider the T model, connect a test preamplifier.
The trade-off is the
voltage VX with current Ix at the output terminals so that voltage gain, which has
a maximum value of 1.
z0 = (VX/IX) and zout= RE||zo
Applying KVL
– ib(RG||R1||R2) –ie re| – VX = 0

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Using IX = – ie and ie = (+1)ib  ib

R G ||R1 ||R 2 R G ||R1 ||R 2
VX = −ie + r e | = IX + re |
 
VX R G ||R1 ||R 2
= zo = + re |
IX 
R G ||R 1 ||R 2
zout = (RE||zo) =R E || + re | --------(A)


For (RG/) << [RE, (R1||R2), re|]

RG
Output Impedance zout ≅

Usually the output impedance is matched to the load so that maximum power is delivered
to the load. Choose zout = RL
In this way the effect of RL on the output voltage is minimized and the circuit is acting as a
buffer between the input and output (Impedance matching).

Problem – Determine the output impedance of the circuit shown below

Solution
RB = RTh = R1||R2 =10||10 =5 k
V CC R 2 30(10)
VB = VTh = = = 15 V
R 1 +R 2 10+10

Assuming VBE = 0.7V and given =100

VB − VBE 15 − 0.7
IE1 = = = 138 mA
RB 5
RE +
β + 1 0.1 + 301

25 mV 25 mV
re1 | = = = 0.18 
IE 138 × 10−3

zin(base) = (RG||R1||R2) = [0.6||10||10] = 536

R G ||R1 ||R 2 536
zout = 𝑅𝐸 || + re | = 100 || + 0.18 = 1.9 
 300

RG 600
Verification Output Impedance zout ≅ = =2
 300

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Review Questions

1. Explain how Coupling Capacitors and Bypass Capacitors are chosen for Electronic
amplifier circuits.
2. Explain the operation of (i) Base Biased amplifier (ii) VDB amplifier.
3. What is emitter resistance and how is determined?
4. Briefly explain the transistor models.
5. Draw the ac equivalent circuit for (i) Base Biased amplifier (ii) VDB amplifier.
6. With a neat circuit diagram and relevant equivalent circuits, explain CE amplifier
and obtain the expression for voltage gain.
7. Explain the working of CC amplifier and derive the expression for (i) Voltage gain
(ii) input and (iii) output impedances

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