ESTIMATION

Estimate: An estimate is a statement made to find an unknown population parameter

Estimator: The procedure or rule to determine an unknown population parameter is

called an estimator. For ex. Sample mean x is an estimator of population mean 

Types of Estimation:
Basically there are two kinds of estimates to determine the statistic of the
population parameters

(a) Point Estimation :A point estimate of a parameter  is a single numerical value,

which is computed from a given sample.

(b) Interval Estimation:An interval estimation is given by two values between which
the parameter may be considered to lie.

Interval Estimation of  : The interval estimation of  is given by the interval


x  E Max 
, x  EMax where EMax  z 2
n

Interval Estimation of p (proportion): The interval estimation of  is given by the

PQ
interval  p  EMax , p  EMax  where EMax  z 2
n

z 2 values :1.96 for 95% confidence

2.58 for 99% confidence
1.64 for 90% confidence

1. A random sample of size 100 has a S.D. of 5. What can you say about the
maximum error with 95% confidence.

Sol.

Given  = 5, n = 100, z 2 for 95% confidence = 1.96

 5
We know that EMax  z 2  1.96  0.98
n 100

2. Assuming that  = 20.0, how large a random sample be taken to assert with
probability 0.95 that the sample mean will not differ from the true mean by more than
3.0

Sol.

Given maximum error E = 3.0, and  = 2.0, z 2 = 1.96 for 95% confidence
 z 2  
2

We know that EMax  z 2  n 
n  E 
 2
 1.96 X 20 
n   170.74 171
 3 

3. In a study of an automobile insurance a random sample of 80 body repair costs

had a mean of Rs. 472.36 and the S.D. of Rs. 62.35. If x is used as a point estimate
to the true average repair costs, with what confidence we can assert that the
maximum error doesn’t exceed Rs. 10

Sol.
Given n = 80, x = 472.36,  = 62.35, Emax = 10

 EMax . n 10 80 89.4427
EMax  z 2  z 2     1.4345
n  62.35 62.35

z 2  1.43

The area when z 2  1.43 from tables is 0.4236

1    2  0.4236  0.8472
Confidence = 1   100%  84.72
Hence we are 84.72% confidence that the maximum error is Rs. 10

4. If we can assert with 95% that the maximum error is 0.05 and P=0.2, find the size
of the sample.

Sol.
Given P=0.2, E = 0.05

We have Q = 1- P = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8 and z 2  1.96  for 95%

PQ 0.2  0.8
We know that maximum error, EMax  z 2  0.05  1.96
n n
0.2  0.8  1.96 
2

n  246
 0.05
2

5. What is the size of the smallest sample required to estimate an unknown

proportion to within a maximum error of 0.06 with at least 95% confidence

Sol.
Given E = 0.06, Confidence limit = 95%
i.e. z 2  1.96

1 1
here P is not given, So we take P  Q
2 2
2
 z 2 
2
 1.96   1 1 
Hence n     PQ   n     .   266.78 267
 E   0.06   2 2 
6. The mean and S.D. of a population are 11,795 and 14054 respectively. What can
one assert with 95% confidence about the maximum error if x = 11,795 and n = 50. And
also construct 95% confidence interval for the true mean

Sol.
Given   11795,   14054, x  11795 , n  50, z 2  1.96

EMax  z 2

 1.96.
14054  3899
n 50

   
Confidence interval =  x  EMax . , x  EMax . ,
 n n 

11795  3899,11795  3899

 7896,15694
7.(H.W) A sample of 10 cam shafts intended for use in gasoline engines has an
average eccentricity of 1.02 and a S.D. of 0.044 inch. Assuming the data may be
treated a random sample from a normal population, determine a 95% confidence
interval for the actual mean eccentricity of the cam shaft?
(Ans) = (0.993, 1.047)
 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
(Large Samples)
Hypothesis:The assumptions (or guesses) about the population parameters is called
Hypothesis. There are two types of hypothesis
(i) Null Hypothesis (ii) Alternative Hypothesis.

Null Hypothesis: The hypothesis which is a definite statement about the population
parameter usually a hypothesis of no difference is called Null Hypothesis. It is denoted
by H0. Eg: H0 :   0

Alternative Hypothesis: Any Hypothesis which contradicts the Null Hypothesis is

called an Alternative Hypothesis. It is denoted by H1.
Eg: (i) H1 :   0 (two – tailed test)
(ii) H1 :   0 (Right – tailed test)
(iii) H1 :   0 (Left – tailed test)

Errors in Sampling:In practice we decide to accept or to reject the lot after examining a
sample from it. As such we have two types of errors.
(i) Type I error: Reject H0 when it is true.
If the Null Hypothesis H0 is true but it rejected by test procedure,
then the error made is called Type I error. It is denoted by α.
P(Reject H0 when it is true) = P(Type I error) = α
(ii) Type II error: Accept H0 when it is false.
If the Null Hypothesis H0 is false but we accept H1 by test
procedure, then the error made is called Type II error. It is denoted
by β.
P(Accept H0 when it is false) = P(Type II error) = β

Level of Significance: The level of significance denoted by α is the confidence with

which we rejects or accepts the Null hypothesis H0i.e. it is the maximum possible
probability with which we are willing to risk an error in rejecting H 0 when it is true.

Test Statistic: Under a given hypothesis let the sampling distribution of a statistic t is
approximately a normal distribution with mean E(t) then
t  E t 
z
S .E. of t
Critical Values (Zα) of Z
Level of Significance
1% 5% 10%
Two – Tailed test Z  2.58 Z  1.96 Z  1.645
Right – Tailed test Z  2.33 Z  1.645 Z  1.28
Left – Tailed test Z  2.33 Z  1.645 Z  1.28

Test of Significance for large samples

There are 4 test of significance for large samples
(i) Test for single mean
(ii) Test for difference of means
(iii) Test for single proportion
(iv) Test for difference of proportion
I) Procedure for testing of Hypothesis for single mean
Suppose x is the mean of the sample with size n taken from a normal population
with mean  and S.D. 
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : Define or set up a Null Hypothesis H0
H0 :    0
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : Set up an Alternative Hypothesis H1
(i) H1 :   0 (two – tailed test)
(ii) H1 :   0 (Right – tailed test)
(iii) H1 :   0 (Left – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: Select the appropriate level of significance α

Step 4:Test Statistic: Calculate the test statistic

x
z
 n

Step 5:Conclusion: Find the critical value Zα at the level of significance α from normal
table.
If |Zcal| < Zαaccept H0
If |ZCal| > Zαreject H0 and accept H1

1. A sample of 64 students has a mean weight of 70kgs. Can this be regarded as a

sample from a population with mean weight 56kgs and S.D. 25kgs
Sol.
Given x = 70,  = 56,  = 25 and n = 64
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 :   56

Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :

(i) H1 :   56 (two – tailed test)

Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 5%

Step 4:Test Statistic: The test statistic is

x 70  56
z   4.48
 n 25 64

Step 5:Conclusion: |Zα| = 1.96 and ZCal=4.48

|ZCal| > Zαreject H0 and accept H1
i.e. Samples cannot be regarded as one coming from given
population

2. An ambulance service claims that it takes on the average less than 10 minutes to
reach its destination in emergency calls. A sample of 36 calls has a mean of 11 minutes
and the variance of 16 minutes. Test the claim at 0.05 level of significance
Sol.
Given x = 11,  = 10,  2= 16    16  4 and n = 36
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 :   10

Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :

(i) H1 :   10 (left – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 0.05

Step 4:Test Statistic: The test statistic is

x   11  10
z   1.5
 n 4 36

Step 5:Conclusion: Zα = 1.645 and ZCal=1.5

|ZCal| < Zαaccept H0

3. A sample of 400 items is taken from a population whose S.D. is 10. The mean of the
sample is 40. Test whether the sample has come from a population with mean 38. Also
calculate 95% confidence interval for the population.
Sol.
Given x = 40,  = 38,  = 10 and n = 400
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 :   38

Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :

(i) H1 :   38 (two – tailed test)

Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 0.05

Step 4:Test Statistic: The test statistic is

x 40  38
z  4
 n 10 400

Step 5:Conclusion: |Zα| = 1.96 and ZCal=4

|ZCal| > Zαreject H0 and accept H1
i.e. Samples cannot be regarded as one coming from given
population with mean 38

   
95% confidence interval is  x  1.96 , x  1.96 
 n n
 10 10 
  x  1.96 , x  1.96 
 400 400 
  39.02, 40.98

4(H.W). In 64 randomly selected hours of production, the mean and the standard
deviation of the number of acceptance pieces produced by an automatic stamping
machine are x = 1.038,  = 1.46. At the 0.05level of significance does this enable us to
reject the null hypothesis  = 1.000 against the alternative hypothesis  >1.000
Ans.Zcal = 2.082, Zα=1.645, Reject the null hypothesis

II) Procedure for testing of Hypothesis for difference of means

Suppose x1 and x2 be the means of the two samples with sizes n 1 and n2 drawn
from two population having means 1 and  2 and S.D.  1 and  2 . To test whether the
two population means are equal
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : Define or set up a Null Hypothesis H0
H0 : 1  2
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : Set up an Alternative Hypothesis H1
H1 : 1  2 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: Select the appropriate level of significance α

Step 4:Test Statistic: Calculate the test statistic

x1  x2
z
 12  22

n1 n2
if    2   then
1
2 2 2

x1  x2
z
1 1
 
n1 n2
Step 5:Conclusion: Find the critical value Zα at the level of significance α from normal
table.
If |Zcal| < Zαaccept H0
If |ZCal| > Zαreject H0 and accept H1

1. The means of two large samples of sizes 1000 and 2000 members are 67.5 inches
and 68.0 inches respectively. Can the sample be regarded as drawn from the same
population of S.D. 2.5 inches
Sol.
Given n1 = 1000, n2 = 2000 , x1 = 67.5, x2 = 68,  = 2.5
Step 1:Null Hypothesis :H0 : 1  2
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :
H1 : 1  2 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α=5%

Step 4:Test Statistic:

x1  x2 67.5  68
z 
1 1 1 1
  2.5 
n1 n2 1000 2000
0.5
z  5.16
0.0968
Step 5:Conclusion: |Zα| = 1.96 and ZCal=-5.16
|ZCal| > Zαreject H0 and accept H1
Hence the samples are not drawn from the same population of S.D. 2.5 inches

2. The mean height of 50 male students who participated in sports is 68.2 inches with a
S.D. of 2.5. The mean height of 50 male students who have not participated in sports is
67.2 inches with a S.D. of 2.8. Test the hypothesis that the height of students who
participated in sports is more than the students who have not participated in sports.
Sol.
Given n1 = 50, n2 = 50 , x1 = 68.2, x2 = 67.2,  1 = 2.5,  2 = 2.8
Step 1:Null Hypothesis :H0 : 1  2
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :
H1 : 1  2 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α=5%
Step 4:Test Statistic:
x1  x2 68.2  67.2
z 

1 1
 2.52 2.82

n1 n2 50 50
 z  1.88
Step 5:Conclusion: |Zα| = 1.96 and ZCal=1.88
|ZCal| < Zαwe accept H0
Hence we conclude that there is no significance difference in the heights

3(H.W). At a certain large university a sociologist speculates that male students spend
considerably more money on junk food than do female students. To test her hypothesis,
the sociologist randomly select from the registrar’s records the names of 200 students.
Of there, 125 are men and 75 are women. The sample mean of the average amount
spent on junk food per week by the men is Rs. 400 and S.D. is Rs. 100. For the women
the sample mean is Rs. 450 and the sample S.D. is Rs. 150. Test the difference
between the mean at 0.05 level
Ans. Zcal = 1.1547, Zα=1.96, Accept the null hypothesis

III) Procedure for testing of Hypothesis for single Proportion

Suppose p is proportion of the sample with size n taken from a normal population
with proportion P
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : Define or set up a Null Hypothesis H0
H0 : P  P0
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : Set up an Alternative Hypothesis H1
(i) H1 : P  P0 (two – tailed test)
(ii) H1 : P  P0 (Right – tailed test)
(iii) H1 : P  P0 (Left – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: Select the appropriate level of significance α

Step 4:Test Statistic: Calculate the test statistic

pP
z
PQ n

Step 5:Conclusion: Find the critical value Zα at the level of significance α from normal
table.
If |Zcal| < Zαaccept H0
If |ZCal| > Zαreject H0 and accept H1

1. A manufacturer claimed that at least 95% of the equipment which he supplied to a

factory conformed to specifications. An examination of a sample of 200 pieces of
equipment revealed that 18 were faulty. Test his claim at 5% level of significance
Sol.
182
Given n = 200, p   0.91, P  95%  0.95
200
Step 1:Null Hypothesis :H0 : P  0.95
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :
H1 : P  0.95 (Left – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 5%
 pP 0.91  0.95
Step 4:Test Statistic: z    2.59
PQ n 0.92  0.05
200

Step 5:Conclusion: |Zα| = 1.645 and ZCal= -2.59

|ZCal| > Zαreject H0 and accept H1
i.e. The manufacturer claim is rejected

2. In a sample of 1000 people in Karnataka 540 are rice eaters and the rest are wheat
eaters. Can we assume that both rice and wheat are equally popular in this state at 1%
level of significance
Sol.
540 1
Given n = 1000, p   0.54, P   0.5
1000 2
Step 1:Null Hypothesis :H0 : P  0.5 i.e. Both rice and wheat are equally popular in the
state
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :
H1 : P  0.5 (Two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 1%

pP 0.54  .05

Step 4:Test Statistic: z    2.532
PQ n 0.5  0.5
1000

Step 5:Conclusion: |Zα| = 2.58 and ZCal= 2.532

|ZCal| < Zαaccept H0
i.e. Both rice and wheat are equally popular in the state

3(H.W). In a study designed to investigate whether certain detonators used with

explosives in coal mining meet the requirement that at least 90% will ignite the
explosive when charged. It is found that 174 of 200 detonators function properly. Test
the null hypothesis P = 0.9 against the alternative hypothesis P ≠ 0.9 at 0.05 level of
significance
Ans. Zcal = -1.41, Zα=1.645, Accept the null hypothesis

IV) Procedure for testing of Hypothesis for difference of proportions

Let p1 and p2 be the sample proportions in two large random samples of sizes n 1
and n2 drawn from two populations having proportions P 1 and P2.
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : Define or set up a Null Hypothesis H0
H0 : P1  P2
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : Set up an Alternative Hypothesis H1
H1 : P1  P2 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: Select the appropriate level of significance α

Step 4:Test Statistic: Calculate the test statistic

(a) When the population proportions P1 and P2 are known
p1  p2
z
PQ PQ
1 1
 2 2
n1 n2
Where Q1 = 1 – P1andQ2 = 1 – P2
 (b) When the population proportions P1 and P2 are not known but sample
proportions p1 and p2 are known

(i) Method of Substitution: In this method, sample proportions p 1 and p2 are

substituted for P1 and P2
p1  p2
z
p1q1 p2 q2

n1 n2
Where q1 = 1 – p1andq2 = 1 – p2
(i) Method of Pooling: Estimate the value of p from the two populations
n p n p
proportions as p  1 1 2 2
n1  n2
So that q = 1 – p
Hence the test statistic is
p1  p2
z
1 1
pq   
 n1 n2 

Step 5:Conclusion: Find the critical value Zα at the level of significance α from normal
table.
If |Zcal| < Zαaccept H0
If |ZCal| > Zαreject H0 and accept H1

1. Random sample of 400 men and 600 women were asked whether they would like to
have a flyover near their residence. 200 men and 325 women were in favour of the
proposal. Test the hypothesis that proportions of men and women in favour of the
proposal are same, at 5% level.
Sol.
200 325
Given n1 = 400, n2 = 600, p1   0.5, p2   0.541
400 600
Step 1:Null Hypothesis :Assume that there is no significant difference between the
option of men and women as far as proposal of flyover is concerned.
H0 : p1  p2
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :
H1 : p1  p2 (Two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 5%

p1  p2
Step 4:Test Statistic: z 
1 1
pq   
 n1 n2 
n p n p 400  0.5  600  0.541 525
Where p  1 1 2 2    0.525
n1  n2 400  600 1000
and q  1  p  1  0.525  0.475
p1  p2 0.5  0.541
z   1.28
1 1  1 1 
pq    0.525  0.475   
 1
n n2   400 600 
Step 5:Conclusion: |Zα| = 1.96 and ZCal= -1.28
 |ZCal| < Zαaccept H0
i.e. there is no significant difference between the option of men and
women as far as proposal of flyover is concerned.

2. In a random sample of 1000 persons from town A, 400 are found to be consumers of
wheat. In a sample of 800 from town B, 400 are found to be consumers of wheat. Do
these data reveal a significant difference between town A and town B, so far as the
proportion of wheat consumers is concerned?
Sol.
400 400
Given n1 = 1000, n2 = 800, p1   0.4, p2   0.5
1000 800
Step 1:Null Hypothesis :H0 : p1  p2 i.e. there is no difference
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :
H1 : p1  p2 (Two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 5%

p1  p2
Step 4:Test Statistic: z 
1 1
pq   
 n1 n2 
n p n p 400  0.4  400  0.5 360
Where p  1 1 2 2    0.2
n1  n2 1000  800 1800
and q  1  p  1  0.2  0.8
p1  p2 0.4  0.5
z   5.2705
1 1  1 1 
pq    0.2  0.8   
 n1 n2   800 1000 
Step 5:Conclusion: |Zα| = 1.96 and ZCal= -5.2705
|ZCal| > Zαreject H0 and accept H1
i.e. there is a significant difference between town A and town B as
the proportion of wheat consumers is concerned.

3.(H.W). 100articles from a factory are examined and 10 are found to be defective. 500
similar articles from a second factory are found to be 15 defective. Test the significance
between the difference of two proportions at 5% level.
Ans. Zcal = 3.18, Zα=1.96, Reject the null hypothesis
 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
(Small Samples)
The following are some important tests for small samples

(i) Student’s ‘t’ test, (ii) F-test (iii)  2 - test

DEGREES OF FREEDOM (d.f.) : The number of independent variates which make up

the statistic is known as the degree of freedom (d.f.). It is denoted by  (the letter ‘Nu’
of the Greek alphabet). If n is the sample size then  = n-1 . If there are 2 samples of
sizes n1 and n2 then  = n1 + n2 – 2

Student’s ‘t’ test:

(I) Test for Single mean

Let x = Mean of a sample

n = Size of the sample
 = S.D. of the population
µ = Mean of the population supposed to be normal
s2 = the unbiased estimate of population variance  2

Step 1:Null Hypothesis : Define or set up a Null Hypothesis H0

H0 :   0
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : Set up an Alternative Hypothesis H1
(i) H1 :   0 (two – tailed test)
(ii) H1 :   0 (Right – tailed test)
(iii) H1 :   0 (Left – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: Select the appropriate level of significance α

Step 4:Test Statistic: Calculate the test statistic

x
t
s n 1

Step 5:Conclusion: Find the critical value tα at the level of significance α with n-1 d.f.
from t-distribution table.
If |tcal| < tα accept H0
If |tCal| > tα reject H0 and accept H1

 s s 
Note: The confidence limits are  x  t , x  t 
 n n

1. The average breaking strength of the steel rods is specified to be 18.5 thousand
pounds. To test this sample of 14 rods were tested. The mean and S.D. obtained were
17.85 and 1.955 respectively. Is the result of experiment significant?
Sol.
Given x = 17.85, n = 14, µ = 18.5, S.D. (s) = 1.955

Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 :   18.5

Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :   18.5 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 0.05

Step 4:Test Statistic:

x 17.85  18.5
t   1.199
s n  1 1.955 / 14  1

Step 5:Conclusion: tα = 2.16 at 5% level of significance with n-1 = 13 d.f. from t-

distribution table.
If |tcal| < tα accept H0
i.e. the result of the experiment is significant.

2(H.W.). A mechanist is making engine parts with axle diameters of 0.700 inch. A
random sample of 10 parts shows a mean diameter of 0.742 inch with a S.D. of 0.040
inch. Compute the statistic you would use to test whether the work is meeting the
specification at 0.05 level of significance.
Ans. tcal = 3.15, tα = 2.26, Reject H0

3. A random sample of 10 boys had the following I.Q’s : 70, 120, 110, 101, 88, 83, 95,
98, 107 and 100
(a) Do these data support the assumption of a population mean I.Q. of 100?
(b) Find a reasonable range in which most of the mean I.Q. Values of samples of
10 boys lie.
Sol.
(a) Here S.D. and mean of sample is not given directly.
We have to determine these S.D. and mean as follows.

Mean x 
 x  972  97.2
n 10
x x- x (x- x )2
70 -27.2 739.84
120 22.8 519.84
110 12.8 163.84
101 3.8 14.44
88 -9.2 84.64
83 -14.2 201.64
95 -2.2 4.84
98 0.8 0.64
107 9.8 96.04
100 2.8 7.84
972 1833.60
We know that S 2 
1

n 1 i
 
xi  x 
1833.60
9
 203.73

 S.D. S  203.73  14.27

Step 1:Null Hypothesis : The data support the assumption of a population mean I.Q.
of 100 in the population. i.e. H0 :   100
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis :   100 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 0.05

Step 4:Test Statistic:

x 97.2  100
t   0.62
S n 14.27 / 10
Step 5:Conclusion: tα = 2.26 at 5% level of significance with n-1 = 10-1 = 9 d.f. from t-
distribution table.
If |tcal| < tα accept H0
i.e. The data support the assumption of a population mean I.Q. of 100 in
the population.

(b) The 95% confidence limits are given by

 s s 
 x  t , x  t    97.2  2.26  4.512, 97.2  2.26  4.512   87, 107.40 
 n n

(II) Test for Difference of means

Let x and y be the means of the two small samples of sizes n 1 and n2 drawn
from two normal populations having means µ 1 and µ2. s12 and s22 are the variances of
two samples. To test whether the two population means are equal.

Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 : 1  2

Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : H1 : 1  2 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: Select the appropriate level of significance α

Step 4:Test Statistic: Calculate the test statistic

x y
t
1 1
S 
n1 n 2
n1s12  n2 s22
Where S 2 
n1  n2  2
Step 5:Conclusion: Find the critical value tα at the level of significance α with n 1+n2-2
d.f. from t-distribution table.
If |tcal| < tα accept H0
If |tCal| > tα reject H0 and accept H1

1. Samples of two types of electric light bulbs were tested for length of life and following
data were obtained
Type I Type II
Sample size n1 = 8 n2 = 7
Sample mean x = 1234 hours y = 1036 hrs
Sample S.D. s1 = 36 hrs s2 = 40 hrs
Is the difference in the means sufficient to warrant that type I is superior to type II
regarding length of life.
Sol.
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 : 1  2
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : H1 : 1  2 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 5%

n1s12  n2 s22 8  36   7  40 
2 2

Step 4:Test Statistic: S  2

  1659.08
n1  n2  2 872
x y 1234  1036
t   9.39
1

1  1 1
S 1659   
n1 n 2 8 7
Step 5:Conclusion: tα = 2.16 at 5% level of significance with n 1+n2-2 = 8+7-2 = 13 d.f.
from t-distribution table.
If |tcal| > tα Reject H0 and accept H1
i.e. The two types I and II of electric bulbs are not identical.

2(H.W.). The means of two random samples of sizes 9 and 7 are 196.42 and 198.82
respectively. The sum of the squares of the deviations from the mean are 26.94 and
18.73 respectively. Can the sample be considered to have been drawn from the same
normal population.
Ans. tcal = -2.63, tα = 2.63, Reject H0

3. Two horses A and B were tested according to the time (in seconds) to run a particular
track with the following results.
Horse A 28 30 32 33 33 29 34
Horse B 29 30 30 24 27 29
Test whether the two horses have the same running capacity.
Sol.
Given n1 = 7, n2 = 6
We first compute the sample means and S.D.
1
x = mean of first sample =  28  30  32  33  33  29  34   31.286
7
1
y = mean of second sample =  29  30  30  24  27  29   28.16
6
x 
xx xx 2
 y y y   y y
2

28 -3.286 10.8 29 0.84 0.7056
30 -1.286 1.6538 30 1.84 3.3856
32 0.714 0.51 30 1.84 3.3856
33 1.714 2.94 24 -4.16 17.3056
33 1.714 2.94 27 -1.16 1.3456
29 -2.286 5.226 29 0.84 0.7056
34 2.714 7.366
219 31.4358 169 26.8336

31.4358  26.8336
1 
  
xi  x   xi  x   
2 2
Now S 2   5.23
n1  n2  2   11

Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 : 1  2

Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : H1 : 1  2 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 5%
Step 4:Test Statistic:
x y 31.286  28.16
t   2.443
1

1  1 1
S 5.23   
n1 n 2 7 6

Step 5:Conclusion: tα = 2.2 at 5% level of significance with n 1+n2-2 = 6+7-2 = 11d.f.

from t-distribution table.
If |tcal| > tα Reject H0 and accept H1
i.e. both horses A and B do not have the same running capacity.
SNEDECOR’S F – TEST OF SIGINIFICANCE
F – test is used to test whether there is any significance difference between the
variances of 2 samples.

Let two independent random samples of sizes n 1 and n2 be drawn from two
normal populations.
To test the hypothesis that the two population variances  12 and  22 are equal.
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : Define or set up a Null Hypothesis H0
H0 :  12   22
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : Set up an Alternative Hypothesis H1
H1 :  12   22 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: Select the appropriate level of significance α

Step 4:Test Statistic:

n s2  x  x   n s2  y  y  
2 2

S  11 
2
and S  2 2 
2

n1  1 n1  1 n2  1 n2  1
1 2

Where s12 and s22 are the variances of the tow samples.
S12 S22
Calculate the test statistic F  2 or F  2 according as S12  S22 or S 22  S12
S2 S1
Step 5:Conclusion: Find the critical value Fα at the level of significance α with
 1  n1  1and  2  n2  1 d.f. from F-distribution table.
If |Fcal| < tα accept H0
If |FCal| > tα reject H0 and accept H1

1. In one sample of 8 observations from a normal population, the sum of the squares of
deviations of the sample values from the sample mean is 84.4 and in another sample of
10 observations it was 102.6. Test at 5% level whether the populations have the same
variance.
Sol.
 x  x 
 84.4,  yi  y 
2 2
Given n1 = 8, n2 = 10, i  102.6

 x  x  y  y
2 2
84.4 102.6
S12    12.057 and S22    11.4
n1  1 7 n2  1 9

Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 :  12   22

Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : H1 :  12   22 (two – tailed test)
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 5%

Step 4:Test Statistic:

S12 12.057
F 2  1.057
S2 11.4
Follows F – distribution with (n1-1, n2-2) degrees of freedom
Step 5:Conclusion: F0.05  7,9  3.29
|Fcal| < tα accept H0
i.e. the populations have the same variance.
2(H.W.). Two random samples reveal the following results :
Sample Size Sample Mean Sum of Squares of
deviations from the Mean
1 10 15 90
2 12 14 108
Test whether the samples came from the same normal population with equal variances.
Ans. Fcal = 1.018, F0.05  9,11  2.90 , AcceptH0

 2 TEST AS A TEST OF GOODNESS OF FIT

We use this test to decide whether the discrepancy between theory and
experiment is significant or not.

Test Statistic:
n 
 Oi  Ei  
2

  
2

i 1  E 
 i

Conclusion: If the calculated value of  2 > tabulated value of  2 at α level, the Null
Hypothesis H0 is rejected. Otherwise H0 is accepted

1. The number of automobile accidents per week in a certain community are as follows:
12, 8, 20, 2, 14,10,15, 6, 9, 4. Are these frequencies in agreement with the belief that
accident conditions were the same during this 10 week period.
Sol.
100
Expected frequency of accidents each week =  10
10
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 : The accident conditions were the same during the 10
week period.
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : H1 : The accident conditions were the not same
during the 10 week period.
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 5%
Step 4:Test Statistic:
Observed Expected Oi  Ei   Oi  Ei 
2

Frequency (Oi) Frequency (Ei)

Ei
12 10 2 0.4
8 10 -2 0.4
20 10 10 10.0
2 10 -8 6.4
14 10 4 1.6
10 10 0 0.0
15 10 5 2.5
6 10 -4 1.6
9 10 -1 0.1
4 10 -6 3.6
100 100 26.6
n 
 Oi  Ei  
2

  
2
  26.6
i 1  E 
 i

Step 5:Conclusion: 2  16.9 at 5% level of significance at n-1 = 10-1 = 9 d.f.

|  2 cal| > 2 Reject H0
i.e. the accident conditions were not the same during the 10 week
period
2. A sample analysis of examination results of 500 student was made. It was found that
220 students had failed, 170 had secured a third class, 90 were placed in second class
and 20 got a first class. Do these figures commensurate with the general examination
result which is in the ratio of 4 : 3 : 2 : 1 for the various categories respectively.
Sol.
Step 1:Null Hypothesis : H0 : The observed results commensurate with the general
examination results.
Step 2:Alternative Hypothesis : H1 : The observed results not commensurate with the
general examination results.
Step 3:Level of Significance: α = 5%
Step 4:Test Statistic:
Expected frequencies are in the ratio of 4 : 3 : 2 : 1
Total frequency = 500
If we divide the total frequency 500 in the ratio 4 : 3 : 2 : 1, we get the expected
frequencies as 200, 150, 100, 50
Observed Expected Oi  Ei   Oi  Ei 
2

Frequency (Oi) Frequency (Ei)

Ei
220 200 20 2.00
170 150 20 2.667
90 100 -10 1.000
20 50 -30 18.00
500 500 23.667
n 
 Oi  Ei  
2

  
2
  23.667
i 1  E 
 i

Step 5:Conclusion: 2  7.81 at 5% level of significance at n-1 = 4-1 = 3 d.f.

|  2 cal| > 2 Reject H0
i.e. The observed results not commensurate with the general
examination results.

3.(H.W). A die is thrown 264 times with the following results. Show that the die is biased
No. appeared on the die 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 40 32 28 58 54 52
Ans.   11.07 ,   17.6362 Reject H0
2 2