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300 036 – IDUKIARA
KARAIKUDI
K – 630 003
NOITACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
FO ETAROTCEOF
RIDDISTANCE EDUCATION
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND VECTOR CALCULUS

VECTOR CALCULUS
II - Semester

B.Sc. [Mathematics]
113 23

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ISREVINUALAGAPPA
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ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND
rihT eht ni )46.3:APGC( CA[Accredited
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300 036 – IDUKIARA
KARAIKUDI
K – 630 003
TACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
FO ETAROTCEOF
RIDDISTANCE EDUCATION VECTOR CALCULUS
II - Semester
 ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY
[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle
and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu)
KARAIKUDI – 630 003

Directorate of Distance Education

B.Sc. (Mathematics)
II - Semester
113 23

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND

VECTOR CALCULUS
Authors
K A Lakshminarayanan, Professor, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam (Tamil Nadu)
K Megalai, Asst. Professor, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam (Tamil Nadu)
P Geetha D Jayanthi, Senior Lecturers, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam (Tamil Nadu)
Units (4, 5, 6.0-6.2, 6.4-6.8, 7, 10)
Rohit Khurana, CEO, ITL Education Solutions Ltd.
Units (3, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14)
Vikas® Publishing House: Units (1, 2, 6.3)

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 SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Analytical Geometry and Vector Calculus
Syllabi Mapping in Book
BLOCK I: STRAIGHT LINES, SYSTEM OF CIRCLES AND DIRECTION
COEFFICIENTS
Unit I: Two dimension analytical geometry – Pair of straight lines, angle between Unit 1: Two Dimensional
pair of lines-Problems. Analytical Geometry
Unit II: Circle, System of circles, Radical axis– coaxial system of circles. (Pages 1-19);
Unit III: Polar coordinates-Equation of line in polar co-ordinates - Pole and polar Unit 2: Circle
conics. (Pages 20-30);
Unit IV: Three dimension analytical geometry – Introduction, Direction ratios Unit 3: Polar Coordinates
and direction coefficients – angle between the lines (Pages 31-47);
Unit 4: Three Dimension
Analytical Geometry
(Pages 48-55)

BLOCK II: PLANES AND CONES

Unit V: Plane – Plane equation – Angle between two planes – Length of the Unit 5: Plane
perpendicular – Distance between two planes (Pages 56-79);
Unit VI: Straight lines- Equation of a straight line in various forms – problems – Unit 6: Straight Lines
Image of a point, Image of a line about a plane. (Pages 80-91);
Unit VII: Plane and straight lines – Coplanar lines-Problems. Unit 7: Plane and Straight Lines
Unit VIII: Cone – Definition – Equation of the Cone in various forms – Equation (Pages 92-100);
of a right circular Cone-problems Unit 8: Cone
(Pages 101-115)

BLOCK III: CYLINDER AND SPHERE

Unit IX: Cylinder – Definition – Equation of a right circular cylinder – simple Unit 9: Cylinder
problems. (Pages116-124);
Unit X: Skew lines – Shortest distance between two skew lines – Problems Unit 10: Skew Lines
Unit XI: Sphere – Equation of a sphere, Tangent plane – Problems (Pages 125-135);
Unit 11: Sphere
(Pages 136-148)

BLOCK IV: VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION, LINE AND SURFACE INTEGRALS

Unit XII: Equation of a circle on a sphere – Intersection of two spheres. Unit 12: Equation of a Circle
Unit XIII: Vector Calculus – Vector Differentiation– Vector Algebra – Differentiation on a Sphere
of vectors - Gradient – Divergence and Curl Solenoidal – Irrotational – Harmonic (Pages 149-154);
Vector. Unit 13: Vector Calculus
Unit XIV: Line and Surface Integrals – Line Integrals – Surface Integrals - Theorems (Pages 155-199);
of GREEN, GAUSS and STOKE’S(Statements only) problems. Unit 14: Line and Surface Integrals
(Pages 200-216)
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BLOCK I: STRAIGHT LINES, SYSTEM OF CIRCLES AND DIRECTION COEFFICIENTS
UNIT 1 TWO DIMENSIONAL ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 1-19
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry
1.3 Pair of Staight Llines and Angle Between Straight Lines
1.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.8 Further Readings

UNIT 2 CIRCLE 20-30

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Circle
2.3 System of Circles
2.3.1 Circle through the Intersection of Two Circles
2.4 Radical Axis– Coaxial System of Circles
2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Readings

UNIT 3 POLAR COORDINATES 31-47

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Pole and Polar Conics
3.2.1 Equation of a Line in Polar Form
3.2.2 Polar Equation of a Conic
3.3.3 Important Equations Related to a Conic
3.2.4 Asymptotes of Polar Equation of Conic
3.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.4 Summary
3.5 Key Words
3.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.7 Further Readings

UNIT 4 THREE DIMENSION ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 48-55

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Three Dimension Analytical Geometry
 4.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.4 Summary
4.5 Key Words
4.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.7 Further Readings
BLOCK II: PLANES AND CONES
UNIT 5 PLANE 56-79
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Plane
5.2.1 Equation of a Plane Passing Through a Point (x1, y1, z1) and having a Normal with Direction Ratios
a, b, c.
5.2.2 Perpendicular Distance from the Origin to a Plane
5.2.3 Angle between Two Planes
5.2.4 Equation of a Plane Passing Through Three Points (x1, y1, z1),
(x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3).
5.2.5 Distance between the Parallel Planes
5.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Words
5.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.7 Further Readings

UNIT 6 STRAIGHT LINES 80-91

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Straight Lines
6.3 Image of a Point, Image of a Line about a Plane
6.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.8 Further Readings
UNIT 7 PLANE AND STRAIGHT LINES 92-100
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Line and a Plane
7.3 Coplanar Lines
7.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.5 Summary
7.6 Key Words
7.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.8 Further Readings
UNIT 8 CONE 101-115
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Cone
8.3 Equation of a Right Circular Cone
8.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.8 Further Readings
BLOCK III: CYLINDER AND SPHERE
UNIT 9 CYLINDER 116-124
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Cylinder
9.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.4 Summary
9.5 Key Words
9.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.7 Further Readings

UNIT 10 SKEW LINES 125-135

10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Skew Lines
10.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.4 Summary
10.5 Key Words
10.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.7 Further Readings
UNIT 11 SPHERE 136-148
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Sphere
11.2.1 Equation of a Sphere
11.2.2 Radius and Centre of Sphere
11.3 Tangent Plane
11.3.1 Plane of Contact
11.3.2 Angle of Intersection of Two Spheres
11.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.8 Further Readings
BLOCK IV: VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION, LINE AND SURFACE INTEGRALS
UNIT 12 EQUATION OF A CIRCLE ON A SPHERE 149-154
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Equation of a Circle on a Sphere
12.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.4 Summary
12.5 Key Words
12.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.7 Further Readings

UNIT 13 VECTOR CALCULUS 155-199

13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Vector Calculus
13.2.1 Scalar Triple Product
13.2.2 Vector Triple Product
13.3 Vector Differentiation
13.3.1 Limit and Continuity of a Vector Function
13.3.2 Differentiation of Vectors
13.3.3 Partial Derivatives of Vector Functions
13.3.4 Total Differential
13.4 Gradient, Divergence and Curl
13.4.1 Gradient of a Scalar Point Function
13.4.2 Divergence of a Vector Point Function
13.4.3 Curl of a Vector Point Function
13.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.6 Summary
13.7 Key Words
13.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.9 Further Readings

UNIT 14 LINE AND SURFACE INTEGRALS 200-216

14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Line and Surface Integrals
14.2.1 Line Integrals
14.2.2 Surface Integrals
14.2.3 Volume Integrals
14.3 The Gauss or Divergence Theorem
14.4 Green’s Theorem
14.5 Stokes’s Theorem
14.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.7 Summary
14.8 Key Words
14.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.10 Further Readings
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
About 1630 the French mathematicians Pierre de Fermat and René Descartes
independently realized that algebra was a tool of wondrous power in geometry
NOTES
and invented what is now known as analytic geometry.
Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry, a mathematical subject
in which algebraic symbolism and methods are used to represent and solve problems
in geometry. The importance of analytic geometry is that it establishes a
correspondence between geometric curves and algebraic equations. This
correspondence makes it possible to reformulate problems in geometry as equivalent
problems in algebra, and vice versa; the methods of either subject can then be used
to solve problems in the other. Renaissance mathematicians were led back to these
problems by the needs of astronomy, optics, navigation, warfare, and commerce.
The invention of analytic geometry was, next to the differential and integral
calculus, the most important mathematical development of the 17th century. Analytic
geometry had its greatest impact on mathematics via calculus. Without access to
the power of analytic geometry, classical Greek mathematicians such as Archimedes
(c. 285–212/211 BC) solved special cases of the basic problems of calculus:
finding tangents and extreme points (differential calculus) and arc lengths, areas,
and volumes (integral calculus). Vector calculus, or vector analysis, is concerned
with differentiation and integration of vector fields, primarily in 3-dimensional
Euclidean space. The term ‘vector calculus’ is sometimes used as a synonym for
the broader subject of multivariable calculus, which includes vector calculus as
well as partial differentiation and multiple integration. Vector calculus plays an
important role in differential geometry and in the study of partial differential
equations. It is used extensively in physics and engineering, especially in the
description of electromagnetic fields, gravitational fields and fluid flow.
This book, Analytical Geometry and Vector Calculus, is divided into
four blocks, which are further subdivided into fourteen units. The first unit introduces
the concept of two dimensional analytical geometry while the concept of circles
has been discussed in the following unit. The third unit deals with the concept of
polar coordinates. Three dimension analytical geometry is focused on in the fourth
unit while the fifth unit explains the concept of planes. Straight lines have been
discussed in the sixth unit while seventh unit deals with plane and straight lines.
Eighth units discusses the concept of cones and cylinders have been explained in
the following unit. Skew lines have been explained in the tenth unit while eleventh
units focuses on spheres. Twelfth unit discusses about equation of a circle on a
sphere while thirteenth unit introduces you to the concept of vector calculus. The
last units discusses line integrals and surface integrals.
The book follows the self-instructional mode wherein each unit begins with
an ‘Introduction’ to the topic. The ‘Objectives’ are then outlined before going on
to the presentation of the detailed content in a simple and structured format. ‘Check
Your Progress’ questions are provided at regular intervals to test the student’s
understanding of the subject. ‘Answers to Check Your Progress Questions’, a
‘Summary’, a list of ‘Key Words’, and a set of ‘Self-Assessment Questions and
Exercises’ are provided at the end of each unit for effective recapitulation.
Self-Instructional
8 Material
 Two Dimensional
BLOCK - I Analytical Geometry

STRAIGHT LINES, SYSTEM OF CIRCLES AND

DIRECTION COEFFICIENTS
NOTES

UNIT 1 TWO DIMENSIONAL

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry
1.3 Pair of Staight Llines and Angle Between Straight Lines
1.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.8 Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Geometry is a part of mathematics concerned with questions of size, shape, relative

position of figures and the properties of space. Analytic geometry is the study of
geometry using a coordinate system and the principles of algebra and analysis.
Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for
planes, straight lines, and squares, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions.
A line of zero curvature is called straight line. Geometrically, one studies the Euclidean
plane (two dimensions) and Euclidean space (three dimensions).
Analytical geometry is also called algebraic or coordinate geometry, is that
branch of geometry that is applied to evaluate the properties of plane figures by
means of coordinates of points. To do this, we make use of the notations and
operations of algebra and analyse the problems discussed in pure geometry
systematically to arrive at their solutions. Relationships between two or more
geometrical figures are usually described by more than one variable. Analytical
geometry is one of the several methods of studying these relationships.
In this unit, you will study about some of the significant figures of geometry.
You will learn about straight lines, gradient of straight lines, various forms of straight
lines and the general equation of straight lines. Pair of straight lines have also been
illustrated in this unit. Finally, you will know about the angle between straight lines.

Self-Instructional
Material 1
Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry 1.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

NOTES  Explain straight lines and their gradient
 Learn different forms of equations of straight lines
 Know about pair of straight lines and angle between straight lines

1.2 TWO DIMENSIONAL ANALYTICAL

GEOMETRY

Gradient of a straight line is defined as the rate at which an ordinate of a point on

the line in a coordinate plane changes with respect to a change in the abscissa.
Two perpendicular real axes in a plane define a Cartesian coordinate system (Refer
Figure 1.1). The point of intersection of these axes is called the origin. The horizontal
axis is called X-axis while the vertical one is called Y-axis.
In a Cartesian system, any point P (say) in a plane is associated with an
ordered pair of real numbers. To obtain these numbers, draw two lines through
the point P parallel to the axes. The point of intersection of these parallel lines is
the coordinates of the point. The point of intersection of the parallel line with
Y-axis is the Y-coordinate and that with X-axis is the X-coordinate of the point P.
The X-coordinate is called the abscissa and the Y-coordinate is called the ordinate
of the point P and is represented as (x, y).
Y

3 P (5, 3)

X
O
1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 1.1 Cartesian Coordinates of Point P

Equation of a Line: A general linear function has the form y = mx + c, where m

and c are constants. The set of solutions of such an equation forms a straight line
in the plane. In this particular equation, the constant m determines the slope or
gradient of the line and the constant term c is the distance of the origin from the
point at which the line intersects the Y-axis. The distance c is called the Y-intercept
of the line (Refer Figure 1.2).

Self-Instructional
2 Material
 Y Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry

NOTES

Y-intercept

X
O

Fig. 1.2 Straight Line with Y-Intercept

The Gradient of a Line: The gradient of a line segment measures the steepness
of the line. The larger the gradient, the steeper is the line. Figure 1.3 shows three
line segments. The line segment AD is steeper than the line segment AC which is
steeper than AB. We can calculate this steepness mathematically by measuring the
relative changes in X and Y coordinates along the length of the line.
Y

D(2, 5)

C(2, 3)

A(1, 1) B(2, 1)

X
O 1 2

Fig. 1.3 Line Segments AB, AC and AD

On the line segment AD, y changes from 1 to 5 as x changes from 1 to 2. So the

change in y is 4 and the change in x is 1. Their relative change is,
Change in y 5 1 4
=  4
Change in x 2 1 1
Similarly for line AC, the relative change is 2 and for line AB, the relative change is
Change in y
0. This relative change, i.e., is called the gradient of the line segment.
Change in x
We can observe from Figure 1.3 that steeper lines have larger gradient.
In the general case, if we take two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) as shown in
Figure 1.4 then the point C is given by (x2, y1). Self-Instructional
Material 3
Two Dimensional Y
Analytical Geometry
B (x 2, y 2)

NOTES
A(x1, y1) C (x2, y1)

Fig. 1.4 Right Angled ABC

So the length AC is x2 – x1, and the length CB is y2 – y1. Therefore, the gradient of
AB is,

CB y2  y1
= x –x
AC 2 1

The gradient is denoted by m, therefore

y2  y1
m = …(1.1)
x2 – x1
Note: Horizontal line has zero gradient.
Again in the right-angled ABC shown in Figure 2.4, tan  is equal to the change
in y over the change in x,
y2  y1
 tan  = …(1.2)
x2 – x1
From Equations (2.1) and (2.2), we get
m = tan 
We can conclude that the gradient of a line is also the tangent of the angle that the
line makes with the horizontal. Now, since the horizontal is parallel to the X-axis,
the angle that the line makes with the X-axis is also  (Refer Figure 1.4).
We will now compare the different cases, where the gradient is positive, negative
and zero. Take any general line and let  be the angle it makes with the X-axis
(Refer Figure 1.5) then,
Y Y Y

=0
acute obtuse
X X X

this line has a positive gradient this line has a negative gradient the gradient of this line is zero

Self-Instructional Fig. 1.5 Positive, Negative and Zero Gradients

4 Material
  When  is acute, tan  is positive. This is because as x increases, y increases Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry
so the change in y and the change in x are both positive. Therefore the
gradient is positive.
 When  is obtuse, tan  is negative. This is because as x increases, y
NOTES
decreases so the change in y and the change in x have opposite signs.
Therefore the gradient is negative.
 When  = 0, the line segment is parallel to the X-axis; tan  = 0, and so
gradient is 0.
Example 1.1: Find the gradient of the line passing through the points A(6, 0) and
B(0, 3) and measure the gradient angle.
Solution: Let (x1, y1) = (6, 0) and (x2, y2) = (0, 3)
m = (y2 – y1)/(x2 – x1)
= (3 – 0)/(0 – 6)
= 3/–6
= –1/2
To measure the gradient angle we use,
m = tan 
Therefore
 = tan–1(–1/2)
= –26.56o
So, the gradient of the line AB is –1/2 and the gradient angle is –26.56o.
Example 1.2: Find the gradient of the straight line passing through the points
P(– 4, 5) and Q(4, 13) and measure the gradient angle.
Solution: Let (x1, y1) = (–4, 5) and (x2, y2) = (4,13)
m = (y2 – y1)/(x2 – x1)
= (13 – 5)/(4 – (–4))
= 8/8
=1
To measure the gradient angle we use
m = tan 
We know that
 = tan–1 (1)
= 45o
So, the gradient of PQ is 1 and the gradient angle is 45o.

Self-Instructional
Material 5
Two Dimensional General Equation of a Straight Line
Analytical Geometry
A straight line is defined by a linear equation whose general form is Ax + By +
C = 0, where A and B are not both equal to zero. The graph of the equation is a
NOTES straight line and every straight line can be represented by an equation of the above
form. If A is nonzero then the X-intercept, that is the X-coordinate of the point
where the graph crosses the X-axis (y is zero), is –C/A. If B is nonzero then the
Y-intercept, that is the Y-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the Y-axis
(x is zero), is –C/B and the slope of the line is –A/B.
Different Forms of Equations of a Straight Line
We shall start by finding the equation of a straight line in different forms. The
equation of a straight line, is the relation between x and y which is satisfied by the
coordinates of each and every point on the line and by those of no other point.
Equation of a Line Parallel to the Axes
Let AB be a line parallel to the Y-axis, at a distance a from it (Refer Figure 1.6).
Also let AB be on the right of Y-axis. Then abscissa of any point on the line AB will
be a, and so x = a for all points on the line AB and for no other point.

Fig. 1.6 Line x = a

Hence equation of the line AB is x = a. If the line was on the left of Y-axis, its
equation would have been x  –a.
Similarly, the equation of a line parallel to the X-axis (at a distance b) is y = b (if the
line is above the X-axis) and y = –b (if it is below the X-axis).

Self-Instructional
6 Material
It may be noted here that the equation of a curve does not necessarily contain both Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry
x and y.
Corollary: The equation to the X-axis is y = 0.
The equation to the Y-axis is x = 0. NOTES

Slope of a Line
When we say that a line makes an angle  with the X-axis, it means that  is the
angle through which a ray coincident with the positive direction of the X-axis is to
resolve in the anti-clockwise direction to coincide with the line. So this angle  is a
+ve angle lying between 0° and 180°.

Fig. 1.7 Slope of AB is Positive Fig. 1.8 Slope of AB is Negative

Let, now a line AB make an angle  with the X-axis (Refer Figures 1.7 and 1.8)
then tan  is defined to be the slope or gradient of the line.
The slope of a line is the tangent of the angle which the part of the line above
the X-axis makes with the +ve direction of the X-axis.
The slope, tan  is denoted by the letter m.
If the line makes an acute angle with X-axis then its slope is +ve and if it makes an
obtuse angle then its slope will be –ve.
Clearly, if a line is parallel to the X-axis,  = 0, therefore m = 0 while if a line is
perpendicular to X-axis, 1/m = 0.
Intercepts
Let a line AB cuts the coordinate axes at points A and B (on X and Y axis
respectively). Then OA is defined to be the intercept of the line on X-axis and OB
is the intercept of the line on Y-axis (Refer Figure 1.9).

Self-Instructional
Material 7
Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry

NOTES

Fig. 1.9 Line AB making Intercept on the Axes

Equation of the Line in the Slope Form

To find the equation of a line which cuts off a given intercept on the Y-axis
and is inclined at a given angle to the X-axis.
Let AB be the line meeting the Y-axis at K (Refer Figure 1.10). Let OK = c, be the
given intercept on the Y-axis, and let the line makes an angle  with the X-axis.
Take any point P (x, y) on the line. Draw PN perpendicular to X-axis to meet a
line through K parallel to X-axis, in M. Then

Fig. 1.10 Line AB inclined at an Angle  with Y-Intercept c

PN = PM + MN
= KM tan  + c
= x tan  + c, where KM = x
Since PN = y, tan  = m = slope of the line AB, we have the required equation of
the line as y = mx + c.
Notes: 1. In the equation y = mx + c, c is positive if the point K lies above the X-axis and
negative otherwise.
2. By giving suitable values to m and c we can make the equation y = mx + c,
represent any line except those which are parallel to the Y-axis.
Self-Instructional
8 Material
Corollary: Equation of a line passing through the origin and making an angle  Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry
with the X-axis is y = mx, where m = tan .
Equation of a Line in the Intercept Form
NOTES
To find the equation of a line which cuts off given intercepts from the axes.

Fig. 1.11 Line AB making Intercepts a and b on the Axes

Let the line AB make intercepts OA = a, OB = b, on the axes (Refer Figure 1.11).
Let P (x, y) be any point on the line. Draw PN perpendicular on X-axis. Then
from similar triangles PNA and BOA, we have the required equation of the line AB
in intercept form,
NP NA
=
OB OA
OA  ON
=
OA
y ax x
i.e.,  = 1
b a a
x y
 =1
a b
Notes: 1. The above line may also be written in the form of lx + my = 1, where l and
m are the reciprocals of the intercepts on the axes.
2. In the above form of the equation, we have taken both the intercepts to be +ve.
The result would, however, be true for all positions of the line, provided the proper
sign is taken with the intercepts. For instance, a line which makes intercepts 2 and
–4 on the X and Y axis respectively will have the equation,

x y
 1
2 4
In this case it cuts the X-axis on the +ve side and Y-axis on the –ve side
at distances 2 and 4 respectively.
Self-Instructional
Material 9
Two Dimensional Equation of the Straight Line in One Point Form
Analytical Geometry
To find the equation of a line passing through a given point (x1, y1) and having
slope m.
NOTES

Fig. 1.12 Line AP with Slope m

Let AB be the line passing through the given point A (x1, y1) and having slope
m = tan .
Let P (x, y) be any point on the line (Refer Figure 1.12), then
PN PM  NM
m = tan  = 
AN LM
PM  NM
=
OM  OL
y y
m 1
or xx
1
or y – y1 = m (x – x1) .... (1.3)
This is the required equation of the line.
Equation of a Line in Two Points Form
Let any straight line (AB) passes through two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) (Refer
Figure 1.13), its slope m is given by,
y2 y1
m
x2 x1

Self-Instructional
10 Material
 Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry

NOTES

Fig. 1.13 Straight Line AB Passing through (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)

Substituting, this value of m in Equation (1.3), we have the required equation of

the line as,
y2 y1
y y1 ( x x1 )
x2 x1

Intersection of Two Lines

To find the coordinates of the point of intersection of two lines.
Let the two lines be,
ax + by + c = 0 ...(1.4)
ax + by + c = 0 ...(1.5)
Since the point of intersection lies on both the lines, its coordinates satisfy both the
Equations (1.4) and (1.5).
If (x1, y1) are the coordinates of the point of intersection, then we have
ax1 + by1 + c = 0
ax1 + by1 + c = 0
Solving these two equations, we get

x1 y1 1
=  .
bc cb ca  ac ab  ba'

bc cb
Giving, x1 =
ab ba

ca ac
y1 =
ab ba

as the required coordinates.

Self-Instructional
Material 11
Two Dimensional Lines Through the Intersection of Two Given Lines
Analytical Geometry
To find the general equation of the lines passing through the point of intersection of
two given lines.
NOTES Let the two given intersecting lines be,
ax + by + c = 0 ...(1.6)
ax + by + c = 0 ...(1.7)
and let them meet at the point (x1, y1). Since this point lies on both Equations (1.6)
and (1.7), we have,
ax1 + by1 + c = 0
...(1.8)
ax1 + by1 + c = 0
Consider now the equation,
(ax + by + c) +  (ax + by + c) = 0 ...(1.9)
where  is an arbitrary constant.
As Equation (1.9) is linear, it represents a line. Again in view of conditions in
Equation (1.8), it is clear that the point (x1, y1) lies on the line in Equation (1.9),
whatever  may be. Consequently Equation (1.9) represents a line passing through
the point of intersection of lines in Equations (1.6) and (1.7), whatever value 
may take. By giving different values to , we can write down equations of different
lines passing through (x1, y1).
If, in short, we write Equations (1.6) and (1.7) as,
P  ax + by + c = 0
P  ax + by + c = 0
Then equation of any line passing through the point of intersection of the lines
P = 0 and P = 0, is given by P +  P = 0, where  is an arbitrary constant.
Example 1.3: Find the equation of a line parallel to X-axis passing through the
point (4, 5).
Solution: Given, x = 4, c = 5. Slope, m = 0 for parallel condition.
Therefore, the equation of the line can be written as,
y =0×4+5
y =5
Example 1.4: Find the equation of a line parallel to X-axis passing through the
given point (0, 9).
Solution: We know that the Y-intercept of a line is 9 from the given point. The
slope of the line is 0.

Self-Instructional
12 Material
Therefore, Slope m = 0, Y-intercept = 9. Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry
General equation of line is, y = mx + c.
Substitute the values m and c in the general equation,
y =0×x+9 NOTES
y =0+9
y =9

1.3 PAIR OF STAIGHT LLINES AND ANGLE

BETWEEN STRAIGHT LINES

For two given lines y = m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2 their relationship will be
expressed as follows:
(i) Intersecting lines: The two lines intersect, if there is a value of x which
satisfies the two simultaneously.
m1x + c1 = m2x + c2
c2 – c1
 x = (m1  m2 )
m1 – m2

m2 – m1
If  is the angle between two intersecting lines, tan =
1  m1m2
(ii) Parallel lines: If m1 = m2, the lines are parallel. The slopes of parallel
lines are equal.
(iii) Identical lines: If m1 = m2 and c1 = c2, the two lines coincide. The
slopes and intercepts of identical lines are equal.
(iv) Perpendicular lines: If m1m2 = – 1, then the lines are perpendicular.
The product of the slopes of perpendicular lines is –1.
These relationships can be expressed in following terms for lines,
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0.
a a
Their slopes are m1 = – 1 , m2 = – 2 .
b1 b2
a a
The lines intersect, if – 1  – 2 .
b1 b2
a a a a
The lines are parallel, if – 1  – 2 , i.e., if 1  2 .
b1 b2 b1 b2
a a c
The lines are identical, if 1  2  1 .
b1 b2 c2

Self-Instructional
Material 13
Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry  a1   a2 
The lines are perpendicular, if  – b   – b   – 1 .
 1  2 
a1a2
NOTES i.e., =–1 or a1a2 = – b1b2.
b1b2
We can also express this as a1a2 + b1b2 = 0.
Equation of a Line in Normal Form
In this section, we will derive the equation for a given line in normal form.
Let us consider a line AB at a distance p from the origin (see Figure 1.14).
Let P(x, y) be a point on the line. Y

PM makes an angle with the line.

B
(PM is perpendicular to x-axis,
OQ = p is perpendicular to the line and Q
makes angle  with positive x-axis.) p P(x, y)
OQ = OA cos   
X
= (OM + MA) cos  O M A

 p = (x + y tan ) cos  Fig. 1.14 Normal Form of a Line

 x cos  + y sin  = p is the equation of a line making an angle  with
the x-axis. It is known as the equation of a line in normal form.
For x = 0, the y intersect = p/sin .
For y = 0, the x intersect = p/cos .
Example 1.5: Find the equation of a line that passes through A(x1, y1) and makes
an angle  with x-axis.
Solution: Let P(x, y) be on the line and let AP = r (see Figure below).
Y
AB x – x1 x – x1
cos  =  or r
AP r cos  P(x, y)
r
BP y – y1
sin  =  B
AP r A(x1, y1)
y – y1
Or, =r
sin 
 The required equation is O X

x – x1 y – y1 Figure 3.13
= r
cos  sin 
Thus, x = x1 + r cos  and y = y1 + r sin  are the coordinates of any point
on the above line at a distance r from A.
Self-Instructional
14 Material
Angle between Two Lines Two Dimensional
Analytical Geometry
In this section, we will derive a formula, to determine the value of the angle made
by two line.
Given y = m1x + c1, y = m2x + c2 making angle 1, 2 with the x-axis NOTES
(see Figure 1.15).
Slopes tan 1 = m1, tan 2 = m2 Y

1 – 2 =  or  – 
 tan (1 – 2) = tan 
Or, tan ( – ) i.e., – tan  
tan 1 – tan  2
 tan  = ±
1  tan 1 tan  2 X
O
m1 – m2
=± Fig. 1.15 Angle between Two Lines
1  m1 m2
Notes:
1. Two lines are parallel, if tan  = 0 i.e., m1 = m2.
2. They are perpendicular, if tan  =  i.e., m1m2 = – 1.
3. The lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 are parallel, if
 a  a 
m1 = – a1/b1 = – a2/b2 = m2. The lines are perpendicular, if  – 1   – 2  =
 b1   b2 
– 1, i.e., a1a2 + b1b2 = 0.
Example 1.6: What is the equation of a line passing through (a cos3 , a sin3 )
and perpendicular to the line x sec  + y cosec  = a?
sec 
Solution: Slope of the line = –
cosec 

cosec 
The required line perpendicular to it has slope =
sec 

cosec 
 Its equation is y – a sin3  = (x – a cos3 )
sec 
solving and rearranging, we get
x cos  – y sin  = a (cos4  – sin4 )
= a(cos2  – sin2 ) (cos2  + sin2 )
= a cos 2
Example 1.7: Find the equation of a line that passes through (a, b) which makes
an angle  with y = mx + c.
Self-Instructional
Material 15
Two Dimensional Solution: If this line PQ (see Figure) has slope m1, then
Analytical Geometry
m – m1
tan  = ±
1  m m1
NOTES
m  tan 
 m1 =
1  m tan 
There are two lines Y
P(a, b)

m  tan 
y–b = ( x – a)
1  m tan  Q

x +c
m  tan  y=
m
y–b = ( x – a)
1  m tan 
X
O
Families of Parallel Lines
A family of parallel lines can be expressed generally by the equation y = mx + c,
where c can take varying values c1, c2,... etc. (Refer Figure 1.16).

Y
Y

y= 2x
m +
y= x y
+ =
y= m c3 c
m x+
x+ c 4
c1 2
2 2
X X
O O c= c= c
=
c
=
c
=
0 2 4 6 8

(i) (ii)

Fig. 1.16 Family of Parallel Lines

If some constraints are imposed on the equation, it is possible to find the

highest value of the parameter c in a given situation.
Applying the same concept, if 2x + y = c, the line giving the highest value of
c passes through the upper right vertex of the quadrilateral which is given by
0  x  4, 0  y  8 (see Figure 1.16 (ii)).
This corresponds to c = 8
2x + y = 8.

Self-Instructional
16 Material
 (–2, 0)
Example 1.8: What is the equation of a X
Two Dimensional
O Analytical Geometry
line that makes intercepts, – 2 and – 5,
on the axes (see Figure)?
x y NOTES
Solution: 
–2 –5 =1 (0, – 5)

 – 5x – 2y = 10
Or, 5x + 2y + 10 = 0

Check Your Progress

1. When tan  is positive?
2. Write the equation of coordinate axes.
3. Define slope of a line.

1.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. When  is acute, tan  is positive. This is because as x increases, y increases

so the change in y and the change in x are both positive. Therefore the
gradient is positive.
2. Equation to the X-axis is x = 0 and to the Y-axis is y = 0.
3. If a line AB make an angle with the X-axis, then tan  is defined to be the
slope or gradient of the line.

1.5 SUMMARY

 The gradient of a line segment measures the steepness of the line.

 Two perpendicular real axes in a plane define a Cartesian coordinate system.
The point of intersection of these axes is called the origin. The horizontal
axis is called X-axis while the vertical one is called Y-axis.
 The equation of a straight line is the relation between the X and Y coordinates
which is satisfied by each and every point on the line and by those of no
other point.
 A straight line is defined by a linear equation whose general form is
Ax + By + C = 0, where A and B are not both equal to zero.
 The equation of a line can be found with the help of various types of data
available.

Self-Instructional
Material 17
Two Dimensional  The normal form of the equation of a line is given by: x cos  + y sin  = p
Analytical Geometry
 Distance between parallel lines is the perpendicular distance of any point
on one of the lines from the other line.
NOTES
1.6 KEY WORDS

 Straight line: A line of zero curvature is called straight line.

 Gradient of a line: It is the rate at which an ordinate of a point of a line on
a coordinate plane changes with respect to a change in the abscissa.
 Intercept: It is the distance between the origin and the points at which a
particular line intersects the two axes.

1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Define the term gradient of a line.
2. What is the abscissa of (x, y)?
3. In the equation, y = mx + c, what is m?
4. What is the gradient of the line when tan  = 0?
5. Show that the lines 3x + by + 5 = 0, cx – 3y – 2 = 0 are perpendicular, if
3c – 3b = 0 or b = c.
Long Answer Questions
1. Find the gradient of the straight line joining the points P(– 4, 5) and Q(4,
17).
2. Write down the gradient and the Y-intercept for the following equations,
(i) y = 4x + 3
(ii) 6x + 3y = 9
3. Find the equation of the line joining the points (2, 3) and (4, 7).
4. Write the slope-intercept form of the equation, y = 4x + 3.
5. Find the acute angle between the lines 7x – 4y = 0 and 3x – 11y + 5 = 0.
6. If A (-2, 1), B (2, 3) and C (-2, -4) are three points, find the angle between
the straight lines AB and BC.

Self-Instructional
18 Material
 Two Dimensional
1.8 FURTHER READINGS Analytical Geometry

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd. NOTES
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.

Self-Instructional
Material 19
Circle

UNIT 2 CIRCLE
NOTES Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Circle
2.3 System of Circles
2.3.1 Circle through the Intersection of Two Circles
2.4 Radical Axis– Coaxial System of Circles
2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION

A circle is a simple closed shape. It is the set of all points in a plane that are at a
given distance from a given point, the centre; equivalently it is the curve traced out
by a point that moves so that its distance from a given point is constant. The
distance between any of the points and the centre is called the radius. A circle is a
simple closed curve that divides the plane into two regions: an interior and an
exterior. In everyday use, the term 'circle' may be used interchangeably to refer to
either the boundary of the figure, or to the whole figure including its interior; in
strict technical usage, the circle is only the boundary and the whole figure is called
a disc.
In this unit, you will understand the concept of circle and system of circles.

2.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Get an overview of geometry of circles
 Understand the system of circles
 Know about coaxial circles

2.2 CIRCLE

A circle is a set of points in the plane that are equidistant from a given point called
the centre (Refer Figure 2.1).

Self-Instructional
20 Material
 Circle

r
NOTES
Fig. 2.1 Circle with Centre O and Radius r

Following are some terms related to a circle:

 Radius of the Circle is the distance from centre of circle to any point on it.
 Diameter is the longest distance from one end of a circle to the other.
 Circumference of Circle is the distance around the circle.
Circumference of circle = PI  Diameter = 2 PI  Radius
where PI =  = 3.141592...
 Arc of the Circle is a curved line that is part of the circumference of a
circle (Refer Figure 2.2).
Length of Arc with central angle  is measured as,
If the angle  is in degrees, then length, L =   (PI/180)  Radius
If the angle  is in radians, then length, L = Radius  
L

Fig. 2.2 Circle with Radius r and Central Angle 

 Chord is a line segment within a circle that touches two points on the circle
(Refer Figure 2.3). Diameter is the longest chord.

ord B
Ch
A

Fig. 2.3 Chord AB of the Circle

 Sector of a Circle is like a slice of pie, a circle wedge (Refer Figure 2.4).

r
arc length

Fig. 2.4 Sector of Circle with Central Angle  Self-Instructional

Material 21
Circle If the angle  is in degrees, then area of sector = (/360) PI × Radius2.
If the angle is in radians, then area of sector = (/2) × Radius2, where  is
the central angle.
NOTES  Area of circle = PI × Radius2
 Tangent of Circle is a line perpendicular to the radius that touches only
one point on the circle.
Equation of Circle
The standard form of equation of a circle is a way to express the definition of a
circle on the coordinate plane.
In an X-Y Cartesian coordinate system, the circle with centre (h, k) and radius r is
the set of all points (x, y) such that,
(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 ….(2.1)
This equation of the circle follows from the Pythagorean Theorem applied to any
point on the circle. As shown in Figure 2.5, the radius is the hypotenuse of a right
angled triangle whose other sides are of length |x – h| and |y – k|.
y
(x, y ) is a
point on
the circle
is
i us
ad
er

r |y – k|
Th

The centre is
( h, k ) |x – h |
x

Fig. 2.5 Circle with Coordinates of Centre (h, k)

Note: If the circle is centred at the origin (0, 0), then the equation of the circle simplifies to
x2 + y2 = r2
Different Forms of Circles
Let in an X-Y Cartesian coordinate system, the circle with centre (a, b) and radius
r is the set of all points (x, y) such that,
(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2
The equation can be written in parametric form using the trigonometric functions
sine and cosine as,
x = a + r cos t,
y = b + r sin t
where t is a parametric variable, interpreted geometrically as the angle that the ray
from the origin to (x, y) makes with the X-axis. A rational parameterization of the
circle is,
Self-Instructional
22 Material
 Circle
1 t2
x = ar
1 t2
2t
y = br
1 t2 NOTES
In homogeneous coordinates each conic section with equation of a circle is of the
form,
ax2 + ay2 + 2b1xy + 2b2 yz + cz2 = 0
In polar coordinates the equation of a circle is: r2 – 2r r0 cos ( – ) + r02 = a2,
where a is the radius of the circle, r0 is the distance of the origin from the centre of
the circle and  is the anticlockwise angle from the positive X-axis to the line
connecting the origin to the centre of the circle. For a circle centered at the origin,
i.e., r0 = 0, the equation reduces to,
r =a
When r0 = a or when the origin lies on the circle, the equation becomes,
r = 2 a cos( – )
In the general case, the equation can be solved for r, giving
r = r0 cos   –    a 2  r02 sin 2 ( – )
The circle having the coordinates of the diameter (x1, x2), (x2, y2) is given by,
(x – x1)(x – x2) + (y – y1)(y – y2) = 0
General Equation of Circle
The general equation of the circle is of the form,
x2 + y2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0
Expanding Equation (2.1), we get
x2 + y2 – 2xh – 2yk + h2 + k2 – r2 = 0
which is the general equation of the circle.

Check Your Progress

1. What is a chord?
2. What is the area of a circle?
3. Define tangent of a circle.

2.3 SYSTEM OF CIRCLES

1. A set of circles is said to be a system of circles if it contains atleast two

circles.
2. Two circles S = 0 and S = 0 are said to touch each other if they have if
they have a unique point P in common. The common point P is called point
of contact of the circles S = 0 and S = 0.
Self-Instructional
Material 23
Circle 3. If two circles touch each other then there exists only one tangent at the point
of contact of the two circles.
4. Let S = 0, S = 0 be two circles with centres c1, c2 and radii r1 , r2
respectively.
NOTES
5. If C1C2 > r1 + r2 then each circle lies completely outside the other circle.
6. If C1C2 = r1 + r2 then the two circles touch each other externally. The
point of contact divides C1C2 in the ratio r1 : r2 internally.
7. If |r1 – r2| < C1C2 < r1+ r2 then the two circles intersect at two points P
and Q. The chord PQ is called common chord of the circles.
8. If C1C2 = |r1 – r2| then the two circles touch each other internally. The point
of contact divides C1C2 in the ratio r1: r2 externally.
9. If C1C2 < |r1 – r2| then one circle lies completely inside the other circle.
10. If two circles S = 0 and S = 0 intersect at P, then the angle between the
tangents of the two circles at P is called the angle between the circles at
P.
11. If d is the distance between the centres of two intersecting circles with radii
d2 r12 r22
r1, r2 and  is the angle between the circles then cos  = 2r1r2

12. If  is the angle between the circles S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, S= x2

c c 2( gg ff
+ y2 + 2gx + 2fy+c =0 then cos = 2 g 2
f 2
c g 2
f 2
c

13. Two intersecting circles are said to cut each other orthogonally if the angle
between the circles is a right angle.
14. Let d be the distance between the centres of two intersecting circles with
radii r1, r2. The two circles cut orthogonally iff d 2 r12 r22 .

15. The condition that the two circles S  x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, S  x2

+ y2 + 2gx +2fy + c= 0 may cut each other orthogonally is 2gg +2ff =
c + c.
16. A common tangent L = 0 of the circles S =0, S = 0 is said to be a direct
common tangent of the circles if the two circles S = 0. S = 0 lie on the
same side of L = 0.
17. A common tangent L = 0 of the circle S = 0, S =0 is said to be a transverse
common tangent of the circles if the two circles S = 0, S = 0 lie on the
opposite (either) sides of L = 0.
18. Let S = 0, S = 0 be two circles with centres C1, C2 and radii r1, r2
respectively and n be the number of common tangents.
Self-Instructional 19. If C1C2 > r1 + r2 then n = 4
24 Material
 20. If C1C2 = r1 + r2 then n = 3 Circle

21. If |r1 – r2| < C1 C2 < r1 + r2 then n = 2

22. If C1C2 = | r1 – r2| then n = 1
23. If C1C2 < |r1 – r2| then n = 0 NOTES
2.3.1 Circle through the Intersection of Two Circles
The equation of a family of circles passing through the intersection of the circles P1
= x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1= 0 and P2 = x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2= 0 is P1 +
P2 = 0 i.e., (x2 + y2 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c1) + (x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2) = 0,
where  ( –1) in an arbitrary real number.
Proof:
Let the equations of the given circles be
P1 = x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0 ...(2.2)
P2 = x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 ...(2.3)
Circle Through the Intersection of Two Circles

Fig. 2.6 Circle Through the Intersection of Two Circles

Consider the equation P1 + P2 = 0 i.e., the equation of any curve through
the points of intersection of the circles (1) and (2) is,
(x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1) + (x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2) = 0 ..(2.4)
Clearly, it represents a circle for all values of  except  = –1. For = –1
(2.4) becomes a first degree equation in x, y which represents a line. In order to
prove that it passes through the points of intersection of the two given circles, it is
sufficient to show that their points of intersection satisfy (2.4).
Let (x1, y1) be a point of intersection of the given circles.
Then, x12 y12 2 g1 x1 2 f1 y1 c1 and x12 y12 2 g 2 x1 2 f 2 y1 c2

 x12 y12 2 g1 x1 2 f1 y1 c1 + x12 y12 2 g 2 x1 2 f 2 y1 c2 0

+ 0 = 0
 (x1, y1) lies on (2.4).
Similarly, it can be proved that the second point of intersection of the given
circles also satisfy (2.2)
Self-Instructional
Material 25
Circle Hence, (2.4) gives the family of circles passing through the intersection of
the given circles.
In other words, the equation of any curve through the points of intersection
of the circles (2.2) and (2.3) is
NOTES
(x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1) + (x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2) ...(2.5)
1 x2 y2 2 g1 g2 x 2 f1 f2 y c1 c2 0

g1 g 2 f f2 c1 c2
x2 y2 2 x 2 1 0 ...(2.6)
1 1 1
If   – 1, then equation (2.6) will represent the equation of a circle.
Therefore, the equation (2.5) represents the family of circles through the points of
intersection of the circles (1) and (2).

2.4 RADICAL AXIS– COAXIAL SYSTEM OF

CIRCLES

The Radical Axis of Two Circles

A quadratic equation of the form
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
represents a circle, center (–g,–f) and radius the square root of g2+f2–c. It
is imaginary when this latter quantity is negative. Every circle equation can be
normalized so that the coefficients of x2 and y2 are both 1 (and there is no xy
term). We call this the standard equation of a circle. The power of a point P with
respect to a circle C(O, r) is the quantity OP2 –r2. If P is external to C(O, r), and
T a point on the circle such that PT is tangent to the circle, then the power of P
with respect to C is the squared length of PT.
Lemma 2.1. Let C be the circle with standard equation
f(x, y) := x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
For every point P = (u, v), f(u, v) is the power of P with respect to the
circle.
The radical axis of two circles is the locus of points with equal powers with
respect to the two circles. The radical axis of the two circles
x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0,
x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0
is clearly the straight line 2(g1–g2)x + 2(f1–f2)y + (c1– c2) = 0.
The Radical Center of Three Circles
Consider three circles
x2 + y2 – 2a1x–2b1y + c1 = 0,
x2 + y2 – 2a2x–2b2y + c2 = 0,
x2 + y2 – 2a3x–2b3y + c3 = 0.
Self-Instructional
26 Material
 The radical axes of the three pairs of circles being Circle

(a2– a3)x + (b2–b3)y–(c2 – c3) = 0,

If the centers of the circles are not on a line, the three radical axes intersect
at a point, which has equal powers with respect to the three circles. This is called
NOTES
the radical center of the three circles.
Orthogonal Circles
Two circles are orthogonal if they intersect at right angles (at each intersection).
Proposition 2.1. The two circles with standard equations
x2 + y2 + 2g1x + 2f1y + c1 = 0,
x2 + y2 + 2g2x + 2f2y + c2 = 0
are orthogonal if and only if
2g1g2 + 2f1f2– c1– c2 = 0.
Proof. The orthogonality condition is
2 2
0 r12 r22 g1 g2 f1 f2
2 2
g12 f12 c1 g 22 f 22 c2 g1 g2 f1 f2
2 g1 g 2 2 f1 f 2 c1 c2 .

Consider the possibility of a circle orthogonal to two given nonconcentric

circles. We may assume the radical axis of the two given circles to be the y-axis.
The standard equations of the circles are
x2 + y2 + 2g1x + c0 = 0,
x2 + y2 + 2g2x + c0 = 0.
If there is a circle with standard equation x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
orthogonal to both of these circles, then
2g1g – c0 – c = 0,
2g2g – c0 – c = 0.
Since g1  g2, we must have g = 0 and c = –c0.
(1) If the circles intersect on the y-axis at (0, ± b), then c0 = –b2, then the
common orthogonal circle is x2 + y2 + 2fy + b2 = 0 for some f satisfying
f 2  b2.
(2) If the circles do not intersect, c0 must be positive, say, c0 = b2. In this
case, the common orthogonal circle is x2 + y2 + 2fy – b2 = 0. This
always passes through the points (±b, 0).
Coaxial circles
A system of circles is coaxial if every pair of circles from the system have the same
radical axis. Therefore, a coaxial system of circles is defined by the radical axis
and any one of the circles.
Self-Instructional
Material 27
Circle Example 2.1: Let c be a constant and  a parameter. The equation x2 + y2 + 2x
+ c = 0 defines a coaxial system of circles with centers on the X-axis. The common
radical axis is the Y-axis, the line x = 0.
(i) The circles cut the radical axis if c < 0. In this case, the common points of
NOTES
the circles in the systems are 0, c .

(ii) If c = 0, the circles are all tangent to the y-axis.

(iii) If c > 0, the circles do not have common points. For  = ± c , the two
circles degenerate into two points, called the limiting points of the coaxial
system.

Example 2.2 : Let c  0 be a fixed number. The two systems of coaxial circles
x2 + y2 + 2y + c = 0,
x2 + y2 + 2x + c = 0
are every circle in one system is orthogonal to every circle in the other system.
These two systems of coaxial circles are said to be conjugate.

Check Your Progress

4. What are orthogonal circles?
5. What are coaxial circles?
Self-Instructional
28 Material
 Circle
2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

1. Chord is a line segment within a circle that touches two points on the circle. NOTES
2. Area of circle = PI × Radius2
3. Tangent of Circle is a line perpendicular to the radius that touches only one
point on the circle.
4. Two circles are orthogonal if they intersect at right angles (at each
intersection).
A system of circles is coaxial if every pair of circles from the system have
the same radical axis. Therefore, a coaxial system of circles is defined by
the radical axis and any one of the circles.

2.6 SUMMARY

 A circle is a set of points in the plane that are equidistant from a given point
called the centre.
 Radius of the Circle is the distance from centre of circle to any point on it.
 Diameter is the longest distance from one end of a circle to the other.
 Circumference of Circle is the distance around the circle.
 If the circle is centred at the origin (0, 0), then the equation of the circle
simplifies to
x2 + y2 = r2
 If the centers of the circles are not on a line, the three radical axes intersect
at a point, which has equal powers with respect to the three circles. This is
called the radical center of the three circles.
 A system of circles is coaxial if every pair of circles from the system have
the same radical axis. Therefore, a coaxial system of circles is defined by
the radical axis and any one of the circles.

2.7 KEY WORDS

 Circle: A set of points equidistant from a given fixed point, is called the
center of the circle.
 Origin: On the flat coordinate plane, there are two axes, the vertical Y-axis
and the horizontal X-axis. The origin is the point where they intersect. This
point has the coordinates (0, 0) and is usually labelled with the letter O.

Self-Instructional
Material 29
Circle
2.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

NOTES Short Answer Questions

1. At how many points does the tangent intersect the circle?
2. Write the equation of a circle with center at origin.
3. Write the general equation of a circle.
4. What do understand by system of circles?
5. Write a short note on radical axes.
Long Answer Questions
1. Find the equation of a circle that has a diameter with endpoints given by
A(0 , –2) and B(0 , 2).
2. Find the centre and radius of the circle with equation,
x2 – 2x + y2 – 8y + 1 = 0
3. Is the point P(–1, –3) inside, outside or on the circle with equation,
(x – 1)2 + ( y + 3)2 = 4
4. Prove that the radical axis of two nonconcentric circles is perpendicular to
the line joining the centers of the circles.
5. Let c be a constant. Show that every circle from the coaxial system x2 + y2
+ 2x + c = 0 is orthogonal to every circle in the coaxial system x2 + y2 +
2y – c = 0.

2.9 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business
Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.
Self-Instructional
30 Material
 Polar Coordinates

UNIT 3 POLAR COORDINATES

Structure NOTES
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Pole and Polar Conics
3.2.1 Equation of a Line in Polar Form
3.2.2 Polar Equation of a Conic
3.3.3 Important Equations Related to a Conic
3.2.4 Asymptotes of Polar Equation of Conic
3.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.4 Summary
3.5 Key Words
3.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.7 Further Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION

In mathematics, the polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system

in which each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point
and an angle from a reference direction. The polar coordinate system is used in
many fields, including mathematics, physics, engineering, navigation and robotics.
It is especially useful in situations where the relationship between two points is
most easily expressed in terms of angles and distance; in the Cartesian coordinate
system, such a relationship can only be found through trigonometric formulae. For
many types of curves, a polar equation is the simplest means of representation; for
some others, it is the only such means.
As with all two-dimensional coordinate systems, there are two polar
coordinates: r (the radial coordinate) and  (the angular coordinate, polar angle,
or azimuth angle, sometimes represented as  or t). The r coordinate represents
the radial distance from the pole, and the  coordinate represents the anticlockwise
(counterclockwise) angle from the 0° ray (sometimes called the polar axis), known
as the positive x-axis on the Cartesian coordinate plane.
In this unit, you will learn about polar coordinate system. You will understand
the polar form of a line, eclipse, hyperbola and circle, and also some important
equations related to a conic.

3.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the concept of polar coordinates
Self-Instructional
Material 31
Polar Coordinates  Know about the relation between Cartesian coordinates and polar
coordinates
 Discuss the polar form of various conics
NOTES
3.2 POLE AND POLAR CONICS

Polar Co-Ordinates
To locate a point in the plane in terms of polar co-ordinates (r, θ ), you require a
fixed point O , which is called pole and a fixed straight line OX, called initial line
or polar axis.

Fig. 3.1 Polar Co-Ordinates

Consider a point P in the plane, such that  OP | = r , where r is called the

radius vector and  XOP = θ , where θ is called the vectorial angle or polar
angle of P measured in anti-clockwise direction. Together the polar co-ordinates
of a point P is represented by P(r, θ ).
The polar co-ordinates of O are given by (0, ), for all values of .
If the Cartesian co-ordinates and polar co-ordinates of a point P are
represented by (x, y) and (r, ) respectively, then the relation between Cartesian
co-ordinates (x, y) and polar co-ordinates (r, ) is given by x  r cos θ
and y  r sin θ .
3.2.1 Equation of a Line in Polar Form
Lines Parallel to the Axes, Horizontal and Vertical Lines
Lines Parallel to the y-Axis
A vertical line, x = c is represented by the equation
c
r cos = c or r
cos

Self-Instructional
32 Material
 Polar Coordinates

NOTES

Fig. 3.2 y-Axis

Lines Parallel to the x-Axis
A horizontal line, y = c is represented by the equation
c
r sin = c or r
sin

Fig 3.3 x-Axis

Lines Running Through the Origin or Pole (Radial Lines)

The equation of a line through the origin or pole that makes an angle  with the
positive x-axis

Thus, the equation of a line through the origin is represented by the equation
 =  in polar coordinates.

Self-Instructional
Material 33
Polar Coordinates Polar Equation of a Line

p
As cos P(r, )
r
NOTES
The polar equation of a line,
p
r
cos

where p is the distance of the line from the pole O and  is the angle that the
segment p makes with the polar axis.

Fig. 3.4 Polar Axis

Example 3.1: Write polar equation of the line passing through points (–4, 0) and
(0, 4).
Solution: Using polar equation of a line
p 2 2
r , r
cos 3
cos
4
x y
The intercept form of the line 1 or
a b
x y
14
4 1
– x + y = 4, y = x + 4

Self-Instructional
34 Material
 Polar Coordinates

NOTES

Fig. 3.5

Therefore,
–r cos  + sin  = 4, r (sin  – cos ) = 4,

1 2 2
or r sin cos 3
cos
4

Equation of a Circle in Polar Form

General Equation of a Circle in Polar Coordinates
The general equation of a circle with a center at
(r0, ) and radius R.
Using the law of cosine,
r2 + r02 – 2rr0 cos( – ) = R2

Fig. 3.6 Circle in Polar Coordinates

Self-Instructional
Material 35
Polar Coordinates Polar Equation of a Circle with a Center on the Polar Axis Running
through the Pole
Polar equation of a circle with radius R and a center on the polar axis running
NOTES through the pole O (origin).
r
Since cos then,
2R
r = 2R cos

Fig. 3.7 Polar Axis through the Pole

Polar Equation of a Circle with a Center at the Pole

Since, r2 = x2 + y2 and x2 + y2 = R2 then r = R
is polar equation of a circle with radius R and a center at the pole (origin).
3.2.2 Polar Equation of a Conic
The polar equation of a conic can always be found from the corresponding Cartesian
equation referred to rectangular co-ordinates, by putting x = r cos and y = r sin
.
For instance, the standard equation of an ellipse of axes 2a , 2b is given by,,
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2
On substituting x = r cos and y = r sin we get,
r 2 cos2 θ r 2 sin 2 θ
 1
a2 b2
which gives the polar equation of an ellipse in polar form with centre as pole and
major axis as the initial line.

Self-Instructional
36 Material
Note: If the major axis of an ellipse makes an angle  with the polar axis (or initial Polar Coordinates

r 2 cos 2 (θ   ) r 2 sin 2 (θ   )
line), then the polar equation is given by,   1.
a2 b2
NOTES
Similarly, we can take an equation of parabola, y 2  4ax and substitute the
values of x and y in terms of polar co-ordinates r and θ , to get the polar equation
of a parabola as
r sin 2 θ  4a cos θ .
Polar Equation of a Conic with Focus as a Pole
Let S be the focus, A be the vertex, ZM be the directrix and e be the eccentricity.
Draw SZ  ZM and take SZ as initial line.
Take any point P on the curve and its polar co-ordinates as r and θ , such
that SP = r and  NSP =.
Construct PN  SZ and PM  ZM.

Fig. 3.8 Polar Equation for Conic

Let SL = l, where SL be the semi-latus rectum of the given parabola.

SL
By definition, e=
SZ
l
 e
SZ
l
 SZ 
e
Also, SP = r = e PM = e NZ
As NZ = SZ – SN
SP = e(SZ – SN)
After substituting the values for SZ and SN, we get
l 
SP = e   SP cos θ 
e 
Self-Instructional
Material 37
Polar Coordinates

NOTES

Fig. 3.9 Parabola

 r = l  er cos θ
 l  r (1  e cos θ)
l
 r
1  e cos θ
This represents the polar equation of conic.
Cor. 1 If the positive direction of the initial line is ZS instead of SZ, then SP makes
l
an angle    with the initial line ZS and the equation of conic r 
1  e cos θ
l
changes to r  .
1  e cos θ
Cor. 2 When the polar axis SZ is inclined at an angle  to the initial line, then θ will
be changed to θ   , and hence the polar equation of conic will become
l
r .
1  e cos(θ  )
Based on the different values of eccentricity e, we can have different conic.
This is discussed in the following cases:
Case I: When e = 0, the conic reduces to r = l, which is the equation of a circle of
radius l and centre at pole.
l
Case II: When e = 1, the conic reduces to r  , which is a parabola.
1  cos θ
Case III: If e < 1, then the conic reduces to an ellipse.
Case IV: If e > 1, then the conic becomes a hyperbola.

Example 3.2: Suppose PSP and QSQ are two focal chords of a conic which
1 1
are perpendicular. Prove that = constant.
SP.SP SQ.SQ

Self-Instructional
38 Material
 Polar Coordinates
Solution: Let PSP and QSQ be two focal chords of a conic
l
r ...(i)
1  e cos θ
NOTES
Let  be vectorial angle P, then vectorial angles of Q, P, Q, are ,
2
3
, respectively, Thus, we have
2
l
= 1  e cos  …(ii)
SP
l
= 1 e cos 1 e sin …(iii)
SQ 2
l
= 1 e cos( ) 1 e cos …(iv)
SP
l 3
= 1 e cos 1 e cossin …(v)
SQ 2
l l l l
 SP . SP .
SQ SQ
= (1 e cos )(1 e cos ) (1 e sin )(1 e sin )
= 1 e 2 cos 2 1 e2 sin 2 2 e2
1 1
 = constant
SP.SP SQ.SQ

3.3.3 Important Equations Related to a Conic

Now you will learn about some important equations related to a conic.
Equation of Directrices to the Conic
Consider a point P( r ,θ) on the directrix ZM corresponding to the focus S. Then
In PZS, SZ = SP cos  = r cos  [where SP = r] …(3.1)
Also, SL = Semi latus-rectum = l

Fig. 3.10 Conic Euqation

Self-Instructional
Material 39
Polar Coordinates
SL
 By definition, =e
SZ
 l = e SZ
NOTES l
 SZ  …(3.2)
e
From Equation (3.1) and (3.2), we have
l
 r cos θ
e
l
  e cos θ , which is the required equation of the directrix ZM
r
Equation of a Chord Joining the Two Points on the Conic
l
Consider the equation of conic as  1  e cos θ .
r
Let X and Y be two points on the conic with vectorial angles as
   and    respectively..
Now, the general equation of any straight line in polar form is given by,
l
 A cosθ  Bcos(θ  ) …(3.3)
r
l
On substituting θ     and the value of in the above equation we get
r
1 + e cos(  )  A cos(  )  B cos(    )
 1 + e cos(  )  A cos(  )  B cos() [As cos( θ)  cos θ ]
…(3.4)
Similarly, substituting     in Equation (3.3) and solving we get,
1 + e cos(  )  A cos(  )  B cos() …(3.5)
Solving Equations (3.4) and (3.5) for the values of A and B we have,
A = e and B = sec 
Putting the values of A and B, the Equation (3.3) becomes
l
 ecosθ  secβcos(θ  α)
r
This gives the equation of a chord having α + β and α  β as vectorial angles.
l
Cor. If the conic is represented by the equation  1  e cos(θ  γ) , then the
r
equation of a chord on it having  –  and  + as vectorial angles will be
l
represented by  ecos(θ  γ)  secβcos(θ  α)
r
Self-Instructional
40 Material
Equation of a Tangent to the Conic Polar Coordinates

l
Let the equation of conic be  1  e cos θ .
r
From the previous section, the equation of chord joining two points X and NOTES
Y with vectorial angles α  β and α  β respectively is given by
l
 ecosθ  secβcos(θ  α)
r
When the point Y approaches to point X ( β  0 ), the chord represented by
the above equation become a tangent to point X( r ,α) on the conic.
As, sec 0  1
l
On substituting we get,  ecosθ  cos(θ  α)
r
which represent the equation of tangent to the conic.
l
Example 3.3: If the line  Acosθ+Bsinθ is the tangent to the conic
r
l
 1  e cos θ prove that  A  e   B  1
2 2

r
Solution: We know that, the equation of tangent at a point P( r , α) is given by,,
l
 ecosθ  cos(θ  α)
r
l
   e  cos α  cos θ  sin θ sin α …(i)
r
Also the equation of the straight line is given by,
l
 Acosθ+Bsinθ …(ii)
r
On comparing the coefficients of cos θ and sin θ from Equations (i) and (ii)
A = cos α  e  A  e  cos α …(iii)
and B  sin α …(iv)
Squaring and adding Equations (iii) and (iv), we get
(A – e)2 + B2 = 1
Hence proved.
Equation of Normal to the Conic
Let the equation of the conic be
l
 1  e cos θ …(3.6)
r

Self-Instructional
Material 41
Polar Coordinates
From the last section we have equation of tangent at point X( r1 , α) as
l
 ecosθ  cos(θ  α) …(3.7)
r1
NOTES As the point X ( r1 , α) lies on the conic represented by the Equation (3.6)
l
  1  e cos α
r1
l
 r1 
1  e cos α
 l 
 The coordinates of point X will be  ,α
 1  e cos α 
As the normal to the conic at point X will be perpendicular to the tangent at
that point,

 Equating     in the Equation (3.7), we get
2
A  π  π 
 ecos  θ    cos     α 
r1  2  2 
A  π
On solving,  e sin   sin    α  [As cos       sin  ]
r1  2
…(3.8)
 l 
The above Equation (3.8) passes through the point X  , α  if
 1  e cos α 
A 1+ecos  l
 e sin   0 [substituting r1  and θ = α in equation
l 1  e cos α
(3.8)]
le sin α
 A
1  e cos α

On substituting the value of A in Equation (3.8), it becomes

le sin 
 e sin   sin     
r 1  e cos  

 l 
This gives the equation of a normal at point X  ,α
 1  e cos α 
Example 3.4: If the normals at the points whose vectorial angles are α , β , γ on

the parabola l  1  e cos θ meet in the point (, , then prove that
r
2  α + β + γ .
Self-Instructional
42 Material
Solution: The equation of normal at the point on the parabola whose vectorial Polar Coordinates

angle is 1 is
l sin 1
= sin sin( 1 )
r (1 cos 1 ) NOTES
which passes through the point (, ).
l sin 1
 = sin sin( 1 )
(1 cos 1 )

1 1
2l sin cos
2 2
 = sin sin cos 1 cos sin 1
2 cos 2 1
2
l
 tan 1
= sin (1 cos 1 ) cos sin 1
2
l
 1 2 1 1 1
tan = 2sin cos 2 cos sin cos
2 2 2 2
2 1 1
= cos 2sin 2cos tan
2 2

1
2sin 2cos tan
2
=
sec2 1
2
l
 tan 1 1 tan 2 1
= 2sin 2cos tan 1

2 2
l l
 tan 3 1
2 cos tan 1
2sin 0
2 2

1
which is a cubic in tan , whose roots are tan , tan and tan
2 2 2 2

 S1 = tan 0
2
l 2 cos
S2 = tan tan
2 2 l
2 sin
S 3 = tan tan tan
2 2 2 l
S1 S3 2 sin
 tan =
2 2 2 1 S2 2
l 1 1 cos
l
2 sin
 = tan 
2 cos
Self-Instructional
Material 43
Polar Coordinates

2 2 2
      2

NOTES 3.2.4 Asymptotes of Polar Equation of Conic

Consider the polar equation of a conic as,
l
 1  e cos θ …(3.9)
r
Let P ( r1 , α) be any point on conic represented by Equation (3.9), then
l
 1  e cos α …(3.10)
r1
The equation of tangent to conic at P ( r1 , α) is given by,,
l
 ecos  cos(  α)
r1

On expanding cos  θ  α  and rearranging, we get

l
  e  cos α  cos   sin  sin α …(3.11)
r1
Now, the tangent at point P ( r1 , α) will become an asymptote if P lies at
infinity
 r1  
Thus, from Equation (3.10), we get
1  e cos α  0
1
 cos α  
e

As, sin α   1  cos 2 α

1
 sin α   1 
e2
On substituting the value of cos α and sin α in Equation (3.11) and
generalising it in terms of P(r, ), we have
l  1 1
  e   cos   sin  1  2
r  e e

l e2  1  2
  e  1  sin 
r e  
Self-Instructional
44 Material
 Polar Coordinates

Check Your Progress

1. What is the relation between Cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates?
2. Write the equation of the line y = c in polar form. NOTES
3. Write the equation of a parabola in polar form.

3.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The relation between Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r,
) is given by x = r cos  and y = r sin .
c
2. r =
sin
3. r sin2 = 4a cos .

3.4 SUMMARY

 To locate a point in the plane in terms of polar co-ordinates (r, θ ), you

require a fixed point O , which is called pole and a fixed straight line OX,
called initial line or polar axis.
 If the Cartesian co-ordinates and polar co-ordinates of a point P are
represented by (x, y) and (r, q) respectively, then the relation between
Cartesian co-ordinates (x, y) and polar co-ordinates (r, q) is given
by x  r cos θ and y  r sin θ .

r 2 cos2 θ r 2 sin 2 θ
  1
a2 b2
which gives the polar equation of an ellipse in polar form with centre as pole
and major axis as the initial line.
 The polar equation of a parabola is r sin 2 θ  4a cos θ .

l
 r
1  e cos θ

l
  r cos θ
e

Self-Instructional
Material 45
Polar Coordinates
3.5 KEY WORDS

 Pole and Polar: In geometry, the pole and polar are respectively a point
NOTES and a line that have a unique reciprocal relationship with respect to a given
conic section. For a given circle, reciprocation in a circle means the
transformation of each point in the plane into its polar line and each line in
the plane into its pole.
 Polar axis: The fixed reference axis from which the polar angle is measured
in a polar coordinate system.

3.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Find the equation of the line y = 3x + 2 in polar coordinates.
2. What do you understand by polar coordinates?
3. Derive the polar equation of an eclipse in polar form.
4. Derive the polar equation a parabola in polar form.
5. Derive the equation of a tangent to the conic.
6. What are asymptotes of polar equation of a conic?
Long Answer Questions
1. If a system of conics is drawn to pass through four fixed points, show that
the polar of the given points (0, 0) or a fixed point passes through a fixed
point.
2. Derive the polar equation of a conic with focus as pole.
3. Derive the equation of directrices to the conic.
4. A circle passes through the point (r1, 1) and touches the initial line at a
distance C from the pole. Find the polar equation of the circle.
l
5. The normal to the conic 1 e cos at the point whose vectorial angle is
r
 meets the curve again at the point whose vectorial angle is . Prove that

1 2e cos 2 e2
tan tan 2
2 2
1 2e sin 2 e2
2

Self-Instructional
46 Material
 6. If the normals at the point whose vectorial angle are , , ,  on the conic Polar Coordinates
l
1 e cos meet in the point (, ), prove that
r
(i)  +  +  +  – 2 = (2n+1)
NOTES
2
1 e
(ii) tan tan tan tan 0
2 2 2 2 1 e

3.7 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.

Self-Instructional
Material 47
Three Dimension
Analytical Geometry
UNIT 4 THREE DIMENSION
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
NOTES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Three Dimension Analytical Geometry
4.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.4 Summary
4.5 Key Words
4.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.7 Further Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION

The three-dimensional coordinate system is an extension of the two-dimensional

coordinate system invented in 1637 by French mathematician René Descartes
(1596–1650). Soon after Descartes wrote about his two-dimensional coordinate
system, other mathematicians took Descartes’s idea and expanded it from a two-
dimensional plane to three-dimensional space. This new development greatly
enlarged the uses of the coordinate system.
Three-dimensional space is a geometric setting in which three values (called
parameters) are required to determine the position of an element (i.e., point). This
is the informal meaning of the term dimension.
In this unit, you will be acquainted with three–dimensional analytical
geometry. The aim is to present standard properties of lines in three dimensional
space.

4.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Get an overview of three-dimensional space
 Understand the geometry of three-dimensional space

4.2 THREE DIMENSION ANALYTICAL

GEOMETRY

Three-dimensional space is a geometric setting in which three values (called

parameters) are required to determine the position of an element (i.e., point). This
Self-Instructional
is the informal meaning of the term dimension.
48 Material
 In physics and mathematics, a sequence of n numbers can be understood Three Dimension
Analytical Geometry
as a location in n-dimensional space. When n = 3, the set of all such locations is
called three-dimensional Euclidean space. It is commonly represented by the symbol
R3. This serves as a three-parameter model of the physical universe (that is, the
spatial part, without considering time) in which all known matter exists. However, NOTES
this space is only one example of a large variety of spaces in three dimensions
called 3-manifolds. In this classical example, when the three values refer to
measurements in different directions (coordinates), any three directions can be
chosen, provided that vectors in these directions do not all lie in the same 2-space
(plane). Furthermore, in this case, these three values can be labeled by any
combination of three chosen from the terms width, height, depth, and length.
Analytical geometry of three dimensions is an extension of that of two
dimensions.
Let xox, yoy, zoz be mutually perpendicular lines intersecting at o. These
three lines are called the x, y and z axes and o is called the origin.
These lines determine three mutually perpendicular planes, namely, xoy,
yoz, zox, called the xy, yz and zx planes. The perpendicular distances of any point
P from the yz, zx and xy planes are called the rectangular coordinates of the
point P denoted by (x, y, z).

P X

O
Y Y

X Y

Z

Fig. 4.1 Rectangular Coordinates

Extending the results of two-dimensional geometry, we get

1. The distance between the points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is

AB = ( x2  x1 )2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z2  z1 )2
2. The point P that divides the line joining the points A(x1, y1, z1) and
B(x2, y2, z2) internally in the ratio m : n is given by
 mx  nx1 my2  ny1 mz2  nz1 
P 2 , , 
 mn mn mn 
Self-Instructional
Material 49
Three Dimension 3. If P divides AB externally in the ratios m : n, then P is
Analytical Geometry
 mx2  nx1 my2  ny1 mz2  nz1 
 , , 
 mn mn mn 
NOTES 4. The coordinates of the midpoint M of the line joining A(x1, y1, z1) and
B(x2, y2, z2) is given by
 x1  x2 y1  y2 z1  z2 
M=  , ,
 2 2 2 
5. If G is the centroid of the triangle formed by the points A(x1, y1, z1),
B(x2, y2, z2) and C(x3, y3, z3), then G is
 x1  x2  x3 y1  y2  y3 z1  z2  z3 
 , , 
 3 3 3 
Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios
Direction Cosines

Let AB be a line in 3-dimensional space. Let OC be a line parallel to AB passing

through the origin.
Z

C
A


O Y


X
Fig. 4.2 Direction Cosines

If , ,  are the angles made by OC with positive direction of the coordinate

axes then
l = cos , m = cos , n = cos 
are called the direction cosines of the line AB.
Note: The direction cosines of the x, y and z axes are respectively 1, 0, 0; 0, 1, 0 and 0, 0, 1. If
PQ is the perpendicular from P in the xoy plane then
z
cos  = or z = r cos 
r
Similarly, x = r cos  and y = r cos 

Self-Instructional
50 Material
 Z Three Dimension
Analytical Geometry

P
 NOTES
 Z
O Y

Q
X

x y z
i.e., l = ; m= ; n=
r r r
x2  y2  z 2 r2
l2 + m2 + n2 = = =1
r2 r2
Hence, the sum of the squares of the direction cosines of any line is always 1.

Direction Ratios (D.R.’s)

Three numbers a, b, c which are proportional to the direction cosines l, m, n are

called the direction ratios of the line.
 l = ak; m = bk; n = ck
1
l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 gives k = 
a  b2  c2
2

Therefore, if a, b, c are the direction ratios of a line, then its direction cosines
are
a b c
 ,  , 
a 2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2 a 2  b2  c2
Find the Angle between Two Lines whose Direction Cosines are l1,
m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2.
Let OP and OQ be two lines drawn through the origin parallel to the given
lines and let OP = r1 and OQ = r2.
Then P is (l1r1, m1r1, n1r1) and Q is (l2r2, m2r2, n2r2)
In OPQ, if POQ =  then
PQ2 = OP2 + OQ2 – 2 OP OQ cos 
(l1r1 – l2r2)2 + (m1r1 – m2r2)2 + (n1r1 – n2r2)2

= r12  r22  2r1r2 cos 

r12 (l12  m12  n12 )  r22 (l22  m22  n22 ) – 2r1r2(l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2)

= r12  r22  2r1r2 cos 

Self-Instructional
Material 51
Three Dimension  cos  = l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1n2
Analytical Geometry
sin  = 1 – cos 
2 2

= (l12 + m12 + n12 ) (l22 + m22 + n22 ) – (l1 l2 + m1m2 + n1n2)

  l12 m22  2l1l2 m1m2  l22 m12 

NOTES
=

=  (l1m2  l2m1 )2
sin  = (l1m2  l2 m1 )2  (m1n2  m2 n1 )2  (n1l2  n2l1 ) 2
Corollary:
(i) The two given lines are perpendicular if
l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0 or a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
(ii) The two given lines are parallel if
l1 m n a1 b c
= 1 1 or = 1 1
l2 m2 n2 a2 b2 c2
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
(iii)cos  =
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22
Example 4.1. Find the direction ratios and direction cosines of the line joining the
points P(4, 2, – 5) and Q(– 2, 0, – 8).
Solution: The direction ratios of PQ are x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1.
Therefore, the d.r.’s of PQ are
– 2 – 4, 0 – 2, – 8 + 5, i.e., – 6, – 2, – 3 (or) 6, 2, 3.
The direction cosines of PQ are
a b c
, ,
2 2 2 2 2 2
a b c a b c a  b2  c 2
2

6 2 3
i.e., , ,
2 2 2 2 2 2
6 2 3 6 2 3 6  22  32
2

6 2 3
i.e., , ,
7 7 7
Example 4.2. 4, 3, – 2 are the direction ratios of a line. What are its direction
cosines?
Solution: D.r.’s of the line are 4, 3, – 2.
4 3 2
 D.c.’s of the line are , ,
2 2
4  3  ( 2) 2 29 29

Self-Instructional
52 Material
Example 4.3. What are the d.c.’s of the line equally inclined to the axes? Three Dimension
Analytical Geometry
Solution: If , ,  be the angles made by the line with the co-ordinate axes,
then the direction cosines of the line are cos , cos , cos .
Here  == NOTES
cos  + cos  + cos  = 1
2 2 2
 cos  + cos + cos  = 1
2 2 2

 3 cos2  = 1
1
 cos2 =
3
1
 cos  = 
3
 1 1 1 
The d.c.’s of the line are   , , .
 3 3 3

Example 4.4: If cos , cos , cos  are the direction cosines of any line prove
that sin2  + sin2 + sin2  = 2.
Solution: We know that,
cos2  + cos2  + cos2 = 1
(1 – sin2 ) + (1 – sin2 ) + (1 – sin2 ) = 1
sin2 + sin2 + sin2 = 2

Example 4.5. Prove by direction cosines, the points (1, 2, 3), (4, 0, 4) and
(– 2, 4, 2) are collinear.
Solution: Let A be (1, 2, 3), B be (4, 0, 4) and C be (– 2, 4, 2).
D.r.’s of AB are: 4 – 1, 0 – 2, 4 – 3, i.e., 3, – 2, 1.
D.r.’s of AC are: – 2 – 1, 4 – 2, 2 – 3, i.e., – 3, 2, – 1 or 3, – 2, 1.
D.r.’s of the lines AB and AC are the same.
Therefore, these lines are parallel.
Since both the lines pass through the point A, the points A, B, C are collinear.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the sum of the squares of the direction cosines of any line?
2. What are rectangular coordinates?
3. Write the coordinates of the centroid of a triangle formed by points A(x1,
y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2) and C(x3, y3, z3).

Self-Instructional
Material 53
Three Dimension
Analytical Geometry 4.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. The sum of the squares of the direction cosines of any line is always 1.
2. The perpendicular distances of any point P from the yz, zx and xy planes
are called the rectangular coordinates of the point P denoted by (x, y, z).
3. If G is the centroid of the triangle formed by the points A(x1, y1, z1),
B(x2, y2, z2) and C(x3, y3, z3), then G is
 x1  x2  x3 y1  y2  y3 z1  z2  z3 
 , , 
 3 3 3 

4.4 SUMMARY

 Analytical geometry of three dimensions is an extension of that of two

dimensions.
 The distance between the points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is

AB = ( x2  x1 )2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z2  z1 )2
 The sum of the squares of the direction cosines of any line is always 1.
 If a, b, c are the direction ratios of a line, then its direction cosines are
a b c
 ,  , 
2 2 2 2 2 2
a b c a b c a  b2  c2
2

 The two given lines are perpendicular if

l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0 or a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
 The two given lines are parallel if
l1 m n a1 b c
= 1 1 or = 1 1
l2 m2 n2 a2 b2 c2

4.5 KEY WORDS

 Cosine: The trigonometric function that is equal to the ratio of the side
adjacent to an acute angle (in a right-angled triangle) to the hypotenuse.
 Direction cosine: The direction cosines of a vector are the cosines of the
angles between the vector and the three coordinate axes.

Self-Instructional
54 Material
 Three Dimension
4.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND Analytical Geometry

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions NOTES

1. Find the direction cosines of the join of P(2, 3, 5) and Q(– 1, 3, 2).
2. Find the direction cosines of the join of (2, 3, 5) and (1, – 3, 2).
3. Find the angle between the lines joining A(1, 1, 0), B(2, 1, – 1) and C(– 1,
1, 2), D(1, 0, – 1).
4. Prove that the points A(3, – 1, 1), B(5, – 4, 2), C(11, – 13, 5) are collinear.
Long Answer Questions
1. Prove by direction cosines that points (1, – 2, 3), (2, 3, – 4) and (– 2, 4, 2)
are collinear.
2. Find the angle between the lines whose direction cosines are given by the
equations:
(i) l + m + n = 0, 2l + 2m – mn = 0
(ii) l + 3m + 5n = 0, 2mn – 6nl – 5lm = 0
3. Find the direction cosines of a line perpendicular to the two lines whose
direction ratios are 1, 2, 3 and – 2, 1, 4.
4. Find the projection of AB on CD if A(1, 2, 3), B(– 1, 0, 2), C(– 1, 1, 2) and
D(3, 0, 4).

4.7 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.
Self-Instructional
Material 55
Plane
BLOCK - II
PLANES AND CONES

NOTES
UNIT 5 PLANE
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Plane
5.2.1 Equation of a Plane Passing Through a Point (x1, y1, z1) and having a
Normal with Direction Ratios
a, b, c.
5.2.2 Perpendicular Distance from the Origin to a Plane
5.2.3 Angle between Two Planes
5.2.4 Equation of a Plane Passing Through Three Points (x1, y1, z1),
(x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3).
5.2.5 Distance between the Parallel Planes
5.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Words
5.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.7 Further Readings

5.0 INTRODUCTION

In mathematics, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far.

A plane is the two-dimensional analogue of a point (zero dimensions), a line (one
dimension) and three-dimensional space. Planes can arise as subspaces of some
higher-dimensional space, as with a room’s walls extended infinitely far, or they
may enjoy an independent existence in their own right, as in the setting of Euclidean
geometry.
Many fundamental tasks in mathematics, geometry, trigonometry, graph
theory, and graphing are performed in a two-dimensional space, or, in other words,
in the plane.
In this unit, you will learn to derive equation of a plane. You will also learn to
find the angle between two planes and distance between parallel planes.

5.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the geometry of planes
Self-Instructional
 Learn to find the perpendicular distance from the origin to a plane
56 Material
  Know about the angle between planes Plane

 Derive the equation of a plane passing through three points

 Find distance between parallel planes
NOTES
5.2 PLANE

Definition
A plane is a surface such that the line joining any two points lying on the surface lies
wholly on the surface.
Equation of a Plane
A general equation of first degree in x, y, z always represents a plane.
Equation of general plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0, where a, b, c are the
direction ratios of the normal to the plane.
ax + by + cz + d = 0 ... (5.1)
Let P(x1, y1, z1), Q(x2, y2, z2) be any two points on Equation (5.1).
Then ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0 ... (5.2)
and ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d = 0 ... (5.3)
Let R be any point on the line PQ dividing it in the ratio k : 1 (k arbitrary).
Multiplying Equation (5.3) by k and adding to Equation (5.2), we get
a(kx2 + x1) + b(ky2 + y1) + c(kz2 + z1) + d(k + 1) = 0
 kx2  x1   ky2  y1   kz2  z1 
i.e., a    b   c d =0
 k 1   k 1   k 1 
which shows that the point
 kx  x1 ky2  y1 kz2  z1 
R 2 , , 
 k 1 k 1 k 1 
lies on Equation (5.1).
But R divides PQ in the ratio k : 1.
Therefore, every point on PQ lies on Equation (5.1).
Therefore, the surface represented by Equation (5.1) is a plane surface.
Thus, a general equation of first degree in x, y, z always represents a plane.

5.2.1 Equation of a Plane Passing Through a Point (x1, y1, z1) and
having a Normal with Direction Ratios a, b, c.
Let the plane passing through the point A(x1, y1, z1) be denoted as . Let P be a
general point on . Let MN be the normal whose d.r.’s are a, b, c. Self-Instructional
Material 57
Plane
M

NOTES N
P 
(x, y, z)
A
(x1, y1, z1)

D.r.’s of AP are:
x – x1, y – y1, z – z1.
Since MN and AP are perpendicular we have
a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c(z – z1) = 0
This being a linear equation in x, y, z represents the plane passing through
A(x1, y1, z1).

Equation of the Plane in Normal Form

(or)
Equation of the plane in terms of the perpendicular distance from
the origin (p) and the Direction Cosines (l, m,, n) of the normal.

O p P
 C

Let OP be the normal to the plane ABC. Let OP make an angle  with OX.
AP being a line on the plane is perpendicular to OD.
OP
cos  AOD =
OA
p p
 l = or OA =
OA l
p p
Similarly, OB = ; OC =
m n
Equation of the plane ABC is
x y z
  = 1
OA OB OC
lx  my  nz
Self-Instructional i.e. = 1, i.e., lx + my + nz = p
p
58 Material
5.2.2 Perpendicular Distance from the Origin to a Plane Plane

Let the plane be

ax + by + cz + d = 0 ... (5.4)
In terms of the perpendicular distance from the origin, namely, p the NOTES
equation of the plane can be put as
lx + my + nz = p ... (5.5)
where l, m, n are the d.c.’s of the normal. Since Equations (5.4) and (5.5)
represent the same plane, the corresponding coefficients must be proportional.
l m n p
 =  
a b c d
pa pb  pc
l = – ; m=  ; n=
d d d
p2
l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 gives 2
(a 2  b 2  c 2 ) = 1
d
d
 p = 
a 2  b2  c 2
Note: The perpendicular distance p from a point P(x1, y1, z1) to the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
| ax1  by1  cz1  d |
p =
a 2  b2  c 2

5.2.3 Angle between Two Planes

a1x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
Angle between the planes is equal to the angle between their normals.
The d.r.’s of the normals to the two planes are a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2. If 
is the angle between the two planes, then
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
cos  =
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22
Note: (i) If the two planes are perpendicular, then their normals are perpendicular.
 a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
(ii) If the two planes are parallel, then their normals are parallel.
a1 b c
 = 1= 1
a2 b2 c2
Hence the equation of a plane parallel to ax + by + cz + d = 0 can be put as

ax + by + cz + k = 0.

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Plane Example 5.1. Find the direction cosines of the normal to the plane
3x + 2y + 5z + 7 = 0.
Solution: The general equation of a plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0 where a, b and
NOTES c are the direction ratios of the normal to the plane.
Given the equation of the plane is 3x + 2y + 5z + 7 = 0. The direction ratios
of the normal to the plane are 3, 2, 5.
3 2 5
The direction cosines of the normal to the plane are , , .
38 38 38
Example 5.2. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the point
(3, – 3, 1) and is perpendicular to the line joining (3, 2, – 1) and (2, – 1, 5).
Solution: The line AB becomes normal to the plane.
D.r.’s of AB are 2 – 3, – 1 – 2, 5 + 1, i.e., – 1, – 3, 6.

P
B
(2, –1, 5)

A
(3, 2, –1)

We know that equation of the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 passing through

(x1, y1, z1) is
a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c(z – z1) = 0
Here a = – 1, b = – 3, c = 6
and x1 = 3, y1 = – 3, z1 = 1.
Therefore, the equation of the required plane is
a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c(z – z1) = 0
i.e.– 1(x – 3) – 3(y + 3) + 6(z – 1) = 0
 – x – 3y + 6z + 3 – 9 – 6 = 0
 x + 3y – 6z + 12 = 0
Example 5.3. Find the equation of the plane through (1, 2, 3) and parallel to the
plane 4x + 5y – 3z = 7.
Solution: Equation of any plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
ax + by + cz + k = 0
(It differs in the constant term only.).
Therefore, the equation of the plane parallel to the plane
4x + 5y – 3z – 7 = 0 is 4x + 5y – 3z + k = 0.

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60 Material
 It passes through (1, 2, 3). Plane

 4(1) + 5(2) – 3(3) + k = 0

5+k=0
k=–5 NOTES
Therefore, the equation of the required plane is
4x + 5y – 3z – 5 = 0
Example 5.4. Find the equation to the plane passing through A(– 1, 4, – 5) with
normal equally inclined to the coordinate axes.
Solution: The plane passes through the point A(– 1, 4, – 5).
Therefore, the equation of the plane zis
a(x + 1) + b(y – 4) + c(z + 5) = 0 ...(1)
As the normal is equally inclined to the coordinate axes its direction
cosines are cos , cos , cos .
Hence, the direction ratios of the normal to the plane are 1, 1, 1.
Hence, the equation of the plane is
1(x + 1) + 1 (y – 4) + 1 (z + 5) = 0
i.e., x + y + z + 2 = 0
Example 5.5. Find the equation of the plane bisecting perpendicularly the line
joining A(4, 5, 7) and B(1, 0, 2).

M B
(1, 0, 2)

A
(4, 5, 7)

Solution: Let M be the mid point of AB.

 4 1 5  0 7  2   5 5 9 
M=  , ,  , , 
 2 2 2  2 2 2
The required plane passes through M and has AB as normal.
The direction ratios of the normal to the plane are 4 – 1, 5 – 0, 7 – 2,
i.e., 3, 5, 5.
Hence, the equation of the required plane is
 5  5  9
3 x    5  y    5  z   = 0
 2  2  2
Simplifying, we get the equation of the plane as
6x + 10y + 10z – 85 = 0
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Plane Example 5.6. Write the equation to the plane parallel to the xoy plane and 5 units
above it.
Z

NOTES

5
O Y

Solution: Any plane parallel to the xy-plane is of the form

z= k ...(1)
Therefore, it passes through the point (0, 0, 5).
Hence, substituting in (1), we get 5 = k.
 z=5 or z – 5 = 0
Example 5.7. Write the equation to the plane parallel to the xz plane and 10 units
behind it.
Z

(0, –10, 0) 10
Y

Solution: The equation of any plane parallel to the xz plane is of the form
y=k ...(1)
This passes through (0, – 10, 0).
 – 10 = k
 y = – 10 or y + 10 = 0.
Example 5.8. A plane contains the points A(– 4, 9, – 9) and B(5, – 9, 6) and is
perpendicular to the line which joins B and C(4, – 6, k). Evaluate k and find the
equation of the plane.
Solution: D.r.’s of AB are 5 + 4, – 9 – 9, 6 + 9, i.e., 3, – 6, 5.
D.r.’s of BC are – 1, 3, k – 6.
Since BC is perpendicular to the plane containing A and B, we have
3(– 1) + (– 6)(3) + 5(k – 6) = 0

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62 Material
 Plane
51
 k=
5
Therefore, d.r.’s of BC which is normal to the plane, are
51 NOTES
– 1, 3, 6 or – 5, 15, 21
5
Hence the equation of the plane is
– 5(x + 4) + 15(y – 9) + 21(z + 9) = 0
5x – 15y – 21z – 34 = 0.

Example 5.9. Find the angle between the planes 2x + 3y – 5z = 6, 3x + 8y +

6z = 9.
Solution: Angle between the planes
a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
is given by
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
cos  =
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22
Therefore, angle between the given plane is
(2)(3)  (3)(8)  (  5)(6)
cos  = =0
2  32  ( 5)2 32  82  62
2

  = 90º
Therefore, the two planes are perpendicular.

Example 5.10. Find the equations of the planes parallel to the plane
x – 2y + 2z – 3 = 0 whose perpendicular distance from (1, 2, 3) is 1.
Solution: The given plane is x – 2y + 2z – 3 = 0.
Any plane parallel to it is
x – 2y + 2z + k = 0 ... (1)
Since perpendicular distance of (1) from (1, 2, 3) is 1,
1(1)  2(2)  2(3)  k
p=  =1
1 4  4
3 k
  =1  3+k=±3
3
 k=–3–3 or k = 3 – 3
 k=–6 or 0.
From (1), equations of the required parallel planes are
x – 2y + 2z = 0 and x – 2y + 2z – 6 = 0
Self-Instructional
Material 63
Plane Example 5.11. Find the equation of the plane through (1, – 2, 2) and
(– 3, 1, – 2) and perpendicular to the plane 2x + y – z + 6 = 0.
Solution: Equation of any plane through (x1, y1, z1) is
NOTES a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c(z – z1) = 0.
Therefore, the plane passing through (1, – 2, 2) is
a(x – 1) + b(y + 2) + c(z – 2) = 0 ... (1)
It also passes through (– 3, 1, – 2).
 – 4a + 3b – 4c = 0 ... (2)
The plane 2x + y – z + 6 = 0 is perpendicular to (1). So the condition for
perpendicularity gives
2a + b – c = 0 ... (3)
Solving (2) and (3), we get
a b c
= 
1 12 10
 a = 1, b = – 12, c = – 10.
Using these values in (1), we get
1(x – 1) – 12(y + 2) – 10(z – 2) = 0
x – 12y – 10z – 1 – 24 + 20 = 0
i.e., x – 12y – 10z – 5 = 0,
which is the required equation.

Example 5.12. Find the equation of the plane through the point (1, 0, – 2) and
perpendicular to the planes 2x + y – z = 2 and x – y – z = 3.
Solution: Equation of any plane through the point (x1, y1, z1) is
a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c(z – z1) = 0
 Equation of the plane through (1, 0, – 2) is
a(x – 1) + b(y – 0) + c(z + 2) = 0 ... (1)
Equation (1) is perpendicular to the planes 2x + y – z = 0 and x – y – z = 3.
Using perpendicularity condition, we get
2a + b – c = 0 ... (2)
and a – b – c = 0 ... (3)
Solving (2) and (3), we get
a b c
= 
2 1 3
 a = – 2, b = 1, c = – 3.
Self-Instructional
64 Material
 Substituting the values of a, b and c in (1), we get Plane

– 2(x – 1) + 1(y) – 3(z + 2) = 0

– 2x + y – 3z + 2 – 6 = 0
i.e., 2x – y + 3z + 4 = 0, is the required equation of the plane. NOTES

Example 5.13. Find the equation of the plane through the points (2, 2, 1),
(1, – 2, 3) and parallel to the line joining the points (2, 1, – 3), (– 1, 5, 8).
Solution: Equation of any plane passing through (x1, y1, z1) is
a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c(z – z1) = 0
Equation of the plane through (2, 2, 1) is
a(x – 2) + b(y – 2) + c(z – 1) = 0 ... (1)
It passes through (1, – 2, 3).
 a(1 – 2) + b(– 2 – 2) + c(3 – 1) = 0
– a – 4b + 2c = 0 ... (2)
(1) is parallel to the line joining the points (2, 1, – 3), (– 1, 5, – 8).
D.r.’s of the line AB are – 3, 4, – 5.
Further,
the normal to the plane and the line AB are perpendicular. Using perpendicular
condition, we get
– 3a + 4b – 5c = 0 ...(3)
Solving (2) and (3), we get
a b c
= 
12 11 16
a = 12, b = – 11, c = – 16.
Therefore, from (1),
12(x – 2) – 11 (y – 2) – 16 (z – 1) = 0
12x – 11y – 16z + 14 = 0 is the required equation.

Example 5.14. Find the equation of the plane passing through (2, 5, 1),
perpendicular to the plane 7x – 8y + z = 2 and parallel to the plane with direction
ratios (3, – 1, 2).
Solution: Equation of the plane passing through the point (2, 5, 1) is
a(x – 2) + b(y – 5) + c(z – 1) = 0 ...(1)
The plane (1) is perpendicular to 7x – 8y + z = 2.
Therefore, their normals are also perpendicular.
 7a – 8b + c = 0 ...(2)
Self-Instructional
Material 65
Plane Further, (1) is parallel to the line of d.r.’s (3, – 1, 2).
Therefore, normal to the plane (1) and the line are perpendicular.
Hence, 3a – b + 2c = 0 ...(3)
NOTES Solving (2) and (3), we get
a b c
= 
16  1 3  14  7  24
a b c
= 
15 11 17
i.e. a = – 15, b = – 11, c = 17
Substituting these values in (1), we get
– 15(x – 2) – 11 (y – 5) + 17 (z – 1) = 0
– 15x – 11y + 17z + 68 = 0
i.e., 15x + 11y – 17z – 68 = 0, is the required solution.

Example 5.15. Prove that the equation 2x2 – 6y2 – 12z2 + 18yz + 2zx + xy = 0
represents a pair of planes. Find the angle between them.
Solution: 2x2 – 6y2 – 12z2 + 18yz + 2zx + xy = 0 ...(1)
2x2 + xy – 6y2 = 2x2 + 4xy – 3xy – 6y2
= 2x(x + 2y) – 3y(x + 2y)
= (2x – 3y) (x + 2y)
If the given equation (1) represents a pair of planes then it is possible to split
that into two linear homogeneous equations in x, y and z.
Let 2x2 – 6y2 – 12z2 + 18yz + 2zx + xy
= (2x – 3y + nz) (x + 2y + nz)
Comparing the like powers of the variables z2, yz and xz we have:
for z2 : – 12 = nn ...(2)
for yz : 18 = 2n – 3n ...(3)
for xz : 2 = n + 2n ...(4)
Solving (3) and (4),
18 = 2n – 3n
4 = 2n + 4n

14 = – 7n
 n = – 2
 n=6

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66 Material
 Hence, the two planes are Plane

2x – 3y + 6z = 0 and x + 2y – 2z = 0
The direction ratios of the normal to the planes are 2, – 3, 6 and 1, 2, – 2.
Therefore, the angle  between the planes is NOTES
 2(1)  ( 3)(2)  6( 2) 
 = cos 1  
 4  9  36 1  4  4 
 16 
= cos 1   = 139º 37
 21 
 = 40º 23 (acute angle).

5.2.4 Equation of a Plane Passing Through Three Points (x1, y1, z1),
(x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3).
The equation of the plane passing through (x1, y1, z1) is
a(x – x1) + b(y – y1) + c(z – z1) = 0 ...(5.6)
Since (1) passes through the other two points (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) we
get
a (x2 – x1) + b (y2 – y1) + c (z2 – z1) = 0 ...(5.7)
a (x3 – x1) + b (y3 – y1) + c (z3 – z1) = 0 ...(5.8)
Eliminating a, b, c from (5.6), (5.7) and (5.8), we get
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1 = 0.
x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1

Example 5.16. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (1, 1, 0),
(3, – 1, 1) and (– 1, 0, 2). Hence find its distance from the point (3, 2, 1).
Solution: Equation of the plane passing through three points (x1, y1, z1),
(x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) is

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1 = 0
x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1

Equation of the required plane is

x 1 y 1 z  0
3 1 1  1 1  0 = 0
1  1 0 1 20

Self-Instructional
Material 67
Plane
x 1 y 1 z
2 2 1 = 0
2 1 2
NOTES (x – 1) (– 4 + 1) – (y – 1) (4 + 2) + z(–2 – 4) = 0
– 3(x – 1) – 6(y – 1) – 6z = 0
– 3x – 6y – 6z + 9 = 0
i.e., x + 2y + 2z – 3 = 0
Distance of the plane x + 2y + 2z – 3 = 0 from the point (3, 2, 1) is
(3)(1)  (2)(2)  (2)(1)
p= =2
12  22  22

Example 5.17. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (4, 3, –
5), (1, – 1, 1), (7, 2, – 6) and prove that the points (4, 3, – 5), (1, – 1, 1), (7, 2,
– 6) and (1, 1, – 1) are coplanar.
Solution: Equation of the plane passing through the points (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2)
and (x3, y3, z3) is
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1 = 0.
x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1
Therefore, the equation of the plane passing through the points (4, 3, – 5),
(1, – 1, 1) and (7, 2, – 6) is
x4 y 3 z5
1  4 1  3 1 5 = 0
74 23 6  5

 2x + 3y + 3z – 2 = 0, which is the equation of the required plane.

For coplanar: If (1, 1, – 1) satisfies this equation then these four points
are coplanar.
Substituting (1, 1, – 1) in this equation
2(1) + 3(1) + 3(– 1) – 2 = 0
i.e., the point (1, 1, – 1) satisfies the equation of the plane.
Hence, the points are coplanar.
Example 5.18. Find the equation to the plane passing through the three points
(2, 3, 4), (– 3, 5, 1), (4, – 1, 2) and find also the angles which the normal to
the plane makes with the axes of reference.
Solution: Equation of any plane through (2, 3, 4) is
a(x – 2) + b(y – 3) + c(z – 4) = 0 ... (1)
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68 Material
 It passes through (– 3, 5, 1) and (4, – 1, 2). Plane

 – 5a + 2b – 3c = 0 ... (2)
2a – 4b – 2c = 0 ... (3)
From (2) and (3) NOTES
a b c
= 
 4  12  6  10 20  4
a b c
= 
16 16 16
a b c
 = 
1 1 1
From (1), the equation of the plane through the given points is
1(x – 2) + 1 (y – 3) – 1 (z – 4) = 0
 x+y–z–1=0
The d.r.’s of the normal to the plane are 1, 1, – 1.
 d.c.’s of the normal to the plane are
1 1 1
, ,
3 3 3
Therefore :

The angle between the normal to  1  1 

 = cos  
the palne and x-axis   3

The angle between the normal to  1  1 

 = cos  
the plane and y -axis   3

The angle between the normal  1  1 

 = cos   
to the plane and z -axis   3
Equation of the Plane Making Intercepts a, b, c on the Coordinate axes:
If a, b, c are the intercepts made on the x, y and z axes, then the three points lying
on the plane are A(a, 0, 0), B(0, b, 0) and C(0, 0, c).
Equation of the plane passing through the points A, B, C is
xa y0 z0
0a b0 00 =0
0a 00 c0

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Plane
xa y z
a b 0 = 0
a 0 c
NOTES (x – a) (bc) – y(– ac) + z (ab) = 0
xbc + yac + zab = abc
x y z
or   =1
a b c

Example 5.19. Find the intercepts made on the coordinate axes by x + 2y – 2z

= 9. Find also the direction cosines of the normal to the plane.
Solution: Equation of the plane is
x + 2y – 2z = 9 ...(1)
We know that the equation of the plane in intercept form is
x y z
  =1
a b c
Equation (1) can be written as
x 2 2z
 y =1
9 9 9
x y z
   =1
9 9  9
    
2  2
x-intercept = 9
9
y-intercept =
2
9
z-intercept = 
2
The direction cosines of the normal to the plane are
1 2 2 1 2 2
, , , i.e., , , .
9 9 9 3 3 3
1 1 1
Example 5.20. Find the equation of the plane making intercept , , on the
2 3 4
co-ordinate axes.
Solution: Equation of the plane in intercept form is
x y z
  =1
a b c
1 1 1
Here a = ,b= ,c= .
2 3 4
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 Therefore, the required equation of the plane is Plane

x y z
  =1
1/ 2 1/ 3 1/ 4
i.e., 2x + 3y + 4z = 1. NOTES
Example 5.21. A plane makes intercepts a, b, c on the coordinate axes. Show
that its perpendicular distance p from the origin is given by
Z
C

c
D
O b
Y
B

1 1 1 1
2
 2
 2 = .
a b c p2
Solution: The equation of the plane which makes intercepts a, b, c on the axes is
x y z
  =1
a b c
Length of the perpendicular from the origin to the plane is given by
1
p= 
1 1 1
2
 2 2
a b c
1 1 1 1
 2
 2
 2 =
a b c p2

Example 5.22. A variable plane is at a constant distance p from the origin and
meets the axes at A, B, C. Show that the locus of the centroid of the tetrahedron
1 1 1 16
OABC is 2
 2
 2
= .
x y z p2
Solution: Let the plane meet the axes at A, B and C and let OA = a, OB = b and
OC = c.
 A = (a, 0, 0), B = (0, b, 0), C = (0, 0, c)
The equation of the plane ABC is
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Plane
x y z
  =1
a b c
Since the plane is at a distance p from the origin, length of the perpendicular
from the origin to this plane is
NOTES
1
p =
1 1 1
2
 2

a b c2
1
 p2 =
1 1 1
2
 2

a b c2
1 1 1 1
 = 2
 2
 ...(2)
p 2 a b c2
Let ( x , y , z ) be the centroid of the tetrahedron OABC.
0a00 00b0 000c
 (x , y, z ) =  , , 
 4 4 4 
a b c
 x = , y = , z =
4 c 4
a = 4x , b = 4y , c = 4z ... (3)
From (2) and (3)
1 1 1 1
2
= 2
 2

p 16 x 16 y 16 z 2
1 1 1 16
Therefore, the locus of ( x , y , z ) is 2
 2
 2
= .
x y z p2

Example 5.23. Two systems of rectangular axes have the same origin. If a plane
cuts them at distances a, b, c and a1, b1, c1 from the origin, show that

a– 2 + b– 2 + c– 2 = a1 2  b1 2  c1 2

Solution: The equations of the planes in the two systems are:
x y z
  =1 ...(1)
a b c
x y z
and   =1 ...(2)
a1 b1 c1
Since (1) and (2) are the different equations of the same plane:
Perpendicular distance of O (0, 0, 0) from (1)
= Perpendicular distance of O(0, 0, 0) from (2)

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 Plane
1 1
or, =
1 1 1 1 1 1
2
 2
 2  
a b c a12 b12 c12
1 1 1 1 1 1 NOTES
   =  
a2 b2 c2 a12 b12 c12

i.e., a– 2 + b– 2 + c– 2 = a1 2  b1 2  c1 2 .

If P1 = 0 and P2 = 0 represent two planes then P1 + KP2 = 0 represents

a plane passing through the line of intersection of P1 = 0 and P2 = 0.
Let U = a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 ... (5.9)
and V = a2x + b2 y + c2z + d2 = 0 ... (5.10)
represent the two planes.
U + kV = 0, namely,
(a1x + b1y + c1z + d1) + k(a2x + b2y + c2z + d2) = 0 ... (5.11)
represents the equation of a plane.
Let P(x1, y1, z1) be a point on the line of intersection of (1) and (2).
 a1x1 + b1y1 + c1z1 + d1 = 0 ... (5.12)
a2x1 + b2y1 + c2z1 + d2 = 0 ... (5.13)
Now,
(a1x1 + b1y1 + c1z1 + d1) + k (a2x1 + b2y1 + c2z1 + d2) = 0 ... (5.14)
because of Equations (5.12) and (5.13).
From Equations (5.11) and (5.14) we observe that (x1, y1, z1) is a point
on Equation (5.11).
Thus, any point on Equations (5.9) and (5.10) satisfies (5.11).
 U + kV = 0 represents a plane passing through the line of intersection of
Equations (5.9) and (5.10).
Example 5.24. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection
of the planes x + 2y + 2z = 6, x + y + z = 2 and passing through the point
(1, 2, 3).
Solution: Equation of any plane through the line of intersection of
x + 2y + 2z = 6, x + y + z = 2
is of the form (x + 2y + 2z – 6) + k (x + y + z – 2) = 0
i.e., (1 + k)x + (2 + k)y + (2 + k)z – 6 – 2k = 0
It passes through (1, 2, 3).
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Plane  (1 + k)1 + (2 + k)2 + (2 + k)3 – 6 – 2k = 0
5
4k + 5 = 0  k= 
4
NOTES Substituting in (1), we get
x – 3y – 3z + 14 = 0

Example 5.25. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the line of
intersection of 2x + y – z = 3 and 5x – 3y + 4z + 9 = 0 and is parallel to the line
whose direction ratios are 2, 4, 5.
Solution: The equation of any plane through the line of intersection of the two
given planes is
(2x + y – z – 3) + k (5x – 3y + 4z + 9) = 0
i.e., (2 + 5k)x + (1 – 3k)y + (4k – 1)z + (9k – 3) = 0 ... (1)
Equation (1) is parallel to the line whose d.r.’s are 2, 4, 5.
 Normal to the plane is perpendicular to the line.
So, using perpendicularity condition,
2(2 + 5k) + 4(1 – 3k) + 5(4k – 1) = 0
1
18k + 3 = 0  k=
6
Substituting in (1), we get the equation of the required plane as
 5  3  4   9 
 2   x  1   y     1 z     3  = 0
 6   6   6   6 
i.e., 7x + 9y – 10z – 27 = 0
Example 5.26. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection
of the planes
2x – 5y – z = 3 and x + y + 4z = 5
and parallel to the plane x + 3y + 6z = 1.
Solution: The equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the
planes 2x – 5y + z = 3 and x + y + 4z = 5 is
(2x – 5y + z – 3) + k(x + y + 4z – 5) = 0
(2 + k)x + (– 5 + k)y + (1 + 4k)z + (– 5k – 3) = 0 ...(1)
This plane is parallel to the plane x + 3y + 6z – 1 = 0.
Hence, their normals are also parallel.
Therefore, Direction ratios of the normals to the planes are perpendicular.
2k k  5 4k  1
i.e., = 
1 3 5
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 From first two ratios we get Plane

2k k 5
=
1 3
11 NOTES
 6 + 3k = k – 5  k = 
2
11
Substituting k =  in (1), we get
2
 11   11   4  11   5  11 
 2   x    5   y  1  z   3 = 0
 2  2  2   2 
– 7x – 21y – 42z + 49 = 0
 x + 3y + 6z – 7 = 0
Note: Similarly, taking the other ratios we get more planes which are parallel to the
given plane.

Example 5.27. Find the equation to the plane passing through the line of intersection
of the planes 3x – y – z – 4 = 0 and x + y + z – 2 = 0 and parallel to the x-axis.
Solution: Any plane through the line of intersection of the planes 3x – y – z – 4 = 0
and x + y + z – 2 = 0 is of the form
(3x – y – z – 4) + k(x + y + z – 2) = 0
i.e., (3 + k)x + (– 1 + k)y + (– 1 + k)z – 4 – 2k = 0 ... (1)
This plane is parallel to the x-axis. Hence, its normal is perpendicular to the
x-axis. The d.r.’s of the normal to the plane are
3 + k, – 1 + k, –1+k
D.r.’s of the x-axis are 1, 0, 0.
 1(3 + k) + 0(– 1 + k) + 0(– 1 + k) = 0
 3+k=0
 k=–3
Substituting in Equation (1), we get
– 4y – 4z + 2 = 0
i.e., 2y + 2z – 1 = 0
Example 5.28. Find the equation to the plane passing through the line of intersection
of the planes x + y + z = 1 and 2x + 3y – z + 4 = 0 and perpendicular to the plane
2y – 3z = 4.
Solution: Equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the
planes is
(x + y + z – 1) + k (2x + 3y – z + 4) = 0
 (1 + 2k)x + (1 + 3k)y + (1 – k)z + (4k – 1) = 0 ... (1)
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Plane Equation (1) is perpendicular to the plane 2y – 3z – 4 = 0.
Using perpendicularity condition,
0(1 + 2k) + 2(1 + 3k) – 3(1 – k) = 0
NOTES or, – 1 + 9k + 0
1
 k=
9
1
Substituting k = in (1), we get
9
11x + 12y + 8z – 5 = 0, is the required equation.
Example 5.29. The plane 4x + 4y – 8z + 1 = 0 is rotated through a right angle
about the line of intersection with the plane 3x + y – 5 = 0. Find the equation of
this plane in its new position.
Solution: The plane in the new position is nothing but the plane passing through
the line of intersection of the planes 4x + 4y – 8z + 1 = 0 and 3x + y – 5 = 0 and
making an angle 90º with 4x + 4y – 8z + 1 = 0. Hence, the equation of the
required plane is of the form
(4x + 4y – 8z + 1) +  (3x + y – 5) = 0
i.e., (4 + 3)x + (4 + )y – 8z + 1 – 5 = 0 ...(1)
This is perpendicular to 4x + 4y – 8z + 1 = 0
 (4 + 3)4 + (4 + )4 – 8(– 8) = 0
or, 16+ 96 = 0
 = – 6
Substituting in Equation (1), we get the required plane as
x + 2y + 8z – 31 = 0
Example 5.30. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the line of
intersection of the planes x + 5y – 2z = 6 and 5x – 4y + 5z = 2 and is parallel to
the line joining the points (5, 1, 4) and (– 4, 2, 3).
The equation of any plane passing through the line of intersection of the two
given planes is
(x + 5y – 2z – 6) + k (5x – 4y + 5z – 2) = 0
or, (1 + 5k)x + (5 – 4k)y + (– 2 + 5k)z – 6 – 2k = 0 ...(1)
Plane (1) is parallel to the line joining the points (5, 1, 4) and (– 4, 2, 3).
D.r.’s of the line are – 4 – 5, 2 – 1, 3 – 4, i.e., – 9, 1, – 1.
Since the line is perpendicular to the normal to the plane (1),
(– 9)(1 + 5k) + 1(5 – 4k) + (– 1)(– 2 + 5k) = 0
– 54k – 2 = 0
2 1
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k=  
76 Material
54 27
 Substituting this value of k in (1), we get Plane

– 22x + 139y – 59z – 160 = 0

22x – 139y + 59z + 160 = 0
5.2.5 Distance between the Parallel Planes NOTES

Distance between the parallel planes

ax + by cz + d = 0 and ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 is
| d  d1 |
a  b2  c 2
2

Example 5.31. Find the distance between the parallel planes 3x + 2y – z + 5 = 0

and 6x + 4y – 2z – 12 = 0.
Solution: Distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d = 0 and
ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 is
| d  d1 |
a 2  b2  c 2
The first plane is
3x + 2y – z + 5 = 0
i.e., 6x + 4y – 2z + 10 = 0 ... (1)
The second plane which is parallel to Equation (1) is
6x + 4y – 2z – 12 = 0
|10  (12) | 22 11
 Distance between them =   .
62  4 2  22 56 14

Check Your Progress

1. What is a plane?
2. Which geometrical figure is represented by a general equation of first degree
in x, y, z?
3. Write an equation parallel to ax + by + cz + d = 0?

5.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. A plane is a surface such that the line joining any two points lying on the
surface lies wholly on the surface.

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Material 77
Plane 2. A general equation of first degree in x, y, z always represents a plane.
3. An equation of a plane parallel to ax + by + cz + d = 0 can be put as
ax + by + cz + k = 0.
NOTES
5.4 SUMMARY

 A plane is a surface such that the line joining any two points lying on the
surface lies wholly on the surface.
 A general equation of first degree in x, y, z always represents a plane.
 The perpendicular distance p from a point P(x1, y1, z1) to the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
| ax1  by1  cz1  d |
p=
a 2  b2  c 2

 The d.r.’s of the normals to the two planes are a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2. If 
is the angle between the two planes, then
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
cos =
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22
 Distance between the parallel planes
ax + by cz + d = 0 and ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 is
| d  d1 |
a  b2  c 2
2

5.5 KEY WORDS

 Plane: A flat surface on which a straight line joining any two points on it
would wholly lie.
 Normal: A line at right angles to a given line or surface.

5.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Find the direction cosines of the normal to the planes
(i) 3x – y + 4z + 5 = 0
(ii) x + y + z – 9 = 0

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78 Material
 2. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the point (1, – 4, 3) Plane

and is normal to the line joining the points A(– 1, 2, 3) and B(2, – 1, 4).
3. Write the equations to the plane parallel to the xoy plane and 7 units above
it.
NOTES
4. Find the equation of the plane which passes through (3, – 2, 4) and is
perpendicular to the line joining the points (2, 3, 5) and (1, – 2, 3).
5. Find the equation of the plane which bisects the acute angle between the
planes 3x – 4y + 12z = 36 and x + 2y – 2z = 9.
Long Answer Questions
1. Show that the points (0, – 1, – 1), (4, 5, 1), (3, 9, 4) and (– 4, 4, 4) are
coplanar. Hence find the plane containing the points.
2. Find the equation of the plane through the intersection of the planes x + y +
z = 1 and 2x + 3y – z + 4 = 0, parallel to (i) y-axis (ii) the line joining the
points (– 1, 2, – 3) and (2, 3, 4).
3. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the line of intersection
of the planes 2x – y – 3z – 5 = 0 and 4x – y – 2z = 7 and is perpendicular
to the xz-plane.
4. The plane 4x + 8y – 8z + 1 = 0 is rotated through a right angle about the line
of intersection with the plane 3x + y + 5 = 0. Find the equation of the plane
in its new position.
5. Find the distance between the parallel planes 4x + 2y – 3z + 5 = 0 and
4x + 2y – 3z + 15= 0.

5.7 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co. Self-Instructional
Material 79
Straight Lines

UNIT 6 STRAIGHT LINES

NOTES Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Straight Lines
6.3 Image of a Point, Image of a Line about a Plane
6.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.8 Further Readings

6.0 INTRODUCTION

The notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to

represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization
of such objects. Until the 17th century, lines were defined as the first species of
quantity, which has only one dimension, namely length, without any width nor
depth, and is nothing else than the flow or run of the point which will leave from its
imaginary moving some vestige in length, exempt of any width. The straight line is
that which is equally extended between its points.
In analytic geometry, a line in the plane is often defined as the set of points
whose coordinates satisfy a given linear equation, but in a more abstract setting,
such as incidence geometry, a line may be an independent object, distinct from the
set of points which lie on it.
In this unit, you will understand that the equation of a straight line can be
given in terms of two non-parallel planes. You will know about the symmetric and
non-symmetric forms of a straight line. In the end, you will learn to find the projection
of a point and a line on a plane.

6.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the geometry of straight lines
 Derive the equation of a line joining two points in three dimensional space
 Know about image of a point and a line on a plane

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 Straight Lines
6.2 STRAIGHT LINES

Two non-parallel planes always intersect along a straight line. Hence, the equation
of a straight line can be given in terms of two non-parallel planes, i.e., NOTES
a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 z + d 1 = 0 = a2x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d 2
represent a straight line. This is known as the non-symmetric form of a straight
line.
Note: The x axis is the line of intersection of the planes y = 0, z = 0.
 Equation of X-axis is y = 0, z = 0.
Similarly the Y-axis has equation x = 0, z = 0.
The Z-axis is given by x = 0, y = 0.
Consider a straight line whose direction cosines are l, m, n.
Take a fixed point A (x1, y1, z1) on it.
Let P(x, y, z) be a variable point on the straight line. The direction ratios of
AP are x – x1, y – y1, z – z1.
Since l, m, n are the direct cosines we have
x x1 y y1 z z1
= =
l m n
This is the symmetric form of the straight line.
x x1 y y1 z z1
= = = r gives
l m n
x = x1 + lr ; y = y1 + mr ; z = z1 + nr
which gives a general point on the straight line.
For different values of r, we get different points on the line.
Equation of a Line Joining the Points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2)
Let A (x1, y1, z1), B (x2, y2, z2) be the given points on the line. Take P (x, y, z) as
a general point on the line.
Direct Ratios or d.r.’s or D.R.’s of AP are x – x1, y – y1, z – z1.
D.r.’s of AB are x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1.
Since all the three points lie on the same line we get
x x1 y y1 z z1
= =
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
as the equation of the line.
This is known as the two-point form of the straight line.

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Material 81
Straight Lines Note: 1 If a, b, c are the d.r.’s of a line passing through the point (x1, y1, z1) then its equation
is
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
= = .
a b c
NOTES
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
Note: 2 The lines = = and
a1 b1 c1

x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
= =
a2 b2 c2
a1 b c
are parallel if = 1 = 1 .
a2 b2 c2
They are perpendicular if
a1a 2 + b 1b 2 + c 1c 2 = 0.

Note: 3 The angle between the lines is given by

a1 a2  b1 b2  c1 c2
cos  =
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22

Example 6.1. Find the equation to the line which passes through (1, 4, –1) and
has direction ratios 2, –1, 4.
Solution: Equation of the line passing through (x1, y1, z1) and has direction ratios
l, m, n is
x x1 y y1 z z1
= =
l m n
(x1, y1, z1) = (1, 4, – 1)
l, m, n = 2, –1, 4.
x 1 y 4 z 1
 Equation of the required line is = 1 = .
2 4
Example 6.2. Find the equation of the line passing through the origin and making
equal angles with the coordinate axes.
Solution: Let  be the angle made by the line with the coordinate axes.
Therefore, the d.c.’s of the line are cos , cos , cos .
Its d.r.’s are 1, 1, 1.
Therefore, the equation of the line which passes through (0, 0, 0) and has
d.r.’s 1, 1, 1 is
x 0 y 0 z 0
= =
1 1 1
i.e., x = y = z.

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Example 6.3. Find the equation of the line passing through (2, 3, 4) and parallel Straight Lines

to y-axis.
Solution: The line is parallel to the y-axis.
The d.r.’s of the Y-axis are 0, 1, 0. NOTES
Hence, the equation of the line passing through (2, 3, 4) and parallel to the
y-axis is
x 2 y 3 z 4
= =
0 1 0
i.e., x – 2 = 0 and z – 4 = 0.
Example 6.4. Find the equation of the line joining the points (1, 2, 3) and (0, 1,
2).
Solution: The equation of the line joining the two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2)
is
x x1 y y1 z z1
= = .
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
Hence, the equation is
x 1 y 2 z 3
= =
0 1 1 2 2 3
x 1 y 2 z 3
i.e., = = .
1 1 1
Example 6.5. Find the angle between the lines
x 1 y 2 z 3
= =
1 0 1
x 4 y 5 z 6
and = = .
3 4 5
Solution: The two given lines are
x 1 y 2 z 3
= = ... (6.1)
1 0 1
x 4 y 5 z 6
= = . ... (6.2)
3 4 5
The d.r.’s of the line (6.1) are 1, 0, –1 and the d.r.s of the line Equation
(6.2) are 3, 4, 5. If  is the angle between the two lines, then
(1)(3)  0(4)  ( 1)(5) 1 1
cos  = = = (Numerically)
1  0  1 9  16  25 5 5

1 1
  = cos .
5
Self-Instructional
Material 83
Straight Lines Example 6.6. Show that the lines
x 1 y 4 z 1 x 1 y z 5
= = and = =
2 3 4 1 2 2
NOTES are perpendicular.

Solution: The two lines are perpendicular if

a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
Here, a1, b1, c1 = 2, –3, 4
a2, b2, c2 = – 1, 2, 2
 a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 2 (–1) + (– 3) (2) + (4) (2)
=–8+8
=0
Hence, the two lines are perpendicular.

6.3 IMAGE OF A POINT, IMAGE OF A LINE

ABOUT A PLANE

Projection of a Point Onto a Plane

A given point A(x0, y0, z0) and its projection A determine a line of which the
 
direction vector s coincides with the normal vector N of the projection plane P.
As the point A lies at the same time on the line AA and the plane P, the
coordinates of the radius (position) vector of a variable point of the line written in
the parametric form,
x = x0 + a · t, y = y0 + b · t and z = z0 + c · t,
These variable coordinates of a point of the line plugged into the equation of
the plane will determine the value of the parameter t such that this point will be, at
the same time, on the line and the plane.

Fig. 6.1 Point Onto a Plane

Self-Instructional
84 Material
Example 6.7. Find the orthogonal projection of the point A(5, 6, 3) onto the Straight Lines

plane 3x  2y + z  2 = 0.
Solution: The direction vector of the line AA is s = N = 3i  2 j + k, so the
parametric equation of the line which is perpendicular to the plane and passes
NOTES
through the given point

A these coordinates of the radius vector of the point A must satisfy the equation of
the given plane that is
3 · (3t + 5)  2 · (2t  6) + 1 · (t + 3)  2 = 0 => t = 2
therefore, the coordinates of the point A are,
x = 3t + 5 = 3 · (2) + 5 = 1, y = 2t  6 = 2 · (2)  6 = 2 and
z = t + 3 = 2 + 3 = 1, thus the orthogonal projection of the point A onto the given
plane is,
A (1, 2, 1)
Projection of a Point Onto a Line
If we lay through a given point A a plane P perpendicular to a given line, then will
the intersection of the line and the plane, at the same time be the projection A of
the point onto the line. Then, the normal vector of the plane and the direction
vector of the given line coincide, i.e.,
N=s
and since the coordinates of the given point must satisfy the equation of the plane,
that way the plane is determined.
As the intersection A is the common point of the line and the plane then the
parametric coordinates of a radius vector of the line plugged into the equation of
the plane will determine the value of a parameter t such that this condition to be
satisfied.

Fig. 6.2 Point Onto a Line

Self-Instructional
Material 85
Straight Lines Example 6.8. Find the projection of the point A(4, 2, 1) onto the line

NOTES
Solution: The normal vector of a plane, perpendicular to the given line, coincides
to the direction vector of the line, that is N = s = 3i + 5 j + 3k.
As the plane must pass through the point A, then
A(4, 2, 1)  3x + 5y + 3z + D = 0
 3 · 4 + 5 · (2) + 3 · 1 + D = 0, D = 19
Since the intersection is the common point of the given line and the plane
then the coordinates of the radius vector of the intersection must satisfy the equation
of the plane that is,

and plugged into the plane

3 · (3t  1) + 5 · (5t + 3) + 3 · (3t + 2) + 19 = 0, t = 1
Thus, the coordinates of the intersection or the projection A2 are,
x = 3 · (1)  1 = 2, y = 5 · (1) + 3 = 2 and z = 3 · (1) + 2 = 1,
A (2, 2, 1).
Example 6.9. Find the image of the point (1, 0, 1) in the plane x + 2y + 3z = 6.
Solution: If two points P, P be such that the line PP1 is bisected perpendicularly
by a plane then either of the points is the image (or reflection) of the other in the
plane.
Let the required image be P(a, b, c).

 a 1 b c 1
The mid-point of the join of P (1, 0, 1) and P(a, b, c) is  , , 
 2 2 2 
By definition of image, this point lies on the plane x + 2y + 3z = 6.
a 1 b c 1
 2 3 =6
2 2 2
a + 2b + 3c – 8 = 0 ... (1)
Also PP is normal to the plane.
Therefore, PP and the normal to the plane are parallel.
a 1 b 0 c 1
 = = = k (say)
1 1 3
 a = k + 1, b = 2k, c = 3k + 1

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86 Material
 P Straight Lines

NOTES
P

Substituting in Equation (1), we get

(k + 1) + 4k + 9k + 3 – 8 = 0.
 14k – 4 = 0
2
k= .
7
9 4 13
 a= ,b= ,c= .
7 7 7
9 4 13
Hence, the image of the point is , , .
7 7 7
Projection of a Line onto a Plane
Orthogonal projection of a line onto a plane is a line or a point. If a given line is
perpendicular to a plane, its projection is a point, that is the intersection point with

the plane, and its direction vector s is coincident with the normal vector N of the
plane.
If a line is parallel with a plane then it is also parallel with its projection onto
the plane and orthogonal to the normal vector of the plane that is
s  N  s · N = 0.
Projection of a line which is not parallel nor perpendicular to a plane, passes
through their intersection B and through the projection A of any point A of the line
onto the plane, as shows in the Figure 6.3.

Fig. 6.3 Line Onto a Plane

Self-Instructional
Material 87
Straight Lines
Example 6.10. Determine projection of the line onto the
plane 13x  9y + 16z  69 = 0.
Solution: First determine coordinates of the intersection point of the line and the
NOTES
plane,

plug these variable coordinates of the line into the plane x = 15t + 15, y =
15t  12 and z = 11t + 17  13x  9y + 16z  69 = 0, that is, 13 ·
(15t + 15)  9 · (15t  12) + 16 · (11t + 17)  69 = 0  t = 1 thus, thus,
x = 15t + 15 = 15 · (1) + 15 = 0, y = 15t  12 = 15 · (1)  12 = 3 and
z = 11t + 17 = 11 · (1) + 17 = 6 therefore, the intersection B(0, 3, 6).
Then, find the projection A of a point A(15, 12, 17) of the given line, onto
the plane, as the intersection of the normal through the point A, and the plane.
So, write the equation of the normal

Repeat the same procedure to find the projection A as for the intersection
B, that is

plug these variable coordinates of the normal into the equation of the given plane
to find the projection A, so
x = 13t + 15, y = 9t  12 and z = 16t + 17  13x  9y + 16z  69 = 0,
13(13t + 15)  9(9t  12) + 16(16t + 17)  69 = 0, t = 1.
Thus, x = 13 · (1) + 15 = 2, y = 9 · (1)  12 = 3 and z = 16 · (1) +
17 = 1, A´(2, 3, 1).
Finally, as the projection of the given line onto the given plane passes through
the intersection B and the projection A then, by plugging their coordinates into the
equation of the line through two points

obtained is the equation of the projection.

Example 6.11. Projection of the line onto the plane 13x

 9y + 16z  69 = 0, the same as in the above example, can be calculated
applying simpler method.
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88 Material
Solution: Intersection of the given plane and the orthogonal plane through the Straight Lines

given line, that is, the plane through three points, intersection point B, the point A of
the given line and its projection A onto the plane, is at the same time projection of
the given line onto the given plane, as shows the below figure.
NOTES

The direction vector N1, of the plane determined by three points A, B and
A, is the result of the vector product of the normal vector of the given plane and
the direction vector s of the given line, that is

By plugging the point A(15, 12, 17) into the equation of the plane,
A(15, 12, 17)  141x + 97y  60z + D = 0  141 · 15 + 97 · (12) 
60 · 17 + D = 0, D = 69
obtained is the equation of the plane P1 :: 141x + 97y  60z + 69 = 0.
Finally, the line of the intersection l of the given plane
P :: 13x  9y + 16z  69 = 0 and the plane P1 :: 141x + 97y  60z + 69 = 0
is at the same time the projection of the given line onto the given plane.
To check the obtained result, write the vector product of normal vectors of
planes P and P1,

therefore, N × N1 = s the vector product is collinear with the direction vector of

the intersection line, what proves the result.

Check Your Progress

1. Write the equation of Y-axis.
2. Write the equation of Z-axis.
3. Write the non-symmetric form of a straight line.
Self-Instructional
Material 89
Straight Lines
6.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. x = 0, z = 0.
2. x = 0, y = 0.
3. a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 = a2x + b2y + c2z + d2.

6.5 SUMMARY

 Two non-parallel planes always intersect along a straight line.

 a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 z + d 1 = 0 = a2x + b 2 y + c 2 z + d 2 represent a straight line.
 The X-axis is the line of intersection of the planes y = 0, z = 0.
 Equation of X-axis is y = 0, z = 0.
x x1 y y1 z z1
 = =
l m n
This is the symmetric form of the straight line.
x x1 y y1 z z1
 = =
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
This is known as the two-point form of the straight line.

6.6 KEY WORDS

 Line: A straight or curved continuous extent of length without breadth.

 Coordinate axes: The coordinate axes or Cartesian axes consists of two
mutually perpendicular axes that intersect at the origin (0, 0).

6.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Find the angle between the lines.
x 1 y 3 z 2 x 3 y 0 z 1
(i) and
2 3 1 3 0 3
x 1 y 3 z 4 x 4 y 4 z 1
(ii) and
2 3 1 1 2 2
x 1 y 3 z 1 x 1 y 2 z 1
(iii) and
Self-Instructional 2 1 7 4 1 1
90 Material
 2. Find the equation of the line joining the points (1, 2, 3) and (–3, 4, 3) and Straight Lines

show that it is perpendicular to z-axis.

3. Find the equation of the line joining the points (1, –1, 2) and (4, 2, 3).
4. Find the image of the point (1, 3, 4) in the plane 2x – y + z = 0. NOTES
y 7
5. Find the image of the line x + 5 = z in the plane 2x – y + z + 6 = 0
5
Long Answer Questions
1. Find the equation to the normal to the plane 4x + y – 2z + 3 = 0 passing
through (–1, 2, 6).
2. Prove that the points (3, 2, 4), (4, 5, 2) and (5, 8, 0) are collinear. Find the
equation of the line through them.
3. Find the equation of the line through the point (–2, 3, 4) and parallel to the
planes 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 and 4x + 3y + 5z = 6.
4. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the point (2, 3, 4)
and makes angles 60o, 60o, 45o with positive direction of the axes.
5. Find the equation of the line which,
(i) Passes through the point (–1, –2, –3) and is perpendicular to the
plane x + 2y + 3z = 4
(ii) Passes through the point (4, 5, 6) and is perpendicular to the plane
5x + 6y – 7z = 8
(iii) Is perpendicular to the plane 2x – y + 3z + 5 = 0 and passes through
the point (3, 6, 9).

6.8 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co. Self-Instructional
Material 91
Plane and Straight Lines

UNIT 7 PLANE AND STRAIGHT

LINES
NOTES
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Line and a Plane
7.3 Coplanar Lines
7.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.5 Summary
7.6 Key Words
7.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.8 Further Readings

7.0 INTRODUCTION

You have studied about lines and planes in the previous units. In this unit, you will
learn to find the angle between a given line and a plane. Assume that a line is
inclined on a plane. A normal to the plane is drawn from the point where the line
touches the plane. This normal forms an angle with the line. Then, the angle between
the line and the plane is equivalent to the complement of the angle between the line
and the normal.
Further in this unit, you will understand the concept of coplanar lines. Two
lines in three-dimensional space are coplanar if there is a plane that includes them
both. This occurs if the lines are parallel, or if they intersect each other. Two lines
that are not coplanar are called skew lines.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Find the angle between a line and a plane
 Check if two lines are coplanar lines or not

7.2 LINE AND A PLANE

x x1 y y1 z z1
Find the angle between the line = = and the plane
l m n
ax + by + cz + d = 0

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92 Material
 Let  be the angle between the line and the plane. Then (90 – ) is the angle Plane and Straight Lines

between the line and normal to the plane.

Now, the direction ratios of the line are l, m, n and the direction ratios of the
normal to the plane are a, b, c.
NOTES

normal

e
l in
–
90

Fig. 7.1 Angle between Line and Normal to Plane

la mb nc
cos (90 – ) =
l2 m2 n2 a 2 b2 c2
la mb nc
 sin  =
l2 m2 n2 a 2 b2 c2
Hence, the required angle

1 la mb nc
 = sin .
2 2 2 2
l m n a b2 c2

Corollary:

(i) If the line is parallel to the plane, then sin  = 0.

al + bm + cn = 0.
(ii) If the line is perpendicular to the plane it will be parallel to its normal.
l m n
 = =
a b c
Conditions for a Line to Iie in a Plane

x x1 y y1 z z1
1. Condition for the line = = to lie in the plane are:
l m n
(i) ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0 and
(ii) al + bm + cn = 0
2. The equation of any plane through the line
x x1 y y1 z z1
= =
l m n
is: a (x – x1) + b (y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0 where al + bm + cn = 0. Self-Instructional
Material 93
Plane and Straight Lines Example 7.1. Find the angle between the line of intersection of the planes
3x + 2y + z = 5 and x + y – 2z = 3 and the line of intersection of the planes
2x = y + z and 7x + 10y = 8z.
Solution: First we will find the direction ratios of the lines.
NOTES
The d.r.’s a1, b1, c1 of the line 3x + 2y + z = 5 and x + y – 2z = 3 are given
by the equations 3a1 + 2b1 + c1 = 0 and a1 + b1 – 2c1 = 0.
Solving these two equations, we get
a1 b c
= 1 = 1
4 1 1 6 3 2
a1 b c
= 1 = 1
5 7 1
a1 = –5, b1 = 7, c1 = 1
Now the d.r.’s a2, b2, c2 of the line 2x – y – z = 0 and 7x + 10y – 8z = 0 are
given by the equations
2a 2 – b2 – c2 = 0 and 7a 2 + 10b 2 – 8c 2 = 0
Solving, we get
a2 b c
= 2 = 2
18 23 27
a2 = 18, b2 = 23, c2 = 27.
Angle between the lines is given by
98
cos  =
27 1582

1 98
 = cos .
27 1582
Example 7.2. Find the distance of the point (3, – 4, 5) from the plane
x y z
2x + 5y – 6z = 16, measured parallel to the line = = .
2 1 2
x y z
Solution: The given line is = = ... (1)
2 1 2
Its d.r.’s are 2, 1, –2.
Since PQ is parallel to the line (1), d.r.’s of (1) are 2, 1, – 2.
 Equations of the line through P(3, – 4, 5) and parallel to the line (1) are
x 3 y 4 z 5
= = = r (say) ... (2)
2 1 2
Any point on the line (2) is Q (2r + 3, r – 4, –2r + 5).
Self-Instructional
94 Material
 If this point Q lies on the plane 2x + 5y – 6z = 16, then Plane and Straight Lines

2 (2r + 3) + 5 (r – 4) – 6 (–2r + 5) = 16
 4r + 6 + 5r – 20 + 12r – 30 = 16
 21r = 60 NOTES
20
 r= .
7
P (3, –4, 5)
z/–2
1=
= y/

Q
x/2

40 20 40 61 8 5
Therefore, the point Q is 3, 4, 5 , i.e., Q , , .
7 7 7 7 7 7
Distance between P and Q is
2 2 2
61 8 5
PQ = 3 4 5
7 7 7
2 2 2
40 20 40
=
7 7 7
1
= 1600  400  1600
7
60
=
7

7.3 COPLANAR LINES

Coplanar lines are lines that lie on the same plane.

Let the equations of the lines be
x x1 y y1 z z1
= = ... (7.1)
l1 m1 n1
x x2 y y2 z z2
and = = ... (7.2)
l2 m2 n2
The equation of any plane through the line Equation (7.1) is
a(x –x1) + b (y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0 ... (7.3)
where al1 + bm1 + cn1 = 0 ... (7.4)

Self-Instructional
Material 95
Plane and Straight Lines Line Equation (7.2) will lie in the plane Equation (7.3) if it is parallel to the
plane and its point (x2, y2, z2) lies on this plane.
i.e., if al2 + bm2 + cn2 = 0 ...(7.5)
NOTES and a (x2 – x1) + b(y2 – y1) + c(z2 – z1) = 0 ...(7.6)
Eliminating a, b, c from Equations (7.6), (7.4) and (7.5), we get
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
l1 m1 n1 =0
l2 m2 n2
which is the required condition.
Also eliminating a, b, c from Equations (7.3), (7.4) and (7.5), we get
x x1 y y1 z z1
l1 m1 n1 =0
l2 m2 n2
which is the equation of the plane containing the lines of Equations (7.1) and
(7.2).
x 5 y 7 z 3 x 8 y 4
Example 7.3. Show that the lines = = ; = =
4 4 5 7 1
z 5
are coplanar; and find the equation of the plane in which they lie.
3
x x1 y y1 z z1 x x2 y y2 z z2
Solution: Two lines = = and = =
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
are coplanar if l1 m1 n1 =0
l2 m2 n2
and the equation of the plane containing them is
x x1 y y1 z z1
l1 m1 n1 =0
l2 m2 n2
Here x 1 = 5, y1 = 7, z1= –3
x 2 = 8, y2 = 7, z2 = 5
l1 = 4, m1 = 4, n1 = –5
l2 = 7, m2 = 1, n2 = 3
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
 l1 m1 n1 =0
l2 m2 n2
Self-Instructional
96 Material
 Plane and Straight Lines
8 5 4 7 5 3
or, 4 4 5 = 3(12 + 5) + 3 (12 + 35) + 8 (4 – 28)
7 1 3
= 3(17) + 3(47) – 192 NOTES
=0
Therefore, the given lines are coplanar.
Equation of the plane containing them is
x 5 y 7 z 3
4 4 5 =0
7 1 3
17x – 47y – 24z + 172= 0.
Example 7.4. Prove that the lines
x 4 y 3 1 z x 1 y 1 z 10
= = and = 3 =
1 4 7 2 8
intersect and find the coordinates of their point of intersection.
Solution: The general points on the two lines are
P(r1 + 4, –4r1 – 3, 7r1 – 1) and
Q(2r2 + 1, –3r2 – 1, 8r2 – 10)
If the two lines intersect at these general points, then
r1 + 4 = 2r2 + 1
–4r1 – 3 = –3r2 – 1
7r1 – 1 = 8r2 – 10
i.e., r1 – 2r2 = –3 ... (1)
– 4r1 + 3r2 = 2 ... (2)
7r1 + 8r2 = – 9 ... (3)
Solving Equations (1) and (2), we get r1 = 1, r2 = 2.
These values satisfy (3).
Hence, the two lines intersect.
Using r1 = 1 in P, we get the point of intersection as P(5, –7, 6).
x 1 y 3 z 2 x y 7 z 7
Example 7.5. Prove that lines = = and = =
3 2 1 1 3 2
intersect. Find the point of intersection and the equation to the plane containing
them.
Self-Instructional
Material 97
Plane and Straight Lines Solution: The two lines intersect (or are coplanar) if
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
l1 m1 n1 =0
NOTES l2 m2 n2
0  (1) 7  3 7  (  2) 1 4 5
3 2 1 = 3 2 1 = 35 – 35 = 0.
1 3 2 1 3 2
Therefore, the two lines are coplanar and the lines are not parallel.
Therefore, the two given lines intersect.
Equation of the plane containing them is
x x1 y y1 z z1
l1 m1 n1 =0
l2 m2 n2

x 1 y  3 z  2
 3 2 1 =0
1 3 2
 x + y + z = 0.
To Find the Point of Intersection.
Any point on the first line is
P (–3r – 1, 2r + 3, r – 2) ...(1)
If this point P lies on the second line, we have
3r 1 2r 3 7 r27
= =
1 3 2
3r 1 2r  4 r 5
i.e., = =
1 3 2
Taking the first two ratios,
2r 4
 –3r – 1 =
3
 9r + 3 = 2r – 4
 7r = – 7
 r = –1
Substituting r = –1 in (1), we get
P (3 – 1, –2 + 3, –3) i.e., P(2, 1, –3).

Self-Instructional
98 Material
 Plane and Straight Lines

Check Your Progress

1. What is the value of sin  when a line is parallel to the plane?
2. What are coplanar lines? NOTES

7.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Zero.
2. Coplanar lines are lines that lie on the same plane.

7.5 SUMMARY

1 la mb nc
  = sin .
2 2 2 2
l m n a b2 c2
 If the line is parallel to the plane, then sin  = 0.
 If the line is perpendicular to the plane it will be parallel to its normal.
l m n
= =
a b c

7.6 KEY WORDS

 Coplanar line: These are lines that lie on the same plane.
 Plane: A flat surface on which a straight line joining any two points on it
would wholly lie.

7.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

x 1 y z 3
1. Find the angle between the line and the plane
2 3 6
3x + y + z = 7.
x 3 y 3 z 5
2. Prove that the line is parallel to the plane
2 2 4
4x + 4y – 5z = 0.
3. Find the equations of the line through (1, 2, 3) and parallel to the planes x +
y + z = 6 and 2x – y + 3z = 0. Self-Instructional
Material 99
Plane and Straight Lines 4. Find the equations of the line through the point (–2, 3, 4) and parallel to the
planes 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 and 4x + 3y + 5z = 6.
5. Find the equation of the plane through the points (2, –1, 0), (3, –4, 5) and
parallel to the line 2x = 3y = 4z.
NOTES
Long Answer Questions

x 2 y 3 z 4 x 3 y 1 z 1
1. Prove that the lines and
2 1 3 1 3 2
intersect (or coplanar).
Find the point of intersection and the equation of plane containing them.
2. Prove that the lines x + y + z – 3 = 0 = 2x + 3y + 4z – 5 and 4x – y + 5z
– 7 = 0 = 2x – 5y – z –3 are coplanar. Find the equation of the plane
containing them.
x 1 y 1 z 1
3. Show that the lines and x + 2y + 3z – 8 = 0 = 2x + 3y
1 2 3
+ 4z – 11 are coplanar. Find the point of intersection and the equation of
the plane containing them.
4. The equations of four planes are respectively
x + 2y – z – 3 = 0, 3x – y + z – 1 = 0, 2x – 2y + 3z + 2 = 0,
x – y + z + 1 = 0.
Show that the line of intersection of the first two planes is coplanar with the
line of intersection of the latter two planes and find the equation of the plane
containing the two lines.

7.8 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.
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 Cone

UNIT 8 CONE
Structure NOTES
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Cone
8.3 Equation of a Right Circular Cone
8.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.8 Further Readings

8.0 INTRODUCTION

A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat

base to a point called the apex or vertex. In common usage in elementary geometry,
cones are assumed to be right circular, where circular means that the base is a
circle and right means that the axis passes through the centre of the base at right
angles to its plane. If the cone is right circular the intersection of a plane with the
lateral surface is a conic section. In general, however, the base may be any shape
and the apex may lie anywhere. Contrasted with right cones are oblique cones, in
which the axis passes through the centre of the base non-perpendicularly.
In this unit, the concept of cone has been discussed. You will learn and
derive the equations of a cone.

8.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Get an overview of the geometry of cone
 Derive the equation of a cone
 Understand the concept of right circular cone
 Discuss the equation of right circular cone

8.2 CONE

A cone is formed by a set of line segments, half-lines, or lines connecting a common

point, the apex, to all of the points on a base that is in a plane that does not contain
the apex. Depending on the author, the base may be restricted to be a circle, any
one-dimensional quadratic form in the plane, any closed one-dimensional figure,
or any of the above plus all the enclosed points. If the enclosed points are included Self-Instructional
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Cone in the base, the cone is a solid object; otherwise it is a two-dimensional object in
three-dimensional space. In the case of a solid object, the boundary formed by
these lines or partial lines is called the lateral surface; if the lateral surface is
unbounded, it is a conical surface. The axis of a cone is the straight line (if any),
NOTES passing through the apex, about which the base (and the whole cone) has a circular
symmetry.
A surface generated by a moving straight line, which passes through a fixed
point and is subjected to one or more condition is known as cone (Refer Figure
8.1). The conditions can be that it may touch a given surface or intersect a fixed
curve or is inclined at an angle with a given line through the fixed point. The fixed
point A is called the vertex and the fixed curve is called the guiding curve of the
cone. The moving straight line in any position is called a generator.

Fig. 8.1 Cone

A cone can also be defined as a set of lines called generators, through a

given point, called the vertex.
Homogeneous Equation

Homogeneous equation is an equation f  x, y, z  = 0 if for every value of r,

f  rx, ry, rz  = 0. We can also say that an equation is homogeneous if its each

term has equal degree. For example, ax 2  by 2  cz 2  2 fyz  2 gzx  2hxy =

0 is a homogenous equation in x, y, z because its each term has an equal degree
(i.e., 2).
Equation of Cone with Vertex at the Origin
Theorem 8.1: The equation of the cone, with its vertex at the origin, is
homogeneous in x, y, z.
Proof: Let f  x, y , z  = 0 …(8.1)
be the equation of the cone with its vertex at the origin O.
Let P  x1 , y1 , z1  be any point lying on the cone, then
f  x1 , y1 , z1  = 0 …(8.2)

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 Now, the equation of the generator OP will be, Cone

x0 y0 z 0
 
x1  0 y1  0 z1  0
NOTES
x y z
     r (say) …(8.3)
x1 y1 z1
 The coordinates of any point Q (Refer Figure 8.2) that is lying on the
generator OP is  rx1 , ry1 , rz1  .

Fig. 8.2 Coordinates of a Point

From the definition of cone, we know that the generator wholly lies on the
cone. Hence, every point  rx1 , ry1 , rz1  on the generator must satisfy equation of
the cone as in Equation (8.1).
 f  rx1 , ry1 , rz1   0 …(8.4)
for all the values of r
It is clear from Equations (8.2) and (8.4) that the Equation f  x1 , y1 , z1  = 0
is a homogeneous in x1 , y1 and z1 . Thus, the equation of the cone f  x, y, z  = 0
with its vertex at origin is homogeneous in x, y, z.
Conversely, any homogeneous equation in x, y, z represents a cone with its vertex
at the origin.
Note: A cone whose equation is of the second degree in x, y, z is called a quadric
cone. The general equation of the quadric cone whose vertex is at the origin is
given by
ax 2  by 2  cz 2  2 fyz  2 gzx  2hxy = 0
This equation breaks into pair of planes if abc + 2fgh – af2 – bg2 – ch2 = 0.
Cone with Vertex at Origin and Passing through the Point of Intersection
of the Plane and the Surface
Consider the equation of the plane as,
lx  my  nz  p
lx  my  nz
  1 …(8.5)
p
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Cone And the equation of the surface as
ax 2  by 2  cz 2 = 1 …(8.6)
Now, converting Equation (8.6) into homogeneous using Equation (8.5),
NOTES 2
 lx  my  nz 
ax 2  by 2  cz 2 =  
 p 

 p 2 (ax 2  by 2  cz 2 ) = (lx  my  nz )2 …(8.7)

Since the homogeneous equation represents a cone whose vertex is at the
origin, thus the Equation (8.7) is the required equation of the cone.
x y z
Example 8.1: The plane   = 1 meets the coordinate axes in A, B, C.
a b c
Prove that the equation to the cone generated by lines drawn from O to meet the
circle ABC is
b c  c a a b
yz  +  + xz  +  + xy  +  = 0.
c d a c b a
Solution: The given equation of the plane is
x y z
  =1 …(1)
a b c
The plane given by Equation (1) meets the X-axis at A (a, 0, 0), Y-axis at B
(0, b, 0) and Z-axis at C(0, 0, c).
Thus, the circle ABC is the intersection of the sphere OABC and the plane
ABC.
But the Equation of the sphere through O, A, B, C is
x 2  y 2  z 2  ax  by  cz = 0 …(2)
Converting Equation (2) into homogenous equation using Equation (1),
x y z
x 2  y 2  z 2 = (ax  by  cz )    
a b c
2 2 2   a  b  b c  a c
 x  y  z = x  y  z  xy  b  a   yz  c  b   zx  c  a 
2 2 2
     

a b b c a c
 xy     yz     zx    = 0 …(3)
b a c b c a
Since the homogeneous equation represents the cone whose vertex is at the
origin, thus the Equation (3) is the equation of the cone. Hence, the result.
Equation of a Cone with a Given Vertex and Base a Given Conic
Let us consider the coordinates of the vertex as ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and the base as the
conic
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 Cone
ax 2  2hxy  by 2  2 gx  2 fy  c = 0, z = 0 …(8.8)
Now, the equation of any generating line that is passing through the vertex
( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and having direction cosines as l, m, n will be
NOTES
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
= = …(8.9)
l m n
As this line meets the conic Equation (8.8) where z = 0
x  x1 y  y1  z1
 = =
l m n

lz1 mz1
 x = x1  , y = y1 
n n
As the above points lies on the conic Equation (8.8),
2 2
 lz1   lz1   mz1   mz 
 a  x    2h  x1    y1    b  y1  1 
 n   n  n   n 

 lz   mz 
 2 g  x1  1   2 f  y1  1   c = 0 …(8.10)
 n   n 
Equation (8.10) gives the condition for the line Equation (8.9) to intersect
the conic Equation (8.8)
Eliminating l, m, n from Equations (8.9) and (8.10), we get
2 2
 x  x1   x  x1  y  y1   y  y1 
a  x1  . z1   2h  x1  . z1   y1  . z1   b  y1  . z1 
 z  z1   z  z1  z  z1   z  z1 

 x  x1   y  y1 
 2 g  x1  . z1   2 f  y1  . z1   c = 0
 z  z1   z  z1 
2 2
 x z  z1 x  ( x1 z  z1 x) ( y1 z  z1 y )  y z  z1 y 
 a 1   2h b 1 
 z  z1   z  z1 
2
( z  z1 )

 2g
 x1 z  z1 x   2 f ( y1 z  z1 y )
c = 0
z  z1 z  z1

 a ( x1 z  z1 x) 2  2h ( x1z  z1 x) ( y1 z  z1 y )  b ( y1 z  yz1 ) 2
 2 g ( x1 z  z1 x) ( z  z1 )  2 f ( y1 z  z1 y ) ( z  z1 )  c ( z  z1 ) 2 = 0
This is the required equation of the cone.

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Cone

Check Your Progress

1. What is a homogeneous equation?
NOTES 2. What is a quadratic cone?

8.3 EQUATION OF A RIGHT CIRCULAR CONE

A surface generated by a line, which passes through a fixed point and is inclined at
a constant angle with a fixed line through the fixed point is called the right circular
cone (Refer Figure 8.3). The fixed point is called vertex of the cone, the fixed
line is called the axis of the cone. The constant angle is called the semi-vertical
angle of the cone, which is the angle between the axis and any generator of the
cone.
Theorem 8.2: Every section of a right circular cone, by a plane perpendicular to
its axis, is a circle.

Fig. 8.3 Right Circular Cone

Proof: Consider a right circular cone, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis
ON.
Let the semi-vertical angle of the cone be  that meets it at N and P be any
point on the section.
As the plane which contains NP is perpendicular to ON,
 ON  NP
Now, in right  ONP
NP
tan  
ON
  NP  ON tan 
This is the constant for every position of the point P of the section. Therefore,
P lies on a circle whose centre is N and hence the section of the cone by the plane
perpendicular to its axis is a circle.

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Equation of the Right Circular Cone Cone

When Vertex is the Origin, Axis is z-axis and Semi-Vertical Angle is 

Let any point lying on the right circular cone be P  x, y, z  (Refer Figure 8.4). NOTES
 represents the semi-vertical angle of the cone, i.e., ZOP =  .
The direction cosines of OP are proportional to  x, y, z  and the direction
cosines of OZ are proportional to (0, 0, 1). We know that
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
cos  
a1  b12  c12 a2 2  b2 2  c2 2
2

Fig. 8.4 Coordinates

x  0   y  0   z 1
 cos  
x2  y 2  z 2

z
 cos  
x2  y 2  z 2
Squaring both sides, we have
z2
cos 2  
x2  y 2  z 2

z2
x2  y2  z2 
cos2 
 x 2  y 2  z 2 = z 2 sec2 
 x 2  y 2 = z 2 (sec 2   1)
 x 2  y 2 = z 2 tan 2 
This is required equation of the right circular cone.

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Cone
x y z
When the Vertex is the Origin, Axis is the Line = = and Semi-
l m n
Vertical Angle is 
NOTES The vertex is the origin O (0,0,0) (Refer Figure 8.5) and axis is the line
x y z
= = …(8.11)
l m n
Let any point on the cone be P(x, y, z).  is the semi-vertical angle of the
cone (i.e.  NOP =  )
The direction cosines of OP are proportional to (x, y, z) and the direction
cosines of the axis ON are proportional to (l, m, n)

Fig. 8.5 Vertical Angle

xl  ym  zn
 cos  =
x2  y2  z 2 l 2  m2  n2
where l 2  m 2  n 2 = 1
lx  my  nz
 cos  =
x2  y2  z 2
On squaring both sides and cross multiplying, we get
(lx  my  nz )2 = ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) cos2 
This is the required equation of the right circular cone.
When Vertex is (, , ), Semi-Vertical Angle is  and Axis has the
Direction Cosines l, m, n

A  , ,   is the vertex in the plane of origin O (0, 0, 0) and AN is the axis having
the direction cosines as l, m, n.
Let P  x, y, z  (Refer Figure 8.6) be any point on the cone. The semi-
vertical angle  NAP  is  .
The direction cosines of the AP are proportional to x  , y  , z   and
the direction cosines of the axis AN are proportional to l, m, n.

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 Cone

NOTES

Fig. 8.6 Equation for Right Circular Cone

( x   )l  ( y  )m  ( z   )n
 cos  = ,
( x   ) 2  ( y  ) 2  ( z   ) 2 l 2  m2  n2

where l 2  m 2  n 2 = 1
( x   )l  ( y  )m  ( z   )n
 cos  =
( x   ) 2  ( y  ) 2  ( z   ) 2
On squaring and cross multiplying, we get
[l ( x   )  m( y  )  n( z   )]2 = [( x   ) 2  ( y  ) 2  ( z   ) 2 ] cos 2 
This is the required equation of the right circular cone.
Cone Represented by the General Equation of Second Degree
The equation of second degree is given by
F(x, y, z)  ax 2  by 2  cz 2  2 hxy  2 fyz  2 gzx  2 ux  2 vy  2 w z  d = 0
…(8.12)
If the Equation (8.12) represents a cone and ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) be the vertex then
transferring the origin to ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , i.e., by substituting x = x  x1 , y = y  y1 , z =
z  z1 in Equation (8.12), we get
a ( x  x1 ) 2  b ( y  y1 )2  c ( z  z1 ) 2  2h( x  x1 ) ( y  y1 )  2 f ( y  y1 ) ( z  z1 )
 2 g ( z  z1 ) ( x  x1 )  2u ( x  x1 )  2v ( y  y1 )  2 w ( z  z1 )  d  0
 ax  by 2  cz 2  2hxy  2 fyz  2 gzx
2

 2 [ x (ax1  hy1  gz1  u )  y (hx1  by1  fz1  v)  z ( gx1  fy1  cz1  w)]
 (ax12  by12  cz12  2hx1 y1  2 fy1 z1  2 gz1 x1  2ux1  2vy1  2wz1  d ) =0
…(8.13)
Since the new origin is the vertex,
 Equation (8.13) must be homogenous equation in x, y, z.
i.e., coefficient of x = Coefficient of y = Coefficient of z = 0
and constant term = 0
 ax1  hy1  gz1  u  0 …(8.14)
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Cone
hx1  by1  fz1  v  0 …(8.15)
gx1  fy1  cz1  w  0 …(8.16)
and ax12  by12  cz12  2hx1 y1  2 fy1 z1  2 gz1 x1  2ux1  2vy1  2wz1  d =0
NOTES …(8.17)
Equation (8.17) can be written as
x1 (ax1 hy1 gz1 u) y1 (hx1 by1 fz1 v)
z1 ( gx1 fy1 cz1 w) (ux1 vy1 wz1 d) 0
…(8.18)
By putting the values of Equations (8.14), (8.15) and (8.16) in Equation
(8.17), we get
x1 (0)  y1 (0)  z1 (0)  ux1  vy1  wz1  d = 0
 ux1  vy1  wz1  d = 0 …(8.19)
Eliminating x1 , y1 , z1 from Equations (8.14), (8.15), (8.16) and Equation
(8.19), we get
a h g u
h b f v
0
g f c w
u v w d
This is the required condition that the general equation of second degree
represents a cone.
Note: To find the coordinate of the vertex i.e.,  x1 , y1 , z1  , we solve Equations
(8.14), (8.15) and (8.16) with the help of determinant.
Rules for Numerical Problems

(a) To Prove that the Equation Represents a Cone:

(i) Transform the given equation homogenous in x, y, z, t by introducing proper
power of t.
(ii) From the expression given on L.H.S. i.e., F(x, y, z, t) differentiate partially
F F F F
w.r.t. x, y, z, t, i.e., find x , y , z , t .

F F F F
(iii) Put t = 1 and find x , y , z , t

F F F F
(iv) From Step (iii), put x  0, y  0, z  0, t  0
(v) Solve any three of these four equations to get the value of x, y, z. Put these
values of x, y, z in the fourth equation and show that it is satisfied.
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(b) To Find the Vertex Cone

The values of x, y, z obtained above in step (v) are the coordinates of the required
vertex.
Example 8.2: Prove that the equation NOTES

7 x 2  2 y 2  2 z 2  10 zx  10 xy  26 x  2 y  2 z  17  0
represents a cone whose vertex is (1, – 2, 2).
Solution: The given equation is
7 x 2  2 y 2  2 z 2  10 zx  10 xy  26 x  2 y  2 z  17  0 …(1)
Making Equation (1) homogenous in x, y, z, t by introducing proper power
of t, we get
7 x 2  2 y 2  2 z 2  10 xy  10 zx  26 xt  2 yt  2 zt  17t 2  0

F( x, y, z , t )  7 x 2  2 y 2  2 z 2  10 xy  10 zx  26 xt  2 yt  2 zt  17t 2 …(2)
Now, differentiating Equation (2) partially with respect to x, y, z, t
F
 14 x  10 z  10 y  26t …(3)
x
F
 4 y  10 x  2t …(4)
y

F
= 4z – 10x + 2t …(5)
z

F
 26 x  2 y  2 z  34t …(6)
t
Substituting t = 1 in Equations (3), (4), (5) and (6), then equating these
equations to zero, we get
14x + 10y – 10z + 26 = 0
10x + 4y – 2 = 0
–10x + 4z + 2 = 0
26x – 2y + 2z – 34 = 0
On further simplifying the above equations, we get
7x + 5y – 5z + 13 = 0 …(7)
5x + 2y – 1 = 0 …(8)
–5x + 2z + 1 = 0 …(9)
13x – y + z – 17 = 0 …(10)
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Cone By solving the Equations (7), (8) and (9), we get the vertex.
Multiplying Equation (9) by 5 and Equation (7) by 2 and then adding the
two, we get
NOTES 11x – 10y – 31 = 0 … (11)
Solving Equations (8) and (11), we get
x y 1
   x = 1, y = – 2
72 144 72
and then from Equation (9), z = 2
 x = 1, y = – 2, z = 2
Now on substituting x = 1, y = –2, z = 2 in Equation (10), we get
13 (1) – (–2) + 2 – 17 = 0, i.e., 0 = 0, which is true.
Hence Equation (1) represents a cone whose vertex is (1, –2, 2).
Intersection of a Straight Line and a Cone

Let ax 2  by 2  cz 2  2hxy  2 fyz  2 gzx = 0 … (8.20)

represents the equation of a cone.
x y  z
and = = = r (say) …(8.21)
l m n
be any line that intersects with the cone Equation (8.20).
Any point on this line has coordinates (lr  , mr  , nr  ) .
If this point lies on the cone, then

a (lr )2 b (mr )2 c (nr )2 2h (lr ) (mr )

2 f (mr ) (nr ) 2 g (lr ) ( nr ) 0

 r 2 (al 2  bm2  cn 2  2hlm  2 fmn  2 gln)

 2r (al   bm  cn   gl   gn  fm   fn  hl  mh)
 a 2  b 2  c  2  2 g   2 f   2h = 0 …(8.22)
Equation (8.22) is quadratic in r, showing thereby that the line Equation
(8.21) intersects the cone Equation (8.20) in two points, real or imaginary. This
also shows that, section of a cone by a plane is a conic.
Note: The roots of the above quadratic equation are coincident if
( al   bm  cn   gl   gn  fm   fn  hl   mh )2
2 2 2 2 2 2
= (al  bm  cn  2hlm  2 fmn  2 gnl ) ( a  b  c   2 g   2 f   2h)
…(8.23)
Hence, this is the condition for the line in Equation (8.21) to be tangent to the cone
in Equation (8.20).
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Example 8.3. Find the points in which the line Cone

x 1 y  12 z7
= = cuts the surface, 111x2 – 5y2 + z2 = 0.
1 5 2
Solution: Any point on the line is (–1 – r, 12 + 5r, 7 + 2r) NOTES
If this point lies on the surface 11x – 5y + z = 0, then
2 2 2

11 ( 1  r ) 2  5 (12  5r ) 2  (7  2r )2 = 0
 11 ( r 2  2r  1)  5 (144  25r 2  120r )  (49  28r  4r 2 ) = 0
 – 110r 2  550r  660 = 0
 r 2  5r  6 = 0
 (r  2) (r  3) = 0
 r = – 2, –3
Substituting these values of r in (–1 – r, 12 + 5r, 7 + 2r), we get (1, 2, 3)
and (2, –3, 1).

Check Your Progress

3. Write the equation of right circular cone.
4. What is semi-vertical angle of a cone?

8.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Homogeneous equation is an equation f(x, y, z) = 0 if for every value of

r, = f(rx, ry, rz)=0.
2. A cone whose equation is of the second degree in x, y, z is called a quadric
cone.
3. x2 + y2 = z2 tan2 .
4. The constant angle is called the semi-vertical angle of the cone, which is the
angle between the axis and any generator of the cone.

8.5 SUMMARY

 A surface generated by a moving straight line, which passes through a fixed

point and is subjected to one or more condition is known as cone.
 A cone can also be defined as a set of lines called generators, through a
given point, called the vertex.
 The equation of the cone, with its vertex at the origin, is homogeneous in x,
y, z.
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Cone  Any homogeneous equation in x, y, z represents a cone with its vertex at
the origin.
 A cone whose equation is of the second degree in x, y, z is called a quadric
cone.
NOTES
 A surface generated by a line, which passes through a fixed point and is
inclined at a constant angle with a fixed line through the fixed point is called
the right circular cone.
 Equation of the right circular cone x2 + y2 = z2 tan2 .

8.6 KEY WORDS

 Cone: A solid or hollow object which tapers from a circular or roughly

circular base to a point.
 Vertex: The point at which an axis meets a curve or surface.

8.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Derive the equation of a cone with vertex at the origin
2. Derive the equation of a one with a given vertex and base a given conic.
3. Prove that every section of a right circular cone by, a plane perpendicular
to its axis, is a circle
4. Derive the equation of a right circular cone.
Long Answer Questions
1. Find the equation to the cones with vertex at the origin and which pass
through the curves given by:
(i) ax2 + by2 = 2z; lx + my + nz = p
(ii) x2 + y2 + z2 – x – 1 = 0; x2 + y2 + z2 + y – 2 = 0.
2. Find the equation of the cone with vertex at (2, 3, 1) and passing through
the curve of intersection of x2 + y2 + z2 – 2x + 4y -6z + 7 = 0 and
x + 2y + 2z = 5.
3. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is (, , ) and whose generating
x2 y2
lines pass through the conic 1, z 0.
a2 b2
4. Find the equation to the right circular cone whose vertex is P (2, –3, 5),
axis PQ, which makes equal angles with the co-ordinate axes and semi-
vertical angle is 30o.
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 Cone
8.8 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd. NOTES
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.

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Cylinder
BLOCK - III
CYLINDER AND SPHERE

NOTES
UNIT 9 CYLINDER
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Cylinder
9.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.4 Summary
9.5 Key Words
9.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.7 Further Readings

9.0 INTRODUCTION

A cylinder has traditionally been a three-dimensional solid, one of the most basic
of curvilinear geometric shapes. It is the idealized version of a solid physical tin can
having lids on top and bottom. This traditional view is still used in elementary
treatments of geometry, but the advanced mathematical viewpoint has shifted to
the infinite curvilinear surface and this is how a cylinder is now defined in various
modern branches of geometry and topology.
The shift in the basic meaning (solid versus surface) has created some
ambiguity with terminology. It is generally hoped that context makes the meaning
clear. In this article both points of view are presented and distinguished by referring
to solid cylinders and cylindrical surfaces, but keep in mind that in the literature the
unadorned term cylinder could refer to either of these or to an even more specialized
object, the right circular cylinder.
In projective geometry, a cylinder is simply a cone whose vertex lies on the
plane at infinity. If the cone is a quadratic cone, the plane at infinity passing through
the vertex can intersect the cone at two real lines, a single real line (actually a
coincident pair of lines), or only at the vertex. These cases give rise to the hyperbolic,
parabolic or elliptic cylinders respectively. This concept is useful when considering
degenerate conics, which may include the cylindrical conics.
This unit will discuss the geometry of cylinder. You are encouraged to practice
derivation of the equations of cylinder.

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 Cylinder
9.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Define cylinder NOTES
 Derive the equation of cylinder
 Understand the concept of right circular cylinder
 Derive the equation of right circular cylinder

9.2 CYLINDER

A surface generated by a moving straight line, which is parallel to a fixed line and
is subjected to one or more conditions is called a cylinder. The conditions are, it
may intersect a fixed curve (called guiding curve) or touch a given surface.
Quadric Cylinder
Quadric cylinder is a cylinder whose equation is of the second degree in x, y
and z. In this unit, you will discuss only about quadric cylinder.
Equation of a Cylinder whose Generators are Parallel to a Given Line and
Base is a Given Conic
Let the equations of the given line be
x y z
  …(9.1)
l m n
where l, m and n are the direction cosines of the line.
Let the base be the conic
ax 2  2hxy  by 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0, z  0 …(9.2)
Let a point on the generator, which is parallel to the line Equation (9.1) be (x1, y1,
z1), then the equation of the generator is given by
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
= = …(9.3)
l m n
As generator Equation (9.3) meets the plane z = 0, where
x  x1 y  y1 z
= = 1
l m n
l m
 x  x1  z1 and y = y1  z1 …(9.4)
n n
 l m 
As point  x1  z1 , y1  z1 , 0  lies on the conic Equation (9.2),
 n n 

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Cylinder 2 2
 l   l  m   m   l 
 a  x1  z1   2h  x1  z1  y1  z1   b  y1  z1   2 g  x1  z1  +
 n   n  n   n   n 

NOTES  m 
2 f  y1  z1   c = 0
 n 
Thus, the locus of the point (x1, y1, z1) is given by
2 2
 l   l  m   m 
a  x  z   2h  x  z  y  z   b  y  z  +
 n   n  n   n 

 l   m 
2 g  x  z   2 f  y  z   c = 0
 n   n 
2 2
 a (nx  lz )  2h(nx  lz )(ny  mz )  b(ny  mz )  2 gn(nx  lz )
2 fn (ny  mz )  cn2 = 0
This is the required equation of the cylinder.
Example 9.1. Find the equation of the cylinder, whose generators are parallel to
x y z
the line,    and whose guiding curve is the ellipse x 2  2 y 2  1, z  3.
1 2 3
Solution: The equation of the given line is
x y z
 = …(i)
1 2 3
and the equation of the given conic is
x 2  2 y 2 = 1, z = 3 …(ii)
Let any point on the generator which is parallel to the line Equation (i)
be P( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , then the equation of the generator is given by
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 = …(iii)
1 2 3
As generator Equation (iii) meets the plane z = 3, where
x  x1 y  y1 3  z1
 =
1 2 3
z 2z
 x  x1  1  1 , y = y1  2  1
3 3
 z1 2 z1 
Also, the point  x1  1  , y1  2  ,3  lies on the conic Equation (ii).
 3 3 
2 2
 z1   2 z1 
  x1  1    2  y1  2   =1
 3  3 
 (3x1  3  z1 )2  2(3 y1  6  2 z1 )2 = 9

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 Cylinder
Thus, the locus of point P( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is
(3x  3  z ) 2  2(3 y  6  2 z ) 2 = 9
 9 x 2  9  z 2  18 x  6 z  6 xz  2(9 y 2  36  4 z 2  36 y  24 z  12 yz ) = 9
NOTES
 2 2 2
9 x  18 y  9 z  18 x  72 y  54 z  6 xz  24 yz  72 = 0
 3x 2  6 y 2  3 z 2  6 x  24 y  18 z  2 xz  8 yz  24 = 0
This is the required equation of cylinder.
Right Circular Cylinder
A surface generated by a straight line which intersects a fixed circle (called the
guiding circle) and is perpendicular to its plane is known as right circular
cylinder.
The section of a right circular cylinder by any plane, perpendicular to its axis
is known as normal section, the normal to the plane of guiding circle through its
centre is known as the axis of the cylinder and the length of the perpendicular
from any point on a right circular cylinder to its axis is equal to its radius.
Note: All the normal sections of a right circular cylinder are the circles having the
same radius which is also called the radius of the cylinder.
Equation of Right Circular Cylinder in Standard Form
Let the axis of the right circular cylinder be Z-axis and radius be a. Since the axis
is Z-axis, thus its direction cosines are 0, 0, 1.
Also, let any point on the surface of the cylinder be P(x, y, z) (Refer Figure 9.1).

Fig. 9.1 Right Circular Cylinder Standard

From P, construct a perpendicular PM on the axis of the cylinder and join OP,
where O is origin (0, 0, 0).
Now from Figure 9.1, OP = x 2  y 2  z 2
MP = Radius of the cylinder = a
OM = Projection of OP on the axis
= (x – 0)0 + (y – 0)0 + (z – 0)1
= z
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Cylinder
In right  OMP,,
2 2
OP 2 = OM + MP [By Pythagoras theorem]
On substituting the values of OP, OM and MP, we get
NOTES 2
x2  y 2  z 2 = z  a
2

2 2
 x  y = a2
This is the required equation of the cylinder in standard form.
Equation of Right Circular Cylinder in General Form
Let the equation of an axis (which is a line) of the cylinder be
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
= = …(9.5)
l m n
and its radius be r.
Let any point on the cylinder be P (x, y, z) (Refer Figure 9.2) and construct a
perpendicular PM on the axis. The axis also passes through the point Q ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
such that  PMQ is right triangle at M.

Fig. 9.2 Right Circular Cylinder General Form

Now, PQ = ( x  x1 ) 2  ( y  y1 ) 2  ( z  z1 ) 2
MP = Radius of the cylinder = r
QM = Projection of PQ on the axis
Also, the direction cosines of the axis in Equation (9.5) are proportional to l, m, n.
 Actual direction cosines are
l m n
, ,
l 2  m2  n2 l 2  m2  n2 l 2  m2  n2
Now, QM = Projection of PQ on the axis
l ( x  x1 ) m ( y  y1 ) n ( z  z1 )
=  
2 2 2 2 2 2
l m n l m n l  m2  n2
2

l ( x  x1 )  m ( y  y1 )  n ( z  z1 )
 QM =
l 2  m2  n2

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In right PMQ, Cylinder

PQ2 = QM 2 + MP 2 [By Pythagoras theorem]

On substituting, the values PQ, QM and MP, we get
NOTES
[l ( x  x1 )  m ( y  y1 )  n ( z  z1 )]2 2
2 2 2
( x  x1 )  ( y  y1 )  ( z  z1 ) = r
l 2  m2  n2

This is the required equation of the cylinder in general form.

Example 9.2: Find the equation of the right circular cylinder whose axis is
x = 2y = –z and radius 4.
Solution: The axis of the cylinder is given as,
x = 2y = –z
x y z
 = =
1 1 1
2
1
Thus, the direction cosines of the axis are proportional to 1, , –1.
2
 Actual direction cosines are

Fig. 9.3 Actual Direction Cosines

 1 
 1 –1 
 , 2 ,   2 1 2 
 1 1 1  =  3, 3, 3 
 1 1 1 1 1 1   
 4 4 4 
Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the cylinder. Then PC as shown in the Figure 9.3, is
perpendicular on the axis ON of the cylinder, where O is (0, 0, 0).
From Figure 9.3, we have OP = ( x  0)2  ( y  0) 2  ( z  0) 2

 OP = x2  y 2  z 2
2 1  2
and OC = Projection of OP on axis ON = ( x  0)  ( y  0)  ( z  0)   
3 3  3
2x + y  2z
=
3
and CP = Radius of the cylinder = 4 units
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Cylinder
In right  OPC
2 2
OP 2 = OC  CP [By Pythagoras theorem]
On substituting the value of OP, OC and CP, we get
NOTES 2
 2x  y  2z 
  16
2 2 2
x y z = 
 3 
 9 x 2  9 y 2  9 z 2 = (4 x 2  y 2  4 z 2  4 xy  4 yz  8 xz )  144

 5 x 2  8 y 2  5 z 2  4 xy  4 yz  8 xz  144 = 0
which is the required equation of cylinder.

Check Your Progress

1. Define normal section of a right circular cylinder.
2. Define radius of right circular cylinder.
3. What is the the equation of cylinder in standard form?

9.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The section of a right circular cylinder by any plane, perpendicular to its

axis is known as normal section.
2. The length of the perpendicular from any point on a right circular cylinder to
its axis is equal to its radius.
3. x2 + y2 = a2

9.4 SUMMARY

 A surface generated by a moving straight line, which is parallel to a fixed

line and is subjected to one or more conditions is called a cylinder.
 Quadric cylinder is a cylinder whose equation is of the second degree in x,
y and z.
 a (nx  lz )2  2h(nx  lz )(ny  mz )  b(ny  mz ) 2  2 gn(nx  lz )
2 fn (ny  mz )  cn2 = 0
This is the required equation of the cylinder.
 A surface generated by a straight line which intersects a fixed circle (called
the guiding circle) and is perpendicular to its plane is known as right circular
cylinder.

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 Cylinder
 x 2  y 2 = a2
This is the required equation of the cylinder in standard form.
 ( x  x1 )2  ( y  y1 )2  ( z  z1 )2 = NOTES
[l ( x  x1 )  m ( y  y1 )  n ( z  z1 )]2
2 2 2
 r2
l m n

This is the required equation of the cylinder in general form.

9.5 KEY WORDS

 Conic: A conic section (or simply conic) is a curve obtained as the intersection
of the surface of a cone with a plane.
 Right circular cylinder: A right circular cylinder is a cylinder whose base
is a circle and whose elements are perpendicular to its base.

9.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Derive the equation of a cylinder whose generators are parallel to a given
line and base is a given conic.
2. Write a short note on right circular cylinder.
3. Derive the equation right circular cylinder in standard form.
4. Derive the equation of the right circular cylinder in general form.
Long Answer Questions
1. Find the equation of a cylinder whose generators are parallel to the line
x y z
and whose guiding curve is the ellipse x 2 2 y2 1, z 0.
1 2 3
2. Find the equation of a cylinder whose generators are parallel to the line
x y 4 z 1
and whose guiding curve is the hyperbola 3x2 – 4y2 = 5,
3 5 4
z = 2.
3. Find the equation of a cylinder with generators parallel to x-axis and passing
through the curve ax2 + by2 +cz2= 1; lx + my + nz = p.
4. Find the equation of the cylinder whose generators are parallel to the line
3x = 3y = z and whose guiding curve is 2x2 + y2 = 1, z = 1.
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Cylinder
9.7 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

NOTES Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.

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 Skew Lines

UNIT 10 SKEW LINES

Structure NOTES
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Skew Lines
10.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.4 Summary
10.5 Key Words
10.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.7 Further Readings

10.0 INTRODUCTION

In three-dimensional geometry, skew lines are two lines that do not intersect and
are not parallel. A simple example of a pair of skew lines is the pair of lines through
opposite edges of a regular tetrahedron. Two lines that both lie in the same plane
must either cross each other or be parallel, so skew lines can exist only in three or
more dimensions. Two lines are skew if and only if they are not coplanar.
If four points are chosen at random uniformly within a unit cube, they will
almost surely define a pair of skew lines. After the first three points have been
chosen, the fourth point will define a non-skew line if, and only if, it is coplanar
with the first three points. However, the plane through the first three points forms
a subset of measure zero of the cube, and the probability that the fourth point lies
on this plane is zero. If it does not, the lines defined by the points will be skew.
Similarly, in three-dimensional space a very small perturbation of any two parallel
or intersecting lines will almost certainly turn them into skew lines. Therefore, any
four points in general position always form skew lines. In this sense, skew lines are
the ‘usual’ case, and parallel or intersecting lines are special cases.
This unit will discuss about skew lines. You will learn the definition of skew
lines and why they are called non-coplanar lines. Further, you will learn to find the
length of shortest distance between two skew lines.

10.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the concept of skew lines
 Find the magnitude and equation to line of shortest distance between two
skew lines

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Skew Lines
10.2 SKEW LINES

Definition
NOTES The straight lines which are neither parallel nor intersecting are called non-coplanar
lines or skew lines. They do not lie on a plane.
There exists a line which is perpendicular to both the skew lines. Further,
the length of this line intercepted between the two lines is the Shortest Distance
(S.D.) between them.
Method of Finding the Shortest Distance between Two Skew Lines is Given
Below.
AB and CD are two skew lines and EF which is perpendicular to both AB and
CD is the line of shortest distance between AB and CD.
B
E
A

C
F D

Fig. 10.1 Skew Lines

Let the given skew lines AB and CD be

x x1 y y1 z z1
= = and
l1 m1 n1
x x2 y y2 z z2
= =
l2 m2 n2
so that A = (x1, y1, z1) and C = (x2, y2, z2).
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of the shortest distance EF. Since EF 
to both AB and CD
ll1 + mm1 + nn1 = 0 and ll2 + mm2 + nn2 = 0
Solving,
l m n
= =
m1n2 m2 n1 n1l2  n2l1 l1m2 l2 m1

l 2  m2  n2 1
= = ...(10.1)
  m1n2  m2 n1 
2 sin

where  is the angle between the lines.

From this

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126 Material
 Skew Lines
m1n2 m2 n1
l=
2
m1n2 m2 n1

n1l2 n2l1
m= ...(10.2) NOTES
2
m1n2 m2 n1

l1m2 l2 m1
n=
2
m1n2 m2 n1

 Length of S.D. (EF) = Projection of AC on EF

= l (x2 – x1) + m (y2 – y1) + n (z2 – z1) ...(10.3)

where l, m, n have the values as given by Equation (10.2).

To find the equations of the line of shortest distance, we observe that it is
coplanar with both AB and CD.
The plane containing the lines AB and EF is

x x1 y y1 z z1
l1 m1 n1 =0 ...(10.4)
l m n

The plane containing the lines CD and EF is

x x2 y y2 z z2
l2 m2 n2 =0 ...(10.5)
l m n

Hence, Equations (10.4) and (10.5) are the equations of the line of shortest
distance.

Example 10.1. Find the magnitude and the equations of the shortest distance
x 1 y 2 z 3 x 2 y4 z 5
between the lines, = = and = = .
2 3 4 3 4 5
x 1 y 2 z 3
Solution: Let the line = = be L1
2 3 4
x 2 y 4 z 5
and = = be L2.
3 4 5

Self-Instructional
Material 127
Skew Lines L1
A

NOTES
B L2

Shortest distance = l (x2 – x1) + m(y2 – y1) + n(z2 – z1)

m1n2 m2 n1
where l=
2
m1n2 m2 n1

n1l2 n2l1
m=
2
m1n2 m2 n1

l1m2 l2 m1
n=
2
m1n2 m2 n1

Here x 1 = 1, y1 = 2, z1 = 3; l1 = 2, m1 = 3, n1 = 4
x 2= 2, y2 = 4, z2 = 5; l2 = 3, m2 = 4, n2 = 5.
3(5) 4(4)
l=
2 2 2
3(5) 4 (4) 4(3) 5(2) 2(4) 3(3)

1 1
= =
( 1) 2
2 2
( 1) 2 6

2 1
m= ,n= .
6 6

1 2 1
 S.D. = (2 – 1) + (4 – 2) – (5 – 3)
6 6 6
1 4 2 1
= = .
6 6
1
S.D. = .
6
The equation of the plane containing them is
x x1 y y1 z z1 x x2 y y2 z z2
l1 m1 n1 =0= l2 m2 n2
l m n l m n

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128 Material
 Skew Lines
x 1 y  2 z  3
2 3 4 =0
1 2 1

x2 y4 z 5 NOTES

and 3 4 5 =0
1 2 1
 (x – 1) (–3 – 8) – (y – 2) (–2 + 4) + (z – 3) (4 + 3) = 0
 (x – 1) (–11) – (y – 2) (2) + (z – 3) (7) = 0
 –11x – 2y + 7z – 6 = 0
 11x + 2y – 7z + 6 = 0.
and
(x – 2) (– 4 – 10) – (y – 4) (–3 + 5) + (z – 5) (6 + 4) = 0
–14x – 2y + 10z – 14 = 0
 7x + y – 5z + 7 = 0.
Example 10.2. Find the length and equation of the shortest distance between the
lines x = 0 = y + z – 1 and y = 0 = z.
Solution: The two lines are
x y z 1
x = 0 = y + z – 1 or = =
0 1 1
x y z
and y = 0 = z or = =
1 0 0
The points on the lines are (0, 0, 1) and (0, 0, 0).
The d.r.’s of the lines are (0, 1, –1) and (1, 0, 0).
x 1 = 0, y1 = 0, z1 = 1
x 2 = 0, y2 = 0, z2 = 0
l1 = 0, l2 = 1
m 1 = 1, m2 = 0
n1 = –1, n2 = 0
 S.D = l (x2 – x1) + m (y2 – y1) + n (z2 – z1).
m1n2 m2 n1 0 0
where l = = =0
2 2
m1n2 m2 n1 0 ( 1 0)2 ( 1)2

Self-Instructional
Material 129
Skew Lines n1l2 n2l1 1 0 1
m= = =
2 2 2
m1n2 m2 n1

l1m2 l2 m1 0 1 1
NOTES n= = =
2 2 2
m1n2 m2 n1

1 1 1
 S.D. = 0 (0 – 0) + (0 0) – (0 1) = .
2 2 2
The equation of the shortest distance is
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y2 z  z2
l1 m1 n1 = 0 = l2 m2 n2
l m n l m n

x y z 1
x y z
0 1 1
i.e., = 0 and 1 0 0 =0
0 1 1
0  1 1
x (–1 – 1) –y(0 – 0) + (z – 1) (0) = 0
i.e.,–2x = 0
 x=0
The equation of the S.D. is
x = 0 and y – z = 0.
x 1 y 2
Example 10.3. Find the shortest distance between the lines = =
2 3
z 3 x 5 y 5 z 1
and = = .
1 3 2 5

L1
A

B
L2

Solution: Let AB be the shortest distance between them.

A is on the line
x 1 y 2 z 3
L1 = = = = r1 (say)
2 3 1
Then A is (2r1 + 1, –3r1 + 2, r1 + 3)
x 5 y 5 z 1
B is on the lineL 2= = = = r2 (say)
3 2 5
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130 Material
 Then B is (3r2 + 5, 2r2 + 5, –5r2 – 1). Skew Lines

Direction ratios of AB are

(3r2 + 5 – 2r1 – 1, 2r2 + 5 + 3r1 – 2, – 5r2 – 1 – r1 – 3)
i.e., (3r2 – 2r1 + 4, 3r1 + 2r2 + 3, – r1 – 5r2 – 4) NOTES
Since AB is perpendicular to L1 and L2,
2(3r2 – 2r1 + 4) –3(3r1 + 2r2 + 3) + (– r1 – 5r2 – 4) = 0
 6r2 – 4r1 + 8 – 9r1 – 6r2 – 9 – r1 – 5r2 – 4 = 0
–14r1 – 5r2 – 5 =0
14r1 + 5r2 + 5 =0 ... (1)
and
3 (3r2 – 2r1 + 4) + 2 (3r1 + 2r2 + 3) –5(–r1 – 5r2 – 4) = 0
5r1 + 38r2 + 38 = 0 ... (2)
Solving Equations (1) and (2), we get r2 = –1, r1 = 0.
Hence, A is (1, 2, 3) and B is (2, 3, 4).
Length of shortest distance = AB

= (2 1)2 (3 2)2 (4 3) 2 = 3.

Equation of shortest distance AB is

x 1 y 2 z 3
= =
2 1 3 2 4 3
x 1 y 2 z 3
or, = = .
1 1 1
Example 10.4. A line with direction cosines proportional to 2, 7, –5 is drawn to
x 5 y 7 z 2 x 3 y 3 z 6
intersect the lines = = ; = = . Find the
3 1 1 3 2 4
coordinates of the points of intersection and the length intercepted on it.
Solution: The given lines are
x 5 y 7 z 2
= = ... (1)
3 1 1
x 3 y 3 z 6
and = = ... (2)
3 2 4
Any point on the line Equation (1) is
P (3r1 + 5, –r1 + 7, r1 – 2)
and any point on the line Equation (2) is
Q (–3r2 – 3, 2r2 + 3, 4r2 + 6)
Self-Instructional
Material 131
Skew Lines Let the line with d.c.’s proportional to 2, 7, –5 meet the lines (1) and (2) at
the points P and Q. D.c.’s of PQ are proportional to
–3r2 – 3 – 3r1 – 5, 2r2 + 3 + r1 – 7, 4r2 + 6 –r1 + 2
NOTES i.e., –3r2 – 3r1 – 8, 2r2 + r1 – 4, 4r2 – r1 + 8
But the d.c.’s of PQ are proportional to 2, 7, –5.
3r2 3r1 8 2r r 4 4r2  r1  8
 = 2 1 =
2 7 5
From the second and third ratio we have
–10r2 – 5r1 + 20 = 28r2 – 7r1 + 56
i.e.,38r2 – 2r1 + 36 =0 ... (3)
From the first and second ratio, we have
–21r2 – 21r1 – 56 = 4r2 + 2r1 – 8
i.e.,25r2 + 23r1 + 48 =0 ... (4)
From (3) and (4) we get
r1 = –1, r2 = –1.
Substituting these values in P and Q, we get
P (2, 8, –3) and Q (0, 1, 2)
which are the required points of intersection.
Length intercepted = PQ = (0 2)2 (1 8)2 (2 3) 2 = 78
Example 10.5. Find the length and equations of the shortest distance between
the lines x – y + z = 0 = 2x – 3y + 4z and x + y + 2z – 3 = 0 = 2x + 3y + 3z – 4.
L1
A

B L2

Solution: Given the lines

x – y + z = 0 = 2x – 3y + 4z ... (1)
x + y + 2z – 3 = 0 = 2x + 3y + 3z – 4 ... (2)
The symmetric form of the equations are
x y z
= = ... (3)
1 2 1
x 5 y 2 z
and = = ... (4)
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132 Material
 Let l, m, n be the d.c.’s of the S.D between (3) and (4). Skew Lines

Since S.D is perpendicular to both the lines (3) and (4),

l + 2m + n = 0
–3l + m + n = 0 NOTES
Solving, we get
l m n
= =
2 1 3 1 1 6
l m n
= =
1 4 7
Therefore, d.c.’s of S.D are proportional to 1, – 4, 7. Any point on line (3)
is (0, 0, 0) and a point on line (4) is (5, –2, 0).
l ( x2 x1 ) m ( y2 y1 ) n ( z2 z1 )
Now, S.D =
l2 m2 n2
1(5  0)  ( 4)( 2  0)  7 (0  0)
=
12  42  72
13
or, S.D. =
66
Equation of the S.D is
x0 y0 z0 x5 y2 z 0
1 2 1 = 0 and 3 1 1 =0
1 4 7 1 4 7
 3x – y – z = 0 and x + 2y + z – 1 = 0.

Check Your Progress

1. What are skew lines?
2. Write the formula for finding the length of shortest distance between two
skew lines.

10.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The straight lines which are neither parallel nor intersecting are called non-
coplanar lines or skew lines. They do not lie on a plane.
2. Length of S.D. = l(x2-x1) + m(y2–y1) + n(z2–z1).

Self-Instructional
Material 133
Skew Lines
10.4 SUMMARY

 The straight lines which are neither parallel nor intersecting are called non-
NOTES coplanar lines or skew lines.
 There exists a line which is perpendicular to both the skew lines.
 The length of this line intercepted between the two lines is the Shortest
Distance (S.D.) between them.

l 2  m2  n2 1
 =
  m1n2  m2 n1 
2 sin

where  is the angle between the lines.

m1n2 m2 n1
 l=
2
m1n2 m2 n1

n1l2 n2l1
 m=
2
m1n2 m2 n1

l1m2 l2 m1
 n=
2
m1n2 m2 n1
 Length of S.D. = l (x2 – x1) + m (y2 – y1) + n (z2 – z1)

10.5 KEY WORDS

 Non-coplanar: Lines that do not lie on the same surface or plane are non-
coplanar.
 Cosines: The trigonometric function that is equal to the ratio of the side
adjacent to an acute angle (in a right-angled triangle) to the hypotenuse.

10.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Find the magnitude of the shortest distance between the lines
y 4
x 3 z 2 and 3x – y – 10 = 0 = 2x – z – 14.
2
2. Find the length of the shortest distance between the lines
x 1 y 1 z
and x + 2y – 3z – 2 = 0 = 2x – y – z + 1.
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1 2 3
134 Material
 3. Find the length of the shortest distance between Skew Lines

3x – 9y + 5z = 0 = x + y – z and 6x + 8y + 3z – 13 = 0 = x + 2y + z – 3.
4. Find the magnitude of S.D. between the lines
x y z x 2 y 1 z 2
NOTES
and .
2 3 1 3 5 2
Long Answer Questions
1. Find the length and equation of the shortest distance between the lines
x 8 y 9 z 10 x 15 y 29 z 5
and .
3 16 7 3 8 5
2. Find the length and equation of the shortest distance between the lines
x 1 y 1 z 1 x 1 y z
and .
2 3 4 3 4 5
3. Find the shortest distance between the lines
x 3 y 5 z 7 x 1 y 1 z 1
and . Also find the equation to the
1 2 1 7 6 1
line of shortest distance.
4. Find the length and equation of the shortest distance between
3x – 9y + 5z = 0 = x + y – z and 6x + 8y + 3z – 13 = 0 = x + 2y + z – 3

10.7 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.

Self-Instructional
Material 135
Sphere

UNIT 11 SPHERE
NOTES Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Sphere
11.2.1 Equation of a Sphere
11.2.2 Radius and Centre of Sphere
11.3 Tangent Plane
11.3.1 Plane of Contact
11.3.2 Angle of Intersection of Two Spheres
11.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.8 Further Readings

11.0 INTRODUCTION

A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is

the surface of a completely round ball (viz., analogous to the circular objects in
two dimensions, where a ‘circle’ circumscribes its ‘disk’).
Like a circle in a two-dimensional space, a sphere is defined mathematically
as the set of points that are all at the same distance r from a given point, but in a
three-dimensional space. This distance r is the radius of the ball, which is made up
from all points with a distance less than r from the given point, which is the center
of the mathematical ball. These are also referred to as the radius and center of the
sphere, respectively. The longest straight line through the ball, connecting two
points of the sphere, passes through the center and its length is thus twice the
radius; it is a diameter of both the sphere and its ball.
In this unit, you will study the equation of a sphere in centre-radius form,
equation of a sphere through four non-coplanar points, and the equation of a
sphere in diameter form. Further in this unit, you will know about tangent planes to
a sphere and angle of intersection of two spheres.

11.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Know the equation of a sphere
 Determine the radius and centre of the sphere
 Discuss the plane section of a sphere
Self-Instructional
136 Material
  Understand the tangent plane with respect to the sphere Sphere

 Find the angle of intersection of two spheres

11.2 SPHERE NOTES

A sphere is defined as the locus of a point, which moves such that its distance from
a fixed point is constant.
 The constant distance is known as the radius of the sphere.
 The fixed point is called the centre of the sphere.
11.2.1 Equation of a Sphere
Various forms of the equations of a sphere have been described here.
Standard Form of the Equation of Sphere
Consider a sphere with radius r and centre as origin O(0,0,0), with a point P(x,y,z)
on its surface.
Then, by the definition of the sphere,
OP = Radius of the sphere (r)
 (x – 0) + (y – 0)2 + (z – 0)2 = r2
2

 x2+ y2 + z2 = r2 …(11.1)
This is known as standard form of the equation of the sphere (Refer
Figure 11.1).

r
P(x, y, z)
O(a, b, c)

Fig. 11.1 Sphere

Central Form of the Equation of the Sphere

Let P(x,y,z) be any point on the sphere with centre C(a,b,c) (Refer Figure 11.2)
and radius r.
Then, CP = Radius of the sphere (r)
 (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 + (z – c)2 = r2 ... (11.2)

Self-Instructional
Material 137
Sphere The above Equation (11.2) is the Central form of the sphere.

NOTES r
P (x,y,z)
C(a,b,c)

Fig. 11.2 Central Form of Sphere

General Form of the Equation of Sphere

By expanding Equation (11.2), we get
x2 + y2 + z2 – 2ax – 2by – 2cz + (a2 + b2 + c2 – r2) = 0
On substituting,
a = – u, b = –v, c = –w, d = a2 + b2 + c2 – r2 in the above equation we get,
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 …(11.3)
The Equation (11.3) represents the general form of the sphere. It possesses
all the characteristics of a sphere.
Diameter Form of the Equation of a Sphere
Let us consider a diameter XY of a sphere having two end points X(a1,b1,c1) and
Y(a2,b2,c2). Also let P (x,y,z) (Refer Figure 11.3) be any point on the surface of the
sphere such that,
XPYP (i.e. XPY = 90)
But the direction cosines of XP are proportional to (x – a1), (y – b1),
(z – c1) and the direction cosines of YP are proportional to (x–a2),(y–b2), (z–c2)
Therefore, (x – a1) (x – a2) + (y – b1) (y – b2) + (z – c1) (z – c2) = 0
represents the equation of the sphere in diameter form.
P(x, y, z)

X Y

Fig. 11.3 Sphere in Diameter Form

11.2.2 Radius and Centre of Sphere

Let us consider the two different cases of the general equation of the sphere.

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138 Material
Case I: When the general equation of the sphere is Sphere

x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0

 Co-ordinates of Centre is given by (– u,– v,– w).
NOTES
 Radius will be u 2  v 2  w2  d .
Case II: When the general equation of the sphere is given by
ax2 + ay2 + az2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0.

 u v w
 Co-ordinates of Centre is given by   ,  ,   .
 a a a

u 2  v 2  w2  d
 Radius will be .
a
Rules for Writing Down the Centre and Radius of a Sphere
1. Write down the equation of the sphere such that the coefficients of x2, y2
and z2 are each equal to 1 and R.H.S as 0. ( If all the equal coefficients of
x2, y2 and z 2 are different from 1 then we need to divide throughout by the
coefficient of x2 or y2 or z 2).
2. After that compare this equation with x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux +2vy + 2wz + d =
0.
3. Now, write the co-ordinates of the centre as  u , v,  w  , i.e.,
 1 1 1 
  2 (coefficient of x ),  2 (coefficient of y ),  2 (coefficient of z )  and
 
the radius as u 2  v 2  w2  d .
Example 11.1: A point moves such that the sum of the squares of its distance
from the six faces of a cube is constant. Prove that its locus will be a sphere.
Solution: Let us consider the centre of the cube as origin O(0,0,0).
Also let the three mutually perpendicular lines through the centre and parallel
to the edge, as axes.
If the length of each edge = 2a, then the equations of the six faces are,
x   a, y   a, z   a
Let  x1 , y1 , z1  be the moving point, then
2 2 2 2 2 2
 x1  a   x1  a   y1  a   y1  a   z1  a   z1  a 
 1    1   1   1   1   1 
           
= Constant = 2k2 (say)
 2 x12  2 y12  2 z12  6a 2  2k 2
 x12  y12  z12  k 2  3a 2
Self-Instructional
Material 139
Sphere
Thus, the locus of  x1 , y1 , z1  is x 2  y 2  z 2  k 2  3a 2 , which is a sphere.

Sphere Passing through Four Given Points

The general equation of a sphere
NOTES
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 …(11.4)
contains four constants u , v, w and d .
In order to find out the equation of a sphere, we need to determine the
values of the four constants u, v, w and d . The values of these four constant can
determined when we have four distinct points through which the sphere is passing.
Thus, a sphere can be found to pass through any four points that are non-coplanar.
Let us assume that the four distinct non-coplanar points as,
 x1 , y1 , z1  ,  x2 , y2 , z2  ,  x3 , y3 , z3  ,  x4 , y4 , z4  through which the sphere
represented by Equation (11.4) is passing
As the sphere in Equation (11.4) is passing through the four given points,
we get
 x 1
2
 y12  z12   2ux1  2vy1  2 wz1  d  0 …(11.5)

x 2
2
 y2 2  z2 2   2ux2  2vy2  2 wz2  d  0 …(11.6)

x 3
2
 y3 2  z32   2ux3  2vy3  2 wz3  d  0 …(11.7)

x 4
2
 y4 2  z4 2   2ux4  2vy4  2 wz4  d  0 …(11.8)
By eliminating the variables u , v, w and d from Equations (11.1) to (11.8)
we get,
x2 y2 z2 x y z 1
2 2 2
x1 y1 z1 x1 y1 z1 1
2 2 2
x2 y2 z2 x2 y2 z2 1 0
2 2 2
x3 y3 z3 x3 y3 z3 1
2 2 2
x4 y4 z4 x4 y4 z4 1
This gives the required equation of the sphere in determinant form.
Note: (i) The equation of the sphere can also be determined by finding out the
values of u , v, w and d through solving equations (11.5), (11.6), (11.7) and (11.8)
and then substituting their values in equation (11.1).
(ii) It is not possible to made any sphere that can be pass through the points, if they
are coplanar.
Example 11.2: A sphere of constant radius 2k, passes through the origin and
meets the axes in A, B, C. Show that the locus of the centroid of the tetrahedron
OABC is the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  k 2 .
Self-Instructional
140 Material
Solution: Let the co-ordinates of the points A, B, C be (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0) and Sphere

(0, 0, c), respectively.

The equation of sphere OABC is
x2 + y2 + z2 – ax – by – cz = 0 NOTES
Given, radius of this sphere is equal to 2k.
a 2  b 2  c 2  4(2 k )2  16k 2 … (1)
Let (x, y, z) be the co-ordinates of the centroid of the tetrahedron OABC,
then
a b c
x ,y  ,z 
4 4 4
 a = 4x, b = 4y, c = 4z.
By eliminating a, b, c from Equation (1), the required locus is
x2  y 2  z 2  k 2 .

Check Your Progress

1. Define radius of a sphere.
2. What is the standard form of the equation of a sphere?

11.3 TANGENT PLANE

Tangent plane to the sphere at point P is the locus of the tangent lines at point P
of a sphere. Also, point P is called the point of contact.
To find the equation of tangent plane at the point (x1,y1,z1), let us consider
the equation of the sphere as,
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 …(11.9)
Let the equation of the line through the sphere Equation (11.9) is given by,
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
   r (say) …(11.10)
l m n

The point that lies on the line Equation (11.10) is  lr  x1 , mr  y1 , nr  z1 

If this point also lies on the sphere Equation (11.9) then,

 x1  lr    y1  mr    z1  nr   2u  x1  lr   2v  y1  mr   2 w  z1  nr   d  0
2 2 2

 r 2  l 2  m 2  n 2   2r l  u  x1   m  v  y1   n  w  z1  
 ( x12  y12  z12  2ux1  2vy1  2 wz1  d )  0
…(11.11)
Self-Instructional
Material 141
Sphere As the given line is a tangent to the sphere, therefore the above equation has
two roots which are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.
 The sum of roots = 0
NOTES  l  u  x1   m  v  y1   n  w  z1   0 …(11.12)
Eliminating l ,m and n from Equations (11.10) and (11.12), the locus of the
tangents lines is,
 x  x1  x1  u    y  y1  y1  v    z  z1  z1  w   0
 xx1  yy1  zz1  ux  vy  wz  x12  y12  z12  ux1  vy1  wz1
…(11.13)
Adding ( ux1  vy1  wz1 ) to both sides of the equation, we get
xx1  yy1  zz1  u ( x  x1 )  v( y  y1 )  w( z  z1 )  d =
x12  y12  z12  2ux1  2vy1  2 wz1  d … (11.14)
As the sphere also passes through the point (x1,y1,z1),
x12  y12  z12  2ux1  2vy1  2wz1  d  0 …(11.15)
From Equations (11.14) and (11.15)
xx1  yy1  zz1  u ( x  x1 )  v( y  y1 )  w( z  z1 )  d  0
The above equation represents the equation of the tangent plane at point
(x1, y1, z1).
Note: If the direction cosines of two lines are proportional to a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 then,
they are perpendicular to each other, if
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0.

Condition of Tangency
(i) The condition that a plane lx + my + nz = p may touch the sphere x2 + y2
+ z2 = a2 is given by,
a2 (l2 + m2 + n2) = p2
(ii) The condition that a plane lx + my + nz = p may touch the sphere x2 + y2
+ z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 is given by
 lu  mv  nw  p 
2
 
 l 2  m 2  n 2 u 2  v 2  w2  d 
11.3.1 Plane of Contact
Plane of contact is the locus of points of contact of the tangent planes which pass
through a given point (, , ) and touch the sphere,
x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2 wz  d  0 .

Self-Instructional
142 Material
 From the last section, the tangent plane at a point (x1,y1,z1) to the given Sphere

sphere is,
xx1  yy1  zz1  u ( x  x1 )  v( y  y1 )  w( z  z1 )  d  0

 x  x1  u   y  y1  v   z  z1  w    ux1  vy1  wz1  d   0 NOTES

…(11.16)
If the tangent plane represented by Equation (11.16) passes through the
point (, , ) , then we have
  x1  u     y1  v     z1  w    ux1  vy1  wz1  d   0

 x1    u   y1    v   z1    w    u  v  w  d   0
 The locus of the point (x1,y1,z1) to lie on the plane is,
x    u   y    v   z    w    u  v  w  d   0
The above equation represents the plane of contact for the point  , ,   .
This proves that the locus of points of contact is the circle in which the plane cuts
the given sphere.
Cor. The plane of contact from the point (, , ) to the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2
is x   y  z  a 2 .
Note: The line joining any point P to the centre of the sphere is perpendicular to
the plane of contact of P.
11.3.2 Angle of Intersection of Two Spheres
The angle between the tangent planes of two spheres at their point of intersection
is known as the angle of intersection of two sphere.

Fig. 11.4 Angle of Intersection of Two Spheres

It is also known as the angle between the radii of two spheres which are
perpendicular to the respective tangent planes of the spheres at the common point.
Consider the two spheres with centre as C1 and C2. The two spheres
intersect at a point P such that C1P and C2P represent the radii of the two spheres.
Let C1P = r1, C2P = r2 and C1C2 = d. Also let the angle between the radii of the
two spheres be  .
 By applying cosine formula in  C1PC2, we get

C1P 2  C2 P 2  C1C 2 2
cos  
2C1P  C 2 P Self-Instructional
Material 143
Sphere
r12  r2 2  d 2
 cos  
2r1r2

NOTES Orthogonal Spheres

Two spheres are said to be orthogonal if their tangent planes at their point of
intersection are at right angles.
i.e.,  C1PC2 =  = 90 and cos 90  0
r12  r2 2  d 2
0
2r1r2

 r12  r2 2  d 2
which means that the square of the distance between the centres of the two spheres
must be equal to the sum of the squares of their radii.
This represents the condition of orthogonality of two spheres.
Cor. The condition of orthogonality of two spheres represented by,
x 2  y 2  z 2  2u1 x  2v1 y  2w1 z  d1  0
and, x 2  y 2  z 2  2u2 x  2v2 y  2w2 z  d 2  0 is given by
2u1u2  2v1v2  2w1w2  d1  d 2 .
Example 11.3: Two spheres of radii r1 and r2 cut orthogonally. Prove that the
r1r2
radius of the common circle is .
r  r2 2
1
2

Solution: Let the equation of the common circle be

x2  y 2  a2 , z  0
which is a circle of radius a and is in the XY-plane.
This equation can also be written as,
x2  y 2  z 2  a2 , z  0 ...(1)
Equation of any two spheres through Equation (1) are
x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2  k1 z  0 ...(2)
and x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2  k2 z  0 ...(3)
Now, the spheres Equations (2) and (3) are orthogonal,
 2u1u2  2v1v2  2 w1w2  d1  d 2
1 1 1
  0    0   k1k2  a 2  a 2
2 2 2
 k1 k2  4a 2 …(4)

Self-Instructional
144 Material
 Sphere
Now, r1 = Radius of Sphere in Equation (2)

k12 k2
 r1  02  02   a2  1  a2 …(5)
4 4
NOTES
2
k2
Similarly, r2   a2 …(6)
4
We shall now eliminate k1 , k2 between Equations (4), (5) and (6), to find
the value of a.
Squaring Equations (4), (5) and (6) respectively, we get
k12 k 2 2  16a 4 …(7)
k12
r12   a 2  k12  4  r12  a 2  …(8)
4
k2 2
and r2 2   a 2  k2 2  4  r2 2  a 2  …(9)
4
Using Equations (8) and (9) in (7), we have
16  r12  a 2  r2 2  a 2   16a 4

 r12 r2 2  a 2  r12  r2 2   a 4  a 4
r12 r2 2
  a 2  r12  r2 2   r12 r2 2  a 2 
r12  r2 2
r1r2
Thus, the radius of the common circle, i.e., a  ,
r12  r2 2

Length of the Tangent

Let a tangent is drawn from a point P  x1 , y1 , z1  to the sphere represented by,,

x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2 wz  d  0 …(11.17)
Let C be the centre of the sphere, having coordinates as (–u,–v, –w). Also
let the tangent touches the sphere at point T such that PTCT (Refer Figure
11.5).

Fig. 11.5 Length of the Tangent

Self-Instructional
Material 145
Sphere
CT = radius of the sphere = r = u 2  v 2  w2  d

 x1  u    y1  v    z1  w 
2 2 2
CP = [By Distance formula]
NOTES …(11.18)
Now in right CTP
PT2 = CP2 – TC2 [By Pythagoras theorem]
On substituting the values we get,
PT2 =  x1  u    y1  v    z1  w  –  u  v  w  d 
2 2 2 2 2 2

 PT = x12  y12  z12  2ux1  2vy1  2 wz1  d

This gives the length of the tangent to the sphere.

Check Your Progress

3. What is a tangent plane?
4. When are two sphere said to be orthogonal?

11.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. A sphere is defined as the locus of a point, which moves such that its distance
from a fixed point is constant. The constant distance is known as the radius
of the sphere.
2. x2 + y2 + z2 = r2.
3. Tangent plane to the sphere at point P is the locus of the tangent lines at
point P of a sphere. Also, point P is called the point of contact.
4. Two spheres are said to be orthogonal if their tangent planes at their point
of intersection are at right angles.

11.5 SUMMARY

 A sphere is defined as the locus of a point, which moves such that its distance
from a fixed point is constant.
 This is known as standard form of the equation of the sphere
 x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
The equation represents the general form of the sphere.
 Tangent plane to the sphere at point P is the locus of the tangent lines at
point P of a sphere. Also, point P is called the point of contact.

Self-Instructional
146 Material
 Sphere
 xx1  yy1  zz1  u ( x  x1 )  v( y  y1 )  w( z  z1 )  d  0
represents the equation of the tangent plane at point (x1, y1, z1).
 Plane of contact is the locus of points of contact of the tangent planes which
pass through a given point (a, b, g) and touch the sphere, NOTES
x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2 wz  d  0 .

r12  r2 2  d 2
 cos  
2r1r2

11.6 KEY WORDS

 Sphere: A round solid figure, or its surface, with every point on its surface
equidistant from its centre.
 Tangent: Tangent of a line or plane is touching, but not intersecting, a curve
or curved surface.
 Orthogonal: Orthogonal objects are related by their perpendicularity to
one another.

11.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Derive the standard form of equation of the sphere.
2. What is the central form the equation of the sphere?
3. Derive the equation of a tangent plane to the sphere at a point.
4. Describe the angle of intersection of two spheres.
5. Explain the condition of orthogonality of two spheres.
6. How will you find the length of a tangent to a sphere?
Long Answer Questions
1. Find the ratios in which the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 24 divides the line joining
the points (–1, 1, 2) and (–4, 4, 8).
2. Show that the spheres x2 + y2 + z2 = 64 and x2 + y2 + z2 -12x + 4y – 6z +
48 = 0 touch internally and hence find the point of contact.
3. Find the equation of the sphere, which passes through the four points
(4, –1, 2), (0, –2, 3), (1, 5, –1), (2, 0, 1).
4. Find the equation of the sphere, which passes through the points (3, 0, 2),
(–1, 1, 1), (2, –5, 4) and has its centre on the plane 2x + 3y + 4z = 6. Self-Instructional
Material 147
Sphere 5. A plane through a fixed point (1, 1, 1) cuts the axes in A, B, C. Find the
locus of the centre of the sphere OABC where O is the origin.
6. A sphere of constant radius r passes through the origin and meets the axes
in A, B, C. Show that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from O to
NOTES
the plane ABC is given by (x2 + y2 + z2)·(x–2 + y–2 + z–2) = 4r2.
7. Find the equations of the tangent planes to the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 2x – 2y
– 2z = 0 which contain the line given by x – z = 0, y + 2 = 0.

11.8 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.

Self-Instructional
148 Material
 Equation of a Circle on a
BLOCK - IV Sphere

VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION, LINE AND

SURFACE INTEGRALS
NOTES

UNIT 12 EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

ON A SPHERE
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Equation of a Circle on a Sphere
12.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.4 Summary
12.5 Key Words
12.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.7 Further Readings

12.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you have learned about sphere and the geometry of sphere.
This unit further enhances your knowledge about spheres. You will know about
the plane section of a sphere and great circle. Equation of a circle on a sphere and
the intersection of two spheres is also discussed in this unit.

12.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Find equation of a circle on a sphere
 Describe intersection of two spheres

12.2 EQUATION OF A CIRCLE ON A SPHERE

Plane Section of a Sphere

Consider a sphere and a plane intersecting with each other and thus having common
points. Plane section (Refer Figure 12.1) of a sphere is a set of common points
to the sphere and the plane when they intersects.

Self-Instructional
Material 149
Equation of a Circle on a
Sphere

NOTES

Fig. 12.1 Plane Section of Sphere

This plane section intersecting with the sphere is a circle.

Let us consider a sphere with centre O and P be a point on the plane
section. Let us construct a perpendicular ON to the given plane; where N is the
foot of the perpendicular. Also draw NP such that, NP  ON
Now, by applying Pythagorous theorem in right ONP, we get
OP 2  NP 2  ON 2
  NP 2  OP 2  ON 2
Let OP = Radius of the sphere(R) and ON = p.

  NP  R 2  p 2
As points O and N are fixed points, therefore NP will be constant for all
the locations of point P on the plane.
Hence, the locus of point P is a circle with centre as point N and radius
= R2  p2 .
Note: (i) If the given plane is passing through the centre of the sphere, then the
plane section of the sphere is known as the great circle with centre and radius
same as that of the sphere.
(ii) The intersection of the sphere by a plane is possible only if OA  R,
where R is the radius of the sphere.
(iii) The circle passing through three given points lies entirely on any sphere,
through the same three points.
Equation of Circle
As we have proved that plane section passing through the sphere represents a
circle, in this section let us find out the equation of the circle so formed.
Let the sphere is represented by
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 …(12.1)
and the plane is represented by
Lx  My  Nz  P  0 …(12.2)

Self-Instructional
150 Material
 The sphere and the plane taken together represent a circle where: Equation of a Circle on a
Sphere
The centre (N) of a circle is the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the
centre O of the sphere to the plane of the circle.
The radius of the circle = R 2  p 2 NOTES

 r  (Radius of the sphere)2   Length of the perpendicular on the plane 

2

Sphere through a Given Circle

Let the equation of the sphere be
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 ...(12.3)
and the equation of the plane be
Lx  My  Nz  P  0 …(12.4)
Now, let us consider the equation,
x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  k  Lx  My  Nz  P   0 …(12.5)
where k is any constant.
Equation (12.5) is a second degree equation in x, y and z, where the co-
efficients of x2, y2 and z2 are equal. Also, there are no terms of the product of xy,
yz and zx.
 Equation (12.5) represents a sphere which satisfies the co-ordinates of
the points lying on Equations (12.3) and (12.4).
Hence, x 2  y 2  z 2  2ux  2vy  2wz  d  k  Lx  My  Nz  P   0
i.e., Sphere + k (Plane) = 0.
represents the required equation of any sphere, through the circle of intersection
of the sphere and the plane.
Intersection of Two Spheres
Consider the equation of two spheres as
S1  x 2  y 2  z 2  2u1 x  2v1 y  2w1 z  d1  0 …(12.6)
and S2  x 2  y 2  z 2  2u2 x  2v2 y  2 w2 z  d 2  0 …(12.7)
Assume that the two spheres intersect each other and the points of
intersection of the S1 = 0 and S2 = 0 will also lie on the plane surface given by,
S1 – S2 = 0
 x 2 y2 z2 2u1 x 2v1 y 2w1 z d1
(x2 y2 z2 2u2 x 2v2 y 2w2 z d 2 ) 0

Self-Instructional
Material 151
Equation of a Circle on a
Sphere   2  u1  u2  x  2  v1  v2  y  2  w1  w2  z   d1  d 2   0
…(12.8)
which represents a plane.
NOTES Also the point of intersection of two spheres (given in Equations (12.6) and
(12.7)) are the same as those of any one of them and the plane (given in Equation
(12.8)), therefore they lie on the circle.
Example 12.1: Find the equation of the sphere, through the circle,
x 2  y 2  z 2  1, 2 x  4 y  5 z  6 and touching the plane z  0 .
Solution: Any sphere through the circle
x 2  y 2  z 2  1, 2 x  4 y  5 z  6 is given by
x2  y 2  z 2  1  k  2 x  4 y  5z  6  0 ...(1)
 5 
The centre of the sphere given in Equation (1) is   k ,  2k ,  k 
 2 
25 2
radius = k  4k  k  1  6k
2 2
and
4
Since sphere in Equation (1) touches the plane z = 0
Perpendicular distance of the centre from the plane = Radius
5 25
  k   5k 2  k 2  1  6 k
2 4
1
 5k 2  6 k  1  0  k  1, 
5
Hence, the two sphere are
x2  y 2  z 2  2 x  4 y  5z  5  0

and 5 x2  y 2  z 2   2 x  4 y  5z  1  0 .

Check Your Progress

1. What is plane section of a sphere?
2. What is known as great circle?

12.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Plane section of a sphere is a set of common points to the sphere and the
plane when they intersects.
2. If the given plane is passing through the centre of the sphere, then the plane
section of the sphere is known as the great circle with centre and radius
Self-Instructional same as that of the sphere.
152 Material
 Equation of a Circle on a
12.4 SUMMARY Sphere

 The radius of the circle = R 2  p 2

NOTES
r  (Radius of the sphere)2   Length of the perpendicular on the plane  2

 Sphere + k (Plane) = 0. represents the required equation of any sphere,

through the circle of intersection of the sphere and the plane.

 2  u1  u2  x  2  v1  v2  y  2  w1  w2  z   d1  d 2   0

which represents a plane.

12.5 KEY WORDS

 Circle: A circle is a plane figure bounded by one line, and such that all right
lines drawn from a certain point within it to the bounding line, are equal. The
bounding line is called its circumference and the point, its centre.
 Sphere: A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional
space that is the surface of a completely round ball.

12.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Obtain the equation a sphere, through the circle of intersection of the sphere
and the plane.
2. What do you understand by intersection of two spheres?
3. Derive the equation of a circle on a sphere.
Long Answer Questions
1. Find the equation of the sphere through the circle
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2x + 3y + 6 = 0, x – 2y + 4z
2. Obtain the equation of the sphere, having the circle
x2 + y2 + z2 = 9, x – 2y + 2z –5 = 0 as great circle. Find its centre and
radius also.
3. Find the equation of the sphere, which passes through the circle x2 + y2 = 4,
z = 0 and is cut by the plane x + 2y + 2z = 0 in a circle of radius 3.

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Material 153
Equation of a Circle on a
Sphere 12.7 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

NOTES Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.

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UNIT 13 VECTOR CALCULUS

Structure NOTES
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Vector Calculus
13.2.1 Scalar Triple Product
13.2.2 Vector Triple Product
13.3 Vector Differentiation
13.3.1 Limit and Continuity of a Vector Function
13.3.2 Differentiation of Vectors
13.3.3 Partial Derivatives of Vector Functions
13.3.4 Total Differential
13.4 Gradient, Divergence and Curl
13.4.1 Gradient of a Scalar Point Function
13.4.2 Divergence of a Vector Point Function
13.4.3 Curl of a Vector Point Function
13.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.6 Summary
13.7 Key Words
13.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.9 Further Readings

13.0 INTRODUCTION

The term ‘vector calculus’ is sometimes used as a synonym for the broader subject
of multivariable calculus, which includes vector calculus as well as partial differentiation
and multiple integration. Vector calculus owes much of its importance in geometry
and physics to the gradient of a scalar point function, divergence and curl of a vector
point function. These terms are used for simplifying the complicated vectors. Vector
calculus plays an important role in differential geometry and in the study of partial
differential equations. It is used extensively in physics and engineering, especially in
the description of electromagnetic fields, gravitational fields and fluid flow.
In this unit, you will learn about the scalar and vector products of three or
more vectors. A scalar field associates a scalar value to every point in a space.
The scalar may either be a mathematical number or a physical quantity. A vector
field is an assignment of a vector to each point in a subset of space. A vector field
in the plane, for instance, can be visualized as a collection of arrows with a given
magnitude and direction each attached to a point in the plane. Vector fields are
often used to model, for example, the speed and direction of a moving fluid
throughout space, or the strength and direction of some force, such as the magnetic
or gravitational force, as it changes from point to point. This unit will also introduce
you to various important concepts of gradients and the meaning of scalar and
vector point functions.
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Vector Calculus
13.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

NOTES  Represent scalar triple product and vector triple product in the form of
determinant
 Understand the scalar field, vector field and vector operator del
 Learn about the gradient of a scalar point function, divergence and curl of a
vector point function
 Discuss vector differentiation
 Understand the second order differential equations

13.2 VECTOR CALCULUS

In this section, scalar product and vector product are discussed.

13.2.1 Scalar Triple Product
     
If a, b and c be any three vectors, then the scalar product of a  b with c is
  
called the scalar triple product of a, b and c in this order and is written as
       
 
a  b . c or  ab c  or  a, b, c  .

Geometrical Representation of Scalar Triple Product

Geometrically, the scalar product represents the volume of parallelopiped having
  
a, b and c as its coterminous edges.
     
Consider a parallelopiped with OA  a, OB  b and OC  c as coterminous
edges (Refer Figure 13.1).
   
a  b is the vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b . Let u is a unit
  
vector along a  b and  be the angle between u and c .
   
 
Now, a  b . c = (Area of parallelogram OADB) u . c

= (Area of parallelogram OADB) u c cos

= (Area of parallelogram OADB) OC cos

= (Area of parallelogram OADB) OL
= (Area of parallelogram OADB)  Height
= Volume of parallelopiped
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NOTES

Fig. 13.1 Parallelopiped

Properties of Scalar Triple Product

  
Let a , b and c be three vectors and m be a scalar..
(i) The cyclic permutation of three vectors does not change the value of scalar
product.
             
     
a  b .c  b  c .a  c  a .b or  abc   bc a   ca b 

(ii) The change in the cyclic order of three vectors changes the sign of the
scalar triple product but not the magnitude.
    
 abc    ba c     cb a     acb 
       
(iii) In a scalar triple product, the dot and cross can be interchanged provided
that the cyclic order of the vectors remains the same.
     
  
a  b .c  a. b  c 
(iv) The scalar triple product of three vectors is zero if any two of them are
equal.
      
 abc   0 if a  b or b  c or c  a
 
 
(v)  mabc   m  abc 

(vi) The scalar triple product of three vectors is zero if any two of them are
parallel or collinear.
      
 abc   0 if a  mb or b  mc or c  ma
 

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  
Vector Calculus
Note: i jk   i  j .k  k .k  1 , where i, j and k stands for the unit vectors
 

along the axes. Similarly,  jki

     ki
  j   1              
   and thus i jk    jki    ki j   1 .
NOTES
Coplanarity of Three Vectors
The necessary and sufficient condition for three non-zero non-collinear vectors,
   
a , b and c to be coplanar is that  abc   0 , i.e,
   
a , b , c are coplanar   abc   0
 
    
Proof: Condition is necessary: Since a , b and c are coplanar,, a  b is

perpendicular to c . This means that
   
 
a  b .c  0 or  abc   0
  
Condition is sufficient: Let a , b and c are three non-zero non-collinear
   
 
vectors such that  abc   0 or a  b .c  0 .
 
    
Since a , b and c are non-zero non-collinear vectors; thus, a  b  0 and
      
 
c  0. This means that a  b  c . But a  b is perpendicular to the plane of a

and b .
  
Therefore, a , b and c lies in the same plane, i.e., they are coplanar..
Scalar Triple Product in terms of Components
  
If a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k , b  b1 i  b2 j  b3 k and c  c1 i  c2 j  c3 k be three
vectors, then,

a1 a2 a3

 abc   b1 b2 b3
 
c1 c2 c3

Volume of a Tetrahedron
Let ABCD be a tetrahedron, and its three edges AB, AC and AD represent three
  
vectors a, b and c , respectively (Refer Figure 13.2).

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NOTES

Fig. 13.2 Tetrahedron

1
Volume of tetrahedron = (area of ABC)  (height of vertex D above the plane
3
ABC)

1 1 
=  area of parallelogram whose adjacent edges AB and AC   (height of
3 2 
vertex D above the plane ABC)
1
= (volume of parallelepiped having AB, AC and AD as coterminous edges)
6

1      1    

= AB AC AD  =  abc 
6 6
Thus, the volume of tetrahedron with three edges AB, AC and AD representing
   1  
three vectors a, b and c is  abc  .
6
   
If a, b, c and d are the position vectors of the vertices A, B, C and D of the
        
tetrahedron ABCD, then AB  b  a, AC  c  a and AD  d  a .

1      
 Volume of tetrahedron = ba ca d  a 
6
   
Four points A, B, C and D with position vectors a, b, c and d are coplanar if the
volume of tetrahedron ABCD is 0, i.e.,
1            
6
   
b  a c  a d  a  = 0   b  a  c  a  . d  a = 0
   
     
 bcd   bca   bd a   cd a   0

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Vector Calculus Example 13.1: Find the volume of a parallelepiped whose sides are given by
– 3 i  7 ˆj  5 kˆ,  5i  7 ˆj – 3 kˆ and 7 iˆ – 5 ˆj – 3kˆ .
  
Solution: Let a  – 3iˆ  7 ˆj  5 kˆ , b  – 5iˆ  7 ˆj – 3kˆ and c  7iˆ  5 ˆj – 3kˆ . We know
NOTES   
that the volume of a parallelepiped whose three adjacent edges are a, b, c is equal

to  a b c  .
We have,
–3 7 5

 a b c  = –5 7 – 3
 
7 –5 –3
= – 3 (–21–15) –7 (15 + 21) + 5 (25 – 49)
= 108 – 252 – 120 = – 264

So, required volume of the parallelepiped =  a b c  = | – 264 |
= 264 cubic units
Example 13.2: Find the value of  for which the four points with position vectors
3 iˆ – 2 ˆj – kˆ, 2 iˆ  3 ˆj – 4kˆ, – iˆ  ˆj  2 kˆ and 4 iˆ  5 ˆj   kˆ are coplanar..
Solution: Let A, B, C, D be the given points. Then,

AB = Position vector of B – Position vector of A
   
= 2 iˆ  3 ˆj – 4kˆ – 3 iˆ – 2 ˆj – kˆ  – iˆ  5 ˆj – 3 kˆ

AC = Position vector of C – Position vecor of A

   
= – iˆ  ˆj  2kˆ – 3 iˆ – 2 ˆj – kˆ  – 4 iˆ  3 ˆj  3 kˆ

AD = Position vector of D – Position vecor of A
   
= 4 iˆ  5 ˆj   kˆ – 3 iˆ – 2 ˆj – kˆ  iˆ  7 ˆj  ( 1) kˆ
  
The given points are coplanar iff vectors AB , AC , AD are coplanar..
 Points A, B, C, D are coplanar.
  
 AB , AC , AD are coplanar,,
  
  AB, AC , AD  = 0
 
–1 5 –3
 –4 3 3 0
1 7  1

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 – 1(3  + 3 – 21) – 5 (– 4  – 4 – 3) – 3 (– 28 – 3) = 0
 – 3  + 18 + 20  + 35 + 93 = 0
 17  + 146 = 0
146 NOTES
  =–
17

13.2.2 Vector Triple Product

     
If a, b and c be any three vectors, then the vector products of a  b with c and
     
a with b  c are called the vector triple products of a, b and c . These products
     
 
are written as a  b  c and a  b  c .  
Expansion Formula
  
For three vectors a, b and c , we have
      
     
a  b  c = a. c b  a. b c
Let us prove this formula.
  
If a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k , b  b1 i  b2 j  b3 k and c  c1 i  c2 j  c3 k , then

i j k
 
b  c = b1 b2 b3 =  b2 c3  b3c2  i   b3c1  b1c3  j   b1c2  b2c1  k
c1 c2 c3

i j k
  

 a  bc =  a1 a2 a3
b2 c3  b3c2 b3c1  b1c3 b1c2  b2 c1

= a2  b1c2  b2 c1   a3  b3c1  b1c3   i   a3  b2 c3  b3c2   a1  b1c2  b2c1   j 

 a1  b3c1  b1c3   a2  b2 c3  b3c2   k

   
    
Now, a. c b  a. b c =  a1c1  a2 c2  a3c3  b1 i  b2 j  b3 k  
 a b  a b  a b   c i  c j  c k 
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3

 
 a.b  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3 and a.c  a1c1  a2 c2  a3c3 
 
=  a1c1b1  a2 c2b1  a3c3b1  a1b1c1  a2b2 c1  a3b3c1  i 
Self-Instructional
Material 161
  a1c1b2  a2 c2b2  a3c3b2  a1b1c2  a2b2c2  a3b3c2  j 
Vector Calculus

 a1c1b3  a2c2b3  a3c3b3  a1b1c3  a2b2c3  a3b3c3  k

=  a2  b1c2  b2 c1   a3  b3c1  b1c3   i 
NOTES

 a3  b2 c3  b3c2   a1  b1c2  b2c1   j 

 a1  b3c1  b1c3   a2  b2 c3  b3c2   k

      
     
Thus, a  b  c = a. c b  a. b c
      
     
Similarly, it can be shown that a  b  c = a. c b  b. c a
  
Note: (i) The vector triple product a   b  c  is a linear combination of those
two vectors which are within brackets.
     
 
(ii) a  b  c is perpendicular to a and b  c .
     
   
(iii) a  b  c  a  b  c , i.e, vectors, triple product is not associative.
       
 
a  b  c is a vector which lies in the plane of b and c whereas a  b  c is  
 
a vector which lies in the plane of b and a .
     
 
a b c = – c  a b =  
              
  c. b  a   c.a  b    c.a  b   c. b  a   a.c  b   b. c  a
 
  
Example 13.3: If a , b , c are non-coplanar unit vectors such that
 
   b c   

a  b c   2
, b and c are non-parallel, then find the angles, which a makes
 
with b and c .
 
   b c
Solution : We have, a  b  c  2

 
      b c
 
  a . c  b – a .b c 
2
  1    1   
  a .c –  b –  a .b   c 0
 2  2
  1   1  
 a .c –  0 and a .b  0 [ b and c are non-collinear vectors]
Self-Instructional
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 Vector Calculus
  1
 a .c    1
and a .b  
2 2
1
 cos  
2 NOTES
1   
and cos   – , where  and  are the angles made by a with b and c ,
2
respectively.
 3
 and   .
4 4

Scalar Product of Four Vectors

       
If a, b, c and d are any four vectors, then the scalar product of a  b with c  d
   
is called the scalar product of a, b, c and d . This product is written as
   
  
ab . c d .
       
 a  b  . c  d  =  a  b   c .d [interchanging the dot and cross product]
      
=  a.c  b   b. c  a  .d
       
=  a.c  b.d    a.d  b. c 
           
 a  b  . c  d  =  a.c b.d    a.d b. c  is known as Lagrange’s identity. It
can be expressed in the form of determinant as
    a.c a.d
 
ab . c d = 
b.c b.d
Vector Product of Four Vectors
       
If a, b, c and d be any four vectors, then the vector product of a  b with c  d is
   
called the vector product of a, b, c and d . This product is written as
   
  
ab  cd . 
     
   
Vector product a  b  c  d being a vector perpendicular to a  b is coplanar
 
 
with a and b . Also, it being a vector perpendicular to c  d is coplanar with
     
   
c and d . Thus, we can look upon a  b  c  d as a vector triple product in
     
two ways by putting a  b  q and c  d  p .
     
   
(i) Expressing a  b  c  d in terms of a and b .
Self-Instructional
Material 163
       
 a  b    c  d  =  a  b   p , where c  d  p
Vector Calculus

     
=  a. p  b   b. p  a
NOTES        
=  a.c  d  b   b.c  d  a
   
=  acd  b  bcd  a
 
Here, the vector product appears as the linear combination of a and b .
     
   
(ii) Expressing a  b  c  d in terms of c and d .
         
 a  b    c  d  = q   c  d  , where a  b  q
     
=  q.d  c   q.c  d
       
=  a  b.d  c   a  b.c  d
     
=  abd  c   abc  d
 
Here, the vector product appears as the linear combination of c and d .
              
   
Thus, a  b  c  d =  acd  b  bcd  a =  abd  c   abc  d
           
Example 13.4: Prove that  b  c  . a  d    c  a  .  b  d    a  b  .  c  d   0 .
Solution: We know that
     
 b  c . a  d    b .a  c .d    b . d   c . a 
           
 c  a . b  d    c .b  a . d    c . d  a .b 
     
 a  b . c  d    a .c   b . d    a . d  b .c 
Adding we get,
     
 b  c  . a  d    c  a . b  d    a  b . c  d   0
Reciprocal System of Vectors
       
If a, b and c are non-coplanar vectors, i.e,  abc   0 and if a, b and c are
 
three other vectors such that
     
 b  c  ca  a  b
a    , b    and c   
 abc   abc   abc 
     
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164 Material
       Vector Calculus
then a, b and c are called the reciprocal system to the vectors a, b and c .
     
Theorem 13.1: If a, b and c and a, b and c form a reciprocal system of
     
vectors, then a.a  b.b  c. c  1 NOTES
     
Theorem 13.2: If a, b and c and a, b and c form a reciprocal system of
           
vectors, then a.b  a.c  b. a  b. c  c. a  c. b  0
     
Theorem 13.3: If a, b and c and a, b and c form a reciprocal system of
 1
vectors, then  abc   
 abc 
 
    
     b  c  a 
  c
Proof:  abc  a  b .c         .c
    abc   abc  
   

 
      Let  = 1 
     
  b  c   c  a  .c   abc  
  
    
   
    b  c  c  a  .c
 
        
      
    b  c .a c  b  c .c a  .c

     
    bca  c  bcc  a  .c
 
   
    bca  c  .c
    bcc  = 0 
   
  
    bca  c.c 

  
   bca    c.c  1
1 
    bca 
 
 abc 
 
1
  
 abc 
 

Self-Instructional
Material 165
 Theorem 13.4: The orthonormal vector triads i , j and k form a self-reciprocal
Vector Calculus

system, i.e.,
i = i , j  = j and k = k
NOTES 
Proof: Let i , j  and k be the system of vectors parallel to the system of i , j
j  k
and k . Then, i = = i .
i jk 
 
    
Theorem 13.5: If a, b and c are non-coplanar vectors, i.e,  abc   0 and
 
   
a, b and c constitute the reciprocal system of vectors, then any vector r can
         
     
be expressed as r  r.a a  r.b b  r.c c
   
Proof: Since a, b and c are non-coplanar vectors, r can be expressed as the
linear combination in the form
   
r  xa  yb  zc , where x, y and z are scalars ...(13.1)
 
Multiplying both sides by b  c ,
           
    
r. b  c  xa. b  c  yb. b  c  zc. b  c   
  
     r. b  c
   
 
 r. b  c  x  abc   x   
 abc  = r.a
 
   

Similarly, y = r.b and z = r.c
Substituting the values of x, y and z in Equation (13.1), we get
         
     
r  r.a a  r.b b  r.c c
  
Example 13.5: Given a  2iˆ  ˆj  3kˆ, b  2iˆ  ˆj  kˆ, c  iˆ  3 ˆj  k , find the
        
reciprocal triads a, b, c and verify that  a , b , c   a, b, c = 1.

2 –1 3

Solution :  a b c   2 1 – 1 = 2(– 1 + 3) + 1(– 2 + 1) + 3(6 – 1)
1 3 –1
= 4 – 1 + 15 = 18

iˆ ˆj kˆ
2 1 1

 b  c 1 3 1 1  ˆ ˆ ˆ
Now, a       2i  j  5k
a b c  18 18  
Self-Instructional  
166 Material
 Vector Calculus
iˆ ˆj kˆ
1 3 1

 c  a 2 1 3 1  ˆ ˆ
b       8i  5 j  7 kˆ  NOTES
a b c  18 18  
 

iˆ ˆj kˆ
2 1 3

 a  b 2 1 1 1  ˆ ˆ
c        2i  8 j  4kˆ 
a b c  18 18  
 

2 1 5
   1
Now,  a, b, c  8 5 7
18
3

2 8 4

1
= 18 3  2   20  56    32 14   5  64 10  
 
1
= 18 1818 72 18  270

324 1
= 18 1818  18

 1
  a b c   a b c 18 1
18

Check Your Progress

1. What is the necessary and sufficient condition for three non-zero collinear
 
vectors, a , b and c to be coplanar?
2. What is Lagrange's identity?
3. What is reciprocal system of vectors?

13.3 VECTOR DIFFERENTIATION

Scalar Function and Vector Function

If t is a scalar variable, then a rule denoted by ‘f’, which associates to each t in an
interval say a  t  b, a unique scalar f(t), is called a scalar function of the scalar
variable t. The scalar f(t) means the value of f at t.

Self-Instructional
Material 167
Vector Calculus 
If t is a scalar variable, then a rule denoted by ‘ f ’ which associates to each

t in an interval say a  t  b, a unique vector f (t ) , is called a vector function of
 
NOTES the scalar variable t. The vector f (t ) means the value of f at t.
We know that in rectangular co-ordinate system, every vector can be
uniquely expressed as a linear combination of three fixed non-coplanar unit vectors
i , j and k along the axes OX, OY and OZ, respectively. Therefore, we can

write f (t ) = f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f 3 (t )k .
The scalar functions f1 (t ), f 2 (t ) and f 3 (t ) are called the components of

the vector f (t ) along the co-ordinate axes.

13.3.1 Limit and Continuity of a Vector Function

The definitions of limit and continuity for vectors functions bear a strong resemblance
to the corresponding definitions for scalar functions.
Limit of a Vector Function

Let a vector function f (t ) be defined for all values of t in a  t  b and t0 be a
 
point in this interval. Then, a vector a is called the limit of f (t ) as t  t0 and is
 
written as lim f (t )  a
t  t0

iff for any given number  > 0, there exists a real number  > 0 such that
 
f (t )  a < , whenever 0 < |t – t0| < .

In terms of components, if f (t ) = f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f 3 (t )k and
 
a = a1 i  a2 j  a3 k , then lim
t t
f (t ) a iff lim f i (t ) ai
t t
0 0

where i = 1, 2, 3
Continuity of a Vector Function

A vector function f (t ) is said to be continuous at a point t0 in its interval of
 
definition iff lim f (t )  f (t0 )
t  t0
 
In other words, a vector function f (t ) is said to be continuous at t = t0 iff f (t0 )
is defined and for any given number  > 0, there exists a positive number  > 0
such that
 
f (t )  f (t0 ) < , whenever 0 < |t – t0| < .

Self-Instructional
168 Material
   Vector Calculus
In terms of components, if f (t ) = f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f 3 (t )k , then f (t ) is continuous
iff f1 (t ), f 2 (t ) and f 3 (t ) are continuous. A vector function is continuous in an
interval iff its components are continuous in that interval.
NOTES
13.3.2 Differentiation of Vectors
 
If a vector r varies continuously as a scalar variable t changes, then r is said
 
to be a function of t and is written as r = f (t ) .

Let t be a small increment in t and  r be the corresponding increment
   
in r . Then, r +  r = f  t  t 
  
   r f  t  t   f (t )
  r = f  t  t  – f (t )  
t t
  
r f  t  t   f (t )
If lim  lim exists, then the value of this limit is called the
t 0 t t 0 t
 
 dr df 
derivative of r with respect to t and is denoted by or or f (t ) .
dt dt
   
dr r f  t  t   f (t )
Thus, = lim  lim
dt t 0 t t 0 t
 
dr d2r
Since is itself a vector function of t, its derivative is denoted by 2 and is
dt dt

called the second derivative of r with respect to t. Similarly, we can define the

high order derivatives of r .

In terms of components, if vector function r = f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f 3 (t )k , then
we can write

dr
 = f1(t )i  f 2(t ) j  f 3(t )k
dt

Thus, a vector function f (t ) is differentiable in an interval iff its all components
are differentiable in that interval.
Like scalar function, a vector function which is differentiable is necessarily
continuous but the converse is not true.
Rules for Differentiating Vectors
The rules for differentiating vectors are similar to those for scalar functions. If
  
a, b and c are vector functions of a scalar t, and  is a scalar function of t, then
Self-Instructional
Material 169
Vector Calculus  
d  
(i)
dt
ab   d a db
dt dt

 
d    db d a 
NOTES (ii)
dt
 
a.b  a.
dt dt
 .b
 
d    db d a 
(iii)
dt
ab  a 
dt dt
b

d  d a d 
(iv)
dt
 
a  
dt dt
 a

  
d    d a     db      dc 
(v)  abc    bc    a c    ab 
dt  
 dt   dt   dt 
  
d    d a     db      d c 
(vi)
dt
  
a bc 
dt
 
 bc  a c  a b 
 dt   dt 

Chain Rule

Let r be a differentiable vector function of a scalar variable s, and s be a

differentiable function of another scalar variable t. Then r is the differential vector
function of t.

If t is a small increment in t, then s and  r are the corresponding increments

in s and r , respectively. Then,
 
r r s
 .
t s t
 
r r s
Taking limits as t  0 and hence s  0, we have lim  lim . lim
t 0 t s  0 s t  0 t

 
d r d r ds
Thus,  .
dt ds dt

Example 13.6: Given r  sin t i  cos t j  tk , find:
   
dr d2r dr d2r
(i) (ii) 2 (iii) dt (iv) dt 2 .
dt dt
Solution:

dr d d d
(i)  (sin t )i  (cos t ) j  (t )k
dt dt dt dt
= cos ti  sin t j  k
Self-Instructional
170 Material
   Vector Calculus
d2r d  dr  d  d  d 
(ii) dt 2  dt  dt   dt (cos t ) i  dt (sin t ) j  dt (1)k
 
=  sin t i  cos t j NOTES

dr
(iii)  (cos t ) 2  (  sin t )2  (1) 2  cos 2 t  sin 2 t  12  1  1  2
dt

d2r
(iv) ( sin t ) 2 ( cos t ) 2 sin 2 t cos 2 t 1 1
dt 2
 
Example 13.7: If a  sin i  cos  j  k , b  cos i  sin  j  k and
 d    
c  2i  3 j  k , find
d

a  (b  c ) at   .
2

  
Solution: a sin i cos j k , b cos i sin j k , c 2 i 3 j k

i j k
 
b × c  cos   sin   3 = (3sin + 9) i – (–3cos + 6) j + (3cos + 2 sin ) k
2 3 3

i j k
  
a  (b × c)  sin  cos  
3sin   9 3cos   6 3cos   2sin 
 (3cos 2   2sin  cos   3 cos   6)i
 (3cos  sin   2sin 2   3 sin   ) j
 (3cos  sin    sin   3sin  cos    cos )k
 (3cos 2   sin 2  3 cos   6)i
3 
  sin 2  2sin 2   3 sin     j
2 
 ( sin    cos )k
d   
d
 
a  (b  c)  (6sin  cos   2cos 2  3cos   3 sin   i

 (3cos 2   sin  cos    cos   3sin   j

 (6cos   9sin k 
d       
d
 
a  (b  c) at    = 0  2(1)  3  6  i  (3  3  9) j  9k
2  2 

     
=   4  i  15 j  9k
 2 
Self-Instructional
Material 171
Vector Calculus Constant Vector and Its Derivative
A constant vector is a vector whose both magnitude and direction are fixed, i.e.,
  
do not change. Let r be a constant vector function of the scalar t and r = f (t ) .
NOTES      
Since  r = 0, thus r = f  t  t  and f  t  t  – f (t )  0
  
dr f  t  t   f (t )  
Now,  lim  lim 0  0
dt t 0 t t 0

Thus, the derivative of a constant vector is the null vector or the zero vector.

  d f
Theorem 13.6: If f (t ) has a constant magnitude, then f .  0.
dt

Proof: f (t ) has a constant magnitude, i.e.,

 f (t ) = constant
   2
For f (t ) . f (t ) = f (t ) = constant,
d  

dt
 
f.f  0
  
 d f d f   d f
 f.  .f  0  2f. 0
dt dt dt

 d f
 f. 0
dt
  
 d f d f  df
Note: f .  0 implies that  f provided that 0.
dt dt dt

  d f
Theorem 13.7: If f (t ) has a constant direction, then f   0.
dt
 
Proof: Let g (t ) be a unit vector in the direction of f (t ) such that f (t ) = f(t) g (t )

and f(t) = f (t ) .

df d g df 
  f  g
dt dt dt
…(13.2)

Since f (t ) has a constant direction, g (t ) will also have the constant direction.
d g
Thus, g (t ) is a constant vector and = 0. So, Equation (13.2) reduces to
dt

d f df 
 g.
dt dt
Self-Instructional
172 Material
  Vector Calculus
 d f  df  df  
Now, f   f g   g  = f gg 0
dt  dt  dt
 
Theorem 13.8: If f is a differentiable vector of scalar variable t and f = f , NOTES
then

d 2  d f
(i)
dt
 
f 2f
df
dt
(ii) f .
dt
= f
df
dt

Proof: (i) Since f = f , then
  2
f2= f = f 2

d 2
Thus,
dt
  d
f   f 2  2f
dt
df
dt
  
d 2 d    d f d f   d f
(ii)
dt
 f   
dt
f.f  f.
dt

dt
.f  2 f.
dt
…(13.3)

d 2
But
dt
 f 2f
df
dt
d 2
Substituting the value of  
dt
f in Equation (13.3),
 
df  d f  d f df
2f = 2f.  f. = f
dt dt dt dt

Theorem 13.9: If f is a differentiable vector of scalar variable t, then
 
d   d f   d 2 f
f  f  2
dt  dt  dt
      
d   d f   d 2 f d f d f  d 2 f  df df 
Proof: dt  f  dt   f   = f    0
  dt 2 dt dt dt 2  dt dt 

13.3.3 Partial Derivatives of Vector Functions


When a vector r depends on scalar variables, say x, y and z, we write
 
r = f (x, y, z).
  
r f  x  x, y, z   f ( x, y, z ) 
limThen lim is called the partial derivative of r with
x  0 x x 0 x

r
respect to x and is denoted by .
x
Self-Instructional
Material 173
Vector Calculus Similarly, we define the partial derivatives
  
r f  x , y  y, z   f ( x, y, z )
 lim
y y 0 y
NOTES   
r f  x , y, z  z   f ( x, y, z )
 lim
z z 0 z
Higher order derivatives can also be defined in the similar way. For example,
     
 2 r   r   2 r   r   2 r   r 
        
x 2 x  x  , y 2 y  y  , z 2 z  z  ,
     
2 r   r  2 r   r  3 r   2 r 
        
xy x  y  , yx y  x  , xz 2 x  z 2 
 
 2 r 2 r
Note: If r has continuous partial derivatives of second order, then  ,
xy yx
i.e., the order of differentiation does not matter.
Rules for Partial Differentiation of Vectors
 
If a and b are vector functions of scalars x, y, z and  is a scalar function of x, y,
z, then some important rules of partial differentiation of vectors are stated as follows:
 
    a b
(i) 
x

ab  
x x
 
    b  a 
(ii)  
x
a.b  a.  .b
x x
 
    b  a 
(iii) 
x

ab  a 
x x
b

   a  
(iv)  
x
a    a
x x
 
2            b  a  
  
 
(v) yx a.b  y  x a.b   y a. x  x .b 
  
     
  2 b  a b  a b  2 a 
 a.  .  .  .b
yx y x x y yx
 
2             b  a  
   
(vi) xy a  b  x  y a  b   x a  y  y  b 
   
Self-Instructional
174 Material
      
  2 b  a  b  a b  2 a  Vector Calculus
 a      b
xy x y y x xy

(vii) If r (x, y, z ) = f1 (x, y, z )i  f 2 (x, y, z ) j  f 3 (x, y, z ) k , then
NOTES

r f1  f 2  f 3 
= i j k
x x x x
13.3.4 Total Differential
Differential of vectors follow the similar rules to those of elementary calculus.
 
(i) If f f1 i f 2 j f 3 k , then d f =df1 i df 2 j df 3 k
   
 
(ii) d a.b  a.db  d a.b
     
 
(iii) d a  b  a  db  d a  b
  
   f f f
(iv) If r = f (x, y, z ) , then d r = dx  dy  dz
x y z

Example 13.8: If a  (2 x 2 y  x 4 )i  (e xy  y sin x) j  ( x 2 cos y )k , find:
     
a a 2 a 2 a 2 a 2 a
, , , , ,
x y x 2 y 2 xy yx

a   
Solution:  (2 x 2 y  x 4 )i  (e xy  y sin x) j  ( x 2 cos y )k
x x x x
 (4 xy  4 x 3 )i  ( ye xy  y cos x) j  (2 x cos y )k

a   
 (2 x 2 y  x 4 )i  (e xy  y sin x) j  ( x 2 cos y )k
y y y y

 2 x 2 i  ( xe xy  sin x) j  x 2 sin yk

 
 2 a   a    
    (4 xy  4 x 3 )i  ( ye xy  y cos x ) j  (2 x cos y )k
x 2
x  x  x x x

 (4 y  12 x 2 )i  ( y 2 e xy  y sin x) j  2cos yk

 
2 a   a    
    (2 x 2 )i  ( xe xy  sin x) j  ( x 2 sin y )k
y 2
y  y  y y y

 0  x 2 e xy j  x 2 cos yk

 x 2 e xy j  x 2 cos yk

Self-Instructional
Material 175
Vector Calculus 
2 a   A    
    (2 x 2 )i  ( xe xy  sin x) j  ( x 2 sin y )k
x y x  y  x x x

 4 xi  ( xye xy  e xy  cos x) j  2 x sin yk

NOTES
2
 
a a
(2 x 2 )i ( xe xy sin x) j ( x 2 sin y )k
x y x y x x x

 4 xi  ( xye xy  e xy  cos x) j  2 x sin yk

 3 
Example 13.9: If ( x, y, z )  xy 2 z and a  xzi  xy 2 j  yz 2 k , find
x z
2  
a at

the point (2, –1, 1).


  
Solution: a   xy 2 z  xzi  xy 2 j  yz 2 k  x 2 y 2 z 2 i  x 2 y 4 z j  xy 3 z 3 k 
 
z
 
a 
z

 2 2 2 2 4 

x y z i  x y z j  xy 3 z 3 k  2 x 2 y 2 zi  x 2 y 4 j  3 xy 3 z 2 k


2
x z

 
a 
x
 
2 x 2 y 2 zi  x 2 y 4 j  3 xy 3 z 2 k  4 xy 2 zi  2 xy 4 j  3 y 3 z 2 k


3
x z
2
 a 
=

x
 
4 xy 2 zi  2 xy 4 j  3 y 3 z 2 k  4 y 2 zi  2 y 4 j


If x = 2, y = –1, z = 1 this becomes 4(–1)2 (1) i – 2(–1)4 j = 4 i – 2 j .

Curves in Space

To obtain a vector equation for the curve, we consider the position vector r (t ) of
each point on the curve corresponding to the parameter t.

Since the components of r (t ) are precisely the coordinates of the point, it

follows that r (t )  x(t )i  y (t ) j  z (t )k .
This equation is called the vector equation of a space curve. This equation
is a vector function of a scalar variable t such that by assigning different values of
t, we can obtain position vectors of the points on the curve.
Tangent

Let r (t )  x(t )i  y (t ) j  z (t )k be the position vector of a point P. Then as t
varies continuously, P traces out a curve C. Let the neighbouring point Q on this
curve corresponds to t + t, as shown in Figure 13.3.

Self-Instructional
176 Material
 Vector Calculus

NOTES

Fig. 13.3 Tangent

  
PQ  OQ  OP
  
 r  r (t  t   r (t 

r
So, is directed along the chord PQ.
t
As t  0, Q  P, chord PQ  tangent to the curve at P,
 
r d r
 lim  is a vector along the tangent to the curve at P..
t  0 t dt
If the scalar parameter t is replaced by s, where s denotes the arc length
from any convenient point A on the curve upto P, then
arc AP = s, arc AQ = s + s such that s = arc PQ.

dr
Here, will be a vector along the tangent at P..
ds
 
dr r chord PQ
Also, ds  lims  0 s
 lim
Q  P arc PQ
=1


dr
Thus, is the unit vector t along the tangent at P, i.e.,
ds

t = d r
ds
Example 13.10: Find the unit tangent vector at any point on the curve
x  t 2  2, y  4t  5, z  2t 2  6t , where t is any variable. Also determine the
unit tangent vector at the point t = 2.

Solution: If r is the position vector of any point (x, y, z) on the given curve, then

r  xi  y j  zk
 (t 2  2)i  (4t  5) j  (2t 2  6t )k
Self-Instructional
Material 177
Vector Calculus 
dr
The vector is along the tangent at the point (x, y, z) to the given curve.
dt

dr
NOTES Now  2ti  4 j  (4t  6)k
dt

dr
and dt  (2t )  (4)  (4t  6)  20t  48t  52  2 5t  12t  13
2 2 2 2 2


dr
ti  2 j  (2t  3)k
 The unit tangent vector t  dt 
dr 5t 2  12t  13
dt

Also the unit tangent vector at the point t = 2 is

2i  2 j  (2  2  3)k 1   
5  4  12  2  13 3

 2i  2 j  k 
13.4 GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND CURL

Scalar and Vector Point Functions

If to each point of a region E in space, there corresponds a definite scalar denoted
by f(r), then f(r) is called a scalar point function in E and the region E so defined
is called a scalar field.
If to each point of a region E in space, there corresponds a definite vector
 
denoted by f (r ) , then f (r ) is called a vector point function in E and the
region E so defined is called a vector field.
Vector Operator Del
The vector operator del, written as  (read as del) is defined by the equation
        
 = i  j  k = i j k
x y z x y z
The vector operator del is also known as nabla. This operator is useful in defining
the terms gradient, divergence and curl.
13.4.1 Gradient of a Scalar Point Function

Let f  x, y, z  be a function defining scalar point function. Then, the vector point
function f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f and is
denoted by grad f.
Self-Instructional
178 Material
 Vector Calculus
       f f f
Thus, grad f or f =  i  j  k  f = i  j  k
 x y z  x y z
f f f
Note: grad f is a vector whose components are , and . NOTES
x y z

Properties of Gradient
(i) The necessary and sufficient condition for a scalar point function f to be constant
is that f = 0.
f f f
Proof: Condition is necessary: Since f is a constant, thus    0.
x y z
f f f
As f = i  j  k = 0i  0 j  0k = 0
x y z
Condition is sufficient: Let f = 0. Then,
i f  j f  k f = 0
x y z
f f f
Thus, you have    0.
x y z
 f is independent of x, y and z and hence is a constant.
(ii) If f and g are two scalar point functions, then
(f ± g) = f ± g
    
Proof: (f + g) =  i  j  k   f  g 
 x y z 
  
= i  f  g   j  f  g   k  f  g 
x y z

 f g   f g   f g 
= i     j     k   
 x x   y y   z z 
 f f f   g  g  g 
=  i  j  k    i j k 
 x y z   x y z 
= f + g
Similarly, (f – g) = f – g
(iii) If f and g are two scalar point functions, then
(f g) = f g + g f
      
Proof: (f g) =  i  j  k   fg 
 x y z 

Self-Instructional
Material 179
Vector Calculus
  
= i  fg   j  fg   k  fg 
x y z

 g f   g f   g f 
NOTES = i  f  g   j  f  g   k  f g 
 x x   y y   z z 

 g  g  g    f  f  f 
= f  i j k   g i  j  k 
 x y z   x y z 
= f g + g f

(iv) If f and g are two scalar point functions, then

f  g f  f g
 
g  g2

 f       f 
Proof:      i  j  k  
 g   x y z  g 

  f    f     f 
= i   j  k  
x  g  y  g  z  g 

f g f g f g
g f g f g f
 
 i x  j  k z 2 z
x y y
g2 g2 g

1    f  f f    g  g g   
 g i  j  k   f  i j  k 
g2   x y z   x y z  

1
  g f  f g 
g2
g f  f g

g2
Example 13.11: If (x, y, z) = x 2 y  y 2 x  z 2 , find grad  at the point (1, 1,
1).
     
Solution:   i+ j+ k …..(1)
x y z
where  = x2 y  y 2 x  z 2
  
 (2 xy  y 2 ) ,  ( x 2  2 xy ) ,  2z
x y z
Self-Instructional
180 Material
 Vector Calculus
From Equation (1),   (2 xy  y 2 ) i + (x 2  2 xy ) j + 2zk

 at (1, 1, 1) = 3i + 3 j + 2k


Example 13.12: If r  xi  y j  zk , show that NOTES
    
(i) r n  nr n  2 r (ii) (a . r )  a , where a is a constant vector..

Solution: r  r  x 2  y 2  z 2 , or r2 = x  y  z
2 2 2

Differentiating partially with respect to x, we have

r r x
2r  2 x or 
x x r
r y r z
Similarly,  and 
y r z r
      r   r   r 
(i) r n   i  j  k  r n  i  nr n 1.   j  nr n 1.   k  nr n 1. 
 x y z   x   y   z 



x
r


y
r


z
 
 i  nr n 1.   j  nr n 1.   k  nr n 1.   nr n  2 xi  y j  zk  nr n  2 r .
r

(ii) Let a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k , where a1, a2, a3 are constants.
 
a . r = a1 x  a2 y  a3 z
      
 
 a . r =  i  j  k   a1 x  a2 y  a3 z 
 x y z 
  
 i  a1 x  a2 y  a3 z   j  a1 x  a2 y  a3 z   k  a1 x  a2 y  a3 z 
x y z

 a1 i  a2 j  a3 k  a

Level Surface
Suppose f(x, y, z) is a scalar point function over a region R. If a surface
f(x, y, z) = c is drawn through any point P such that at each point on the surface,
the function has the same value as at P, then such a surface is called a level
surface through P. In other words, the points satisfying the equation of the type
f(x, y, z) = c constitute a level surface in 3-dimensional space. At each point on the
level surface, f(x, y, z) has the same value c, where c is any arbitrary constant.
Theorem 13.10: Through any point of a region there passes one and only one
level surface.
Proof: Let f(x, y, z) be a scalar point function over a region R and P(x1, y1, z1) be
a point of R.
Self-Instructional
Material 181
Vector Calculus If level surface f(x, y, z) = c1 and f(x, y, z) = c2 pass through the point P, then
f(x1, y1, z1) = c1 …(13.4)
f(x1, y1, z1) = c2 …(13.5)
NOTES But the scalar point function f(x, y, z) has a unique value at (x, y, z). Thus,
from Equations (13.4) and (13.5),
c1 = c2
It shows that only one level surface passes throughout P(x1, y1, z1) which
is f(x, y, z) = f(x1, y1, z1).
Theorem 13.11: f is normal to the surface f(x, y, z) = c, where c is any arbitrary
constant.

Proof: Let the level surface f(x, y, z) = c pass through the point P(x, y, z) and r
be the position vector of P.

 r  xi  y j  zk
Let Q(x + x, y + y, z + z) be a neighbouring point on the same surface and
 
r +  r be the position vector of Q.
 
r +  r =  x  x  i   y  y  j   z  z  k
    
 
Now, PQ = r  r  r =  r = xi  y j  zk


f.  r =
  f  f  f 
 x y z 
 
 
 i  j  k  . xi  y j  zk 
f f f
= x  y  z
x y z
= f
Since Q lies on the same level surface as P, i.e., f(x, y, z) is constant, thus f = 0.

 f.  r = 0

It implies that f is perpendicular to every  r lying in the surface. Hence, f is
normal to the surface f(x, y, z) = c.
Directional Derivative of a Scalar Point Function
Let f(x, y, z) be a scalar point function in the region R. If P is any point in the region
and Q is the neighbouring point in the direction of a given unit vector a , then
f (Q)  f (P)
lim
Q P PQ
if it exists, it is called the directional derivative of f at P in the direction of a .
In this definition, if the points are P(x, y, z) and Q(x + x, y + y, z + z) and

Self-Instructional PQ = r is a small element in the direction of unit vector a , then

182 Material
 Vector Calculus
f f (Q)  f (P)

r PQ
represents the average rate of change, i.e., the rate of change of f per unit distance
in the direction of a .
NOTES
Thus, if Q  P, then
f (Q)  f (P) f df
lim = lim
r  0 r
=
Q P PQ dr
df
gives the rate of change of f with respect to distance at a point P in the
dr
direction of a .
Theorem 13.12: The directional derivative of a scalar point function f at a point
P(x, y, z) in the direction of a is given by
df
 f .a
dr
Proof: Let Q be a point in the neighbourhood of P in the direction of a given unit
vector a . If l, m and n are the direction cosines of line PQ, i.e., a  li  m j  nk .
If PQ = r, then the co-ordinates of Q are (x + lr, y + mr, z + nr).
df f (Q)  f (P)
Now,  lim
dr Q  P PQ
f  x+l r, y + mr, z + nr   f  x, y, z 
= lim
r  0 r
 f f f 
f  x, y, z   l r  mr  nr   ...  f  x, y, z 
= lim  x y z 
r  0 r
(Expansion using Taylor’s theorem)
 f f f 
= lim  l + m  n   ...
r 0
 x y z 
f f f
=l +m  n
x y z

  f  f  f  
 x y z 
 
=  i  j  k  . li  m j  nk  
= f .a

Self-Instructional
Material 183
 Theorem 13.13: If n is a unit vector normal to the level surface f(x, y, z) = c at
Vector Calculus

a point P(x, y, z), and n is the distance of P from a fixed point A in the direction of
n such that n represents the element of normal at A in the direction of n , then
NOTES
df 
f  n
dn
f f f
Proof: We know that f = i  j  k and f is normal to the level
x y z

surface f(x, y, z) = c. Also, n a unit vector normal to the level surface

f(x, y, z) = c.
 f = λ n , where λ is to be determined. …(13.6)
df
If the directional derivative in the direction of n is , then
dn
df
= f. n = λ. n = λ
dn
Substituting the value of λ in Equation (13.6), we get
df 
f = n
dn
Theorem 13.14: f is a vector in the direction of which the maximum value of
df
occurs.
dr
Proof: By theorem 13.13, we have
df
= 
dr f .a
 df  
=  n  . a
 dn 

=
dn
 
df  
n.a

df
= cos  , where  is the angle between a and n .
dn
df df
Since is fixed, the value of cos  is maximum when cos is maximum and
dn dn
cos is maximum when cos = 1, i.e.,  = 0. This shows that a and n are such
that a is along the unit normal.

Self-Instructional
184 Material
 Thus, the directional derivative is maximum along the normal to the surface, Vector Calculus

i.e.,
df
Maximum value of = f
dn NOTES
Equation of Tangent Plane and Normal
Let P(x, y, z) be a point on the level surface f(x, y, z) = c. Then
 
Position vector OP = r  xi  y j  zk
  
If Q(X, Y, Z) is any point on the tangent plane at P, then PQ  OQ  OP

=  X  x  i   Y  y  j   Z  z  k

As PQ lies in the tangent plane at P, thus it is perpendicular to the normal to the

tangent plane. But f is normal to the tangent plane. Thus, PQ and f are
perpendicular.

Now you have, PQ .f = 0

 f f f 
  X  x  i   Y  y  j   Z  z  k  .  i  j  k  = 0
 x y z 
f f f
 X  x  Y  y  Z  z =0
x y z
The preceding equation is the equation of the tangent plane at P.
To find the equation of normal, let us assume that Q(x, y, z) is any point on the
 
normal at P(x, y, z). Thus, PQ lies along the normal at P and PQ f .
Now you have,

PQ  f  0
The preceding equation is the vector equation of the normal at P. Let us find its
Cartesian form.

As PQ f , thus
  f  f  f 
 X  x  i   Y  y  j   Z  z  k
= i  j  k 
 x y z 
Equating the coefficients of i, j and k and simplifying the equation, you get the

equation of normal as
X  x  Y  y  Z  z .
f f f
x y z

Self-Instructional
Material 185
Vector Calculus
Example 13.13: Find the directional derivative of the function f  x 2  y 2  2 z 2 at
the point P(1, 2, 3) in the direction of the line PQ where Q is the point (5, 0, 4). In
what direction it will be maximum? Find also the magnitude of this maximum.
NOTES Solution: We have
f  f  f
f  i  j k  2 xi  2 y j  4 zk  2i  4 j  12k at P(1, 2, 3)
x y z
  
Also    
PQ  OQ  OP  5i  4k  i  2 j  3k  4i  2 j  k

 4i  2 j  k
If n is a unit vector in the direction PQ , then n 
16  4  1

1
21

4i  2 j  k 

Directional derivative of f in the direction PQ  (f ).n

 
 2i  4 j  12k 
1
21
 
4i  2 j  k 
1
21
 2(4)  4(2)  12(1)
28 4
  21
21 3
The directional derivative of f is maximum in the direction of the normal to the
given surface i.e., in the direction of f  2i  4 j  12k
The maximum value of this directional derivative = f

= (2) 2  (4) 2  (12) 2  164  2 41 .

Example 13.14: Find the greatest value of the directional derivative of  = x2yz
at the point (1, 4, 1).
Solution:  = x2yz
      
   i 
 x y 
j  k   2xyzi  x 2 z j  x 2 yk
z  
  8i  j  4k at (1, 4, 1)
Directional derivative is maximum in the direction of gradient  and maximum
value is  .

 Directional derivative of  is maximum in the direction of 8i  j  4k and

maximum value =   64  1  16  9.
Example 13.15: Find an equation for the tangent plane to the surface
2 xz 2  3 xy  4 x  7 at the point (1 , 1, 2).

Self-Instructional
186 Material
 Vector Calculus
Solution:   2 xz 2  3 xy  4 x    2 z 2  3 y  4  i  3 x j  4 xzk

Then a normal to the surface at the point (1, 1, 2) is 7i  3 j  8k .
The equation of a plane passing through a point whose position vector is NOTES
    
 
r0 and which is perpendicular to the normal N is r  r0 .N = 0. Then the required
equation is

       
 xi  y j  zk  i  j  2k  . 7i  3 j  8k  0

 7(x  1)  3(y + 1) + 8(z  2) = 0

13.4.2 Divergence of a Vector Point Function
 
The divergence of a differential vector point function f is denoted by . f or div

f and is defined by
  
            f   f   f
. f =  i  j  k  . f = i.  j.  k.
 x y z  x y z

Let f = f1 i  f 2 j  f 3 k is differentiable at each point (x, y, z) in a certain region.

Then the divergence of f is defined by
     

. f =  i  j  k  . f1 i  f 2 j  f3 k
 x y z 

f f f3
= 1 2
x y z
Note: The divergence of a vector point function is a scalar point function. If
 
div f = 0, then vector f is called solenoidal.

Properties of Divergence
If f and g are vector point functions and  is a scalar, then
   
 
(i) . f  g = . f + . g
 
Proof: Let f = f1 i  f 2 j  f 3 k and g = g1 i  g 2 j  g3 k . Then,
 
 
f  g =  f1  g1  i   f 2  g 2  j   f 3  g3  k
Now,
 

. f  g = 
      
   
 i  j  k  .  f1  g1  i   f 2  g 2  j   f3  g 3  k
 x y z 

  
=  f1  g1    f 2  g 2    f3  g3 
x y z Self-Instructional
Material 187
Vector Calculus
 f f f   g g g 
=  1  2  3  1 + 2 + 3 
 x y z   x y z 
 
= . f + . g
NOTES      
     
(ii) .  f =    . f    f or div  f =  grad   . f   div f  
 
Proof: Let f = f1 i  f 2 j  f 3 k and  f = f1 i  f 2 j  f 3 k . Then,

       
 
 x y z 
  
Now, .  f =  i  j  k  . f1 i  f 2 j  f3 k  
  
=  f1    f 2    f3 
x y z

  f    f    f 
= f1   1    f2   2    f3   3 
 x x   y y   z z 

      f1 f f 
= f1  f2  f3      2  3 
 x y z   x y z 

          

=  i  j  k  . f1 i  f 2 j  f3 k   
 x y z 
 
 f1 f 2 f 3 

 x y z 

 

=    . f    f 
 
(iii) . f = 0 if f is constant vector..

      
Proof: . f =  i  j  k  . f
 x y z 
  
 f  f  f
= i.  j.  k .
x y z
  
 f f f
As f is a constant vector, thus  0,  0,  0.
x y z

Thus, . f = i.0  j.0  k .0 = 0

 f r r  1 d 2
Example 13.16: Show that div    2   r f  r  .
 r  r dr
 
Solution: Let r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ so that r  x 2  y 2  z 2
f r   f r 
Self-Instructional

r
r
r

xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ 
188 Material
   Vector Calculus
 f r  r  f r r
div    .
 r  r

      f r 
 

=  iˆ x  ˆj y  k z  . r xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ  NOTES

  x f r     y f r     z f r  
= x       ...(1)
 r  y  r  z  r 

  f r     f r   f r  
Now, x  x    x
x  r  x  r  r x

1  1 r  f r 
= x  f  r   2 f  r  
r x r x  r
x r x r f r 
= f r   2 f r  
r x r x r
x x x x f r 
=  f r   2
. f r 
r r r r r
 2 2 r x 
r  x  y  z  x  r etc.
2 2

 
x2 x2 f r 
= 2
f r   3 f r  
r r r
  y f r   y2 y2 f r 
Similarly,   2   3 f (r ) 
 f  r 
y  r  r r r

  z f  r   z2 z2 f r 
And  
 2 f   r   f (r) 
z  r  r r 3
r
Substituting these value in Equation (1), we get

 f  r  r   x2 y2 z2  f r  2 3 f r 
 =  2  2  2  f   r   3  x  y  z  
2 2
div 
 r   r r r  r r

r2 f r  3 f r 
= 2
f  r   3 r2  
r r r
2
= f  r   f  r 
r
d 2
= f r f r
dr r
1  2 d 
=
r2  r dr f  r   2r f  r  
 
1 d 2
=
r 2 dr
 r f  r 
Self-Instructional
Material 189
Vector Calculus 13.4.3 Curl of a Vector Point Function

The curl (or rotation) of a differentiable vector point function f is denoted
 
by curl f or   f and is defined by
NOTES
      
  f =  i  j  k   f
 x y z 
  
 f  f  f
= i  j k
x y z

Note: The curl of a vector point function is a vector point function. If   f = 0,

then vector f is called an irrotational vector..

Let f = f1 i  f 2 j  f 3 k is differentiable at each point (x, y, z) in a certain region.

Then the curl of f is defined by

i j k
        
 x y z 
 
 
  f =  i  j  k   f1 i  f 2 j  f 3 k =

x
 
y

z
f1 f2 f3

     
i y 
z  j x 
z  k x y
=
f2 f3 f1 f3 f1 f2

  f 3  f 2   j  f1  f 3   k  f 2  f1 
= i   z x   
 y z     x y 
  
Note: In the expansion of determinant the operator , , must
x y z
precede f1 , f 2 , f 3 .
Properties of Curl
If f and g are vector point functions and  is a scalar, then
   
 
(i)  f  g =  f +  g
     
(ii)    f  =     f      f  or curl   f  =  grad    f   curl f
         
(iii)   f  g  = f  .g   f . g  g. f  g  . f 
Self-Instructional
190 Material
          
 
Vector Calculus
or curl f  g = g . f  f . g  f div g  g div f

           
 
Proof:  f  g =  i  j  k   f  g
 x y z 
  NOTES
     
i   f  g  j   f  g  k   f  g
=
x
 y
 z
   
       
i   f  g  j   f  g  k   f  g
 f g =
x y
  z

…(13.7)   
 
     g  f  
 
Now, i 
x

f  g = i f 

 x x
 g

 
   g  
i   f    i   f  g 
 
= x 
  x 
   
   g      g      f    f   
  
 
=  i. x  f  i. f x    i.g x   i. x  g 
   
 
…(13.8)
      
 a  b  c  a.c b  a.b c 
       
   
         
j   f  g  j.  g  f  j. f  g    j.g  f   j.  f  g 
   
Similarly,
y
= 
 y 
y   y  y  
…(13.9)
   
     g      g      f    f   
k 

z

f  g =  k .  f  k . f
 z 
    k .g
z  
 
  k.
z  z  
 g  
…(13.10)
Adding Equations (13.8), (13.9) and (13.10), we get Equation (13.7) as
     
     g  g      g    g    g 
  g
 f  g =  i.  j.  k .  f   i. f
  x
 j. f
y
 k. f
z 
 

  x   y   z 

     
    f   f   f    f     f     f   
 
+   i.g
 

x

 j. g  
y

 k .g 
 
   i.
z   x 

 g   j.
 y 

 g   k.  g 
 z  
        
   g  g  g    g  g  g    f  f  f 
= f  i.  j.  k .    f1  f2  f3    g1  g2  g3 
 x y z   x y z   x y z 
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Vector Calculus   
   f
   f  f 

– g  i. x  j. y  k . z 
 
   
. i. x  j. y  k. z  g 
NOTES
  
= f .g –  f1 i  f 2 j  f3 k

      
 
  
+  g1 i  g 2 j  g3 k .  i.  j.  k .  f   g . f
  x y z  
 
       
 
= f .g  f . g  g. f  g . f  
     
     
(iv) . f  g = g.   f  f .   g or
     
div  f  g   g .  curl f   f .  curl g 

        
 
Proof: . f  g =  i  j  k  . f  g
 x y z 
 
          
= i.
x
 
f  g  j.
y

f  g  k.
z

f g  
=
     
   g  f      g  f      g  f  
i. f    g   j.  f    g   k .  f   g

 x  x   y y   z z 
  
    g      g      g  
= i.  f    j.  f    k. f   
  x   y   z  
  
   f      f      f   
+ i.  x  g   j.  y  g   k .  z  g  
       
  
   g      g      g   
=  i.   f   j.   f   k.   f  
  x   y   z  
  
   f      f      f       
+ i.  x  g   j.  y  g   k .  z  g    a  b  b  a 
 
       
  
   g      g      g   
=   i  . f   j  . f   k  . f  
 x   y   z  
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    Vector Calculus
   f      f      f   
+  i  x  .g   j  y  .g   k  z  .g 
      
     
   
 a. b  c  a  b .c 
 
NOTES

     
   g   g   g      f   f   f  
= i  j k . f +  i   j k  .g
  x y z   x y z 
   
= – curl g . f + curl f .g
   
= g . curl f – f . curl g
 
(v)  f = 0 if f is constant vector..

Harmonic Function and Vector Field

Till now we have talked about operators such as gradient, divergence and curl
which act on scalar or vector fields. These operators are all first order differential
operators. Gradient operator, acting on a scalar field, gives a vector field.
Divergence, on the other hand, acts on a vector field giving a scalar field. The curl
operator, acting on a vector field, gives another vector field. The Cartesian
expressions for these operators are as follows : The operator  has the form

In terms of this, the three operators are written as


where we have denoted a scalar field by f and a vector field by F .
We will define another useful operator, known as the Laplacian operator,
which is a second order differential operator acting on a scalar field (and with
some conventional usage on a vector field). This operator is denoted by 2, which
is actually a operator, i.e. it is a divergence of a gradient operator. Since the
gradient operates on a scalar field giving rise to a vector, the divergence operator
can act on this finally resulting on a scalar field. Thus

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The operator denoted by 2 is known as the Laplacian.

A class of functions, known as “Harmonic Functions” satisfy what is

NOTES known as the Laplacian equation,
2f = 0
In vector calculus, in particular, one often finds 2 operator acting on a
vector field. As has been explained above, a Laplacian can only act on a scalar
field. However, often we have equations where the Laplacian operator acts on

components of a vector field, which are of course scalars. Thus 2 F is used as a
short hand notation, which actually means where
are the unit vectors along three orthogonal directions in the chosen

coordinate system and F1, F2, F3 are the components of the vector field F in these
directions. Thus, in Cartesian coordinates, we have

Some operator identities using the operator  are listed below.

1.  × (f) = 0. This is obvious becausef represents a conservative field,
whose curl is zero.
 
2.   (× F ) = 0. Wee have seen that × F represents a solenoidal field,
which is divergenceless. We will see later that the magnetic field B is an
example of a solenoidal field.
  
3.  × (× F ) =  ( F ) – 2 F . This operator identity is very similar to
the vector triple product.
        
(for ordinary vectors, we have, we have, a b c b a c c a b ).

4. (f g) = gf + fg), where both f and are scalar fields.

  
5.   (f F ) = f   F + F  f .
  
6.  × (f F ) = f ( × F ) + f × F .

Check Your Progress

4. What is the derivative of a constant vector?
5. Define vector operator del?
6. Define level surface.
7. What is solenoidal vector?
8. What is irrotational vector?

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13.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

  NOTES
1. a b c 0.
           
        
2. a  b . c  d = a.c b.d  a.d b. c
       
3. If a, b and c are non-coplanar vectors, i.e,  abc   0 and if a, b and c
are three other vectors such that
     
 b  c  c  a  a  b
a    , b    and c   
 abc   abc   abc 
     
  
then a, b and c are called the reciprocal system to the vectors
  
a, b and c .
4. The derivative of a constant vector is the null vector or zero vector.
5. The vector operator del, written as Ñ (read as del) is defined by the equation
        
 = i  j  k = i j k
x y z x y z
6. Suppose f(x, y, z) is a scalar point function over a region R. If a surface f(x,
y, z) = c is drawn through any point P such that at each point on the surface,
the function has the same value as at P, then such a surface is called a level
surface through P.

7. The divergence of a vector point function is a scalar point function. If div f

= 0, then vector f is called solenoidal.

8. The curl of a vector point function is a vector point function. If  × f = 0,

then vector f is called an irrotational vector..

13.6 SUMMARY
     
 If a, b and c be any three vectors, then the scalar product of a  b with c
  
is called the scalar triple product of a, b and c in this order and is written as
       
 
a  b . c or  ab c  or  a, b, c  .

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 If a, b and c be any three vectors, then the vector products of a  b with
      
c and a with b  c are called the vector triple products of a, b and c .
     
NOTES  
These products are written as a  b  c and a  b  c . 
     
 If a, b, c and d are any four vectors, then the scalar product of a  b with
     
c  d is called the scalar product of a, b, c and d . This product is written
   
 
as a  b . c  d . 
     
 If a, b, c and d be any four vectors, then the vector product of a  b with
     
c  d is called the vector product of a, b, c and d . This product is written
   
  
as a  b  c  d . 
 If t is a scalar variable, then a rule denoted by ‘f’, which associates to each
t in an interval say a £ t £ b, a unique scalar f(t), is called a scalar function
of the scalar variable t. The scalar f(t) means the value of f at t.

 A vector function f (t ) is said to be continuous at a point t0 in its interval of
 
definition iff lim f (t )  f (t0 )
t  t0

 
 If a vector r varies continuously as a scalar variable t changes, then r is
 
said to be a function of t and is written as r = f (t ) .
 A constant vector is a vector whose both magnitude and direction are fixed,
i.e., do not change.
 If to each point of a region E in space, there corresponds a definite scalar
denoted by f(r), then f(r) is called a scalar point function in E and the region
E so defined is called a scalar field.
 If to each point of a region E in space, there corresponds a definite vector
 
denoted by f (r ) , then f (r ) is called a vector point function in E and the
region E so defined is called a vector field.

       f f f
 grad f or Ñf =  i  j  k  f = i  j  k
 x y z  x y z
 
 The divergence of a differential vector point function f is denoted by Ñ. f

or div f and is defined by

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    Vector Calculus
            f   f   f
. f =  i  j  k  . f = i.  j.  k.
 x y z  x y z

 The curl (or rotation) of a differentiable vector point function f is NOTES
 
denoted by curl f or   f and is defined by
      
  f =  i  j  k   f
 x y z 

13.7 KEY WORDS

 Scalar point function: It is a function that assigns a real number to each

point of some region of space.
 Vector point function: It is a function that assigns a vector to each point of
some region of space.
 Level surface: It is a surface that is perpendicular to the plumb line at
every point.
 Directional derivative: It is the rate at which the function changes at a
point.

13.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Discuss properties of scalar product.
2. How will you calculate the scalar product of four vectors?
3. How will you calculate the vector product of four vectors?
4. Discuss scalar and vector functions.
5. Define limit and continuity of a vector function.
6. Write a short note on chain rule.
7. Define gradient of a scalar point function.
8. Define divergence of a vector point function.
9. Explain curl of a vector point function.
Long Answer Questions
   
1. Find  a , b , c  , when a  2iˆ  3 ˆj  4kˆ, b  iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ and c  3iˆ  ˆj  2kˆ .

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2. Find  so that four points with position vectors  6iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ, 3iˆ   ˆj  4kˆ,
5iˆ  7 ˆj  3kˆ and 13iˆ  17 ˆj  kˆ are coplanar..
       
NOTES 3. Let a , b , c be three non-zero vectors. If a . b  c   0 and b and c are not
  
parallel, then prove that a   b   c , where  and  are some scalars.
   
4. Let a , b , c be three non-zero vectors such that c is a unit vector
    
perpendicular to both a and b . If the angle between a and b is , prove
6
 2 1 2 2
that  a b c   a b .
4
      
5. Express a b c in terms of b  c , c  a , a  b .
        
6. Verify that a   b  c    a . c  b   a .b  c given that
  
a  iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ, b  2iˆ  ˆj  kˆ, c  iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ .
       
7. Prove that if a and b are vectors such that  a  b   b   b  a   a , then
  
a b  0
   
8. If a  iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ, b  2iˆ  ˆj  2kˆ, c  iˆ  ˆj  kˆ and d  2iˆ  ˆj  3kˆ , find:
       
(i)  a  b  .  c  d  (ii)  a  b    c  d 

9. If r  e t i  ln(t 2  1) j  tan tk , then find the following at t = 0.
   
dr d2r dr d2r
(i) (ii) 2 (iii) dt (iv) dt 2
dt dt
 
10. If a  5t 2 i  t j  t 3 k and b  sin ti  cos t j , then find
d  d  
d 
(i)
dt
 
a.b (ii)
dt

ab
dt
a.a  (iii)  
  
11. If r is a vector function of a scalar t and a and b are constant vectors,
differentiate the following with respect to t.
     1
(i) r n r (ii) r 2 r  a.r b  
(iii) r  2
2

r
12. Find the unit tangent vector at any point on the curve x = 3 cos t, y = 3 sin
t and z = 4t.
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198 Material
 Vector Calculus
13. Find grad  when  is given by:
(i)   x 2  yz (ii)   x3  y 3  3xyz
(iii)   log( x 2  y 2  z 2 )
  NOTES
14. If a is a constant vector, prove that  r.a  a.  
13.9 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.

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Material 199
Line and Surface
Integrals
UNIT 14 LINE AND SURFACE
INTEGRALS
NOTES
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Line and Surface Integrals
14.2.1 Line Integrals
14.2.2 Surface Integrals
14.2.3 Volume Integrals
14.3 The Gauss or Divergence Theorem
14.4 Green’s Theorem
14.5 Stokes’s Theorem
14.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.7 Summary
14.8 Key Words
14.9 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.10 Further Readings

14.0 INTRODUCTION

In mathematics, a line integral is an integral where the function to be integrated is

evaluated along a curve. The terms path integral, curve integral, and curvilinear
integral are also used; contour integral as well, although that is typically reserved
for line integrals in the complex plane. The function to be integrated may be a
scalar field or a vector field. The value of the line integral is the sum of values of the
field at all points on the curve, weighted by some scalar function on the curve
(commonly arc length or, for a vector field, the scalar product of the vector field
with a differential vector in the curve). This weighting distinguishes the line integral
from simpler integrals defined on intervals. Many simple formulae in physics (for
example, W = F · s) have natural continuous analogs in terms of line integrals (W
= C F · ds). The line integral finds the work done on an object moving through an
electric or gravitational field.
In mathematics, a surface integral is a generalization of multiple integrals to
integration over surfaces. It can be thought of as the double integral analogue of
the line integral. Given a surface, one may integrate over its scalar fields (that is,
functions which return scalars as values), and vector fields (that is, functions which
return vectors as values). Surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly
with the theories of classical electromagnetism.
In vector calculus, the Gauss theorem which is also known as divergence
theorem is a result that relates the flow of a vector field through a surface to the
behaviour of the vector field inside the surface.
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200 Material
 In mathematics, the Green theorem, gives the relationship between a line Line and Surface Integrals

integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral over the plane
region D bounded by C. It is the two-dimensional special case of the more general
Stokes theorem, which is a statement about the integration of differential forms on
manifolds. NOTES
This unit will discuss the Gauss theorem, Green theorem and Strokes’
theorem.

14.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Get an overview of line and surface integrals
 Discuss Gauss Theorem
 Discuss Green Theorem
 Discuss Stokes’ theorem

14.2 LINE AND SURFACE INTEGRALS

Vectors are a branch of mathematics concerned with differentiation and integration

of vector fields.
Integrals of Vectors

Let us assume a vector f  u   f1  u  i  f 2  u  j  f 3  u  k , which has a single scalar

variable u. Then, the indefinite integral of f  u  can be written as
f (u ) du i f (u ) du j f (u ) du k f3 (u ) du
1 2

The definite integral between limits u = a and u = b can be written as

b  b b b
i f (u ) du  j f (u ) du  k f (u ) du
 a
f (u ) du   1a
 2 a
 3 a

Note: In order to integrate a vector function, integrate its component.


 d 2r
Example 14.1: Solve  r  2 dt
dt
   
d   dr   d 2 r dr dr
Solution: Since,  r    r  2  
dt  dt  dt dt dt
   
d   dr   d 2 r  dr dr 
 r   = r  2    0
dt  dt  dt  dt dt 
Now, integrating both sides, we get,
Self-Instructional
Material 201
  
Line and Surface
d   dr   d 2r
Integrals
 dt  dt  =  r  dt 2 dt
r  dt
 
 d 2r  dr
  r  2 dt = r 
NOTES dt dt
Example 14.2: The acceleration of a particle at any time t is given by

a  12 cos 3t i  6 sin 2t j  18 t k
If the velocity v and displacement r be zero at t = 0, determine
 
v and r at any time t.

dv
Solution: 12cos3t i 6sin 2t j 18 t k
dt
Integrating both sides, we get,

v  i 12cos3t dt  j  6sin 2t dt  k 18 t dt

= 4sin 3t iˆ  3cos 2t ˆj  9 t 2 kˆ  c1
Given, at t = 0, v = 0
 0 = 3 ĵ + c1
 c1 = – 3 ĵ

Hence, v  4sin 3t i   3cos 2t  3 j  9 t 2 k

dr 
Now,  v  4sin 3t i   3cos 2t  3 j  9t 2 k
dt
Again, integrating both sides, we get,

r  i 4sin 3t dt  j 3(cos 2t  1) dt  k 9 t 2 dt
  
4 3 
=– cos 3t i   sin 2t  3t  j  3 t 3 k  c2
3 2 

At t = 0, r = 0
4
 0   i  c2
3
4
 c2  i
3
 4  3  3
 r  1  cos 3t  i  sin 2t  3t  j  3 t k
3 2 

14.2.1 Line Integrals

A line integral (also known as a path integral, contour integral, or curve integral) is an
integral, which is evaluated along a curve. The function to be integrated may be both
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202 Material
a scalar or vector field. The sum of values of the field at all points on the curve, Line and Surface Integrals

weighted by some scalar function on the curve gives the value of the line integral.
m2
   
For example:  a.dr   .dr   a1dx  a2 dy  a3dz
a
m1 C C NOTES

where a  x, y, z   a1 i  a2 j  a3 k is a vector function of position defined and
continuous along curve C.
If C is a closed curve, the integral around it, is denoted by
 
 .dr   a1 dx  a2 dy  a3dz
a
  
Example 14.3: If a  6 xy i  y 2 j , determine  a.dr , where C is the curve in xy
c

plane, y = 2 x2 from (0, 0) to (1, 2).

Solution: Let x = t, then the parametric equations of curve y = 2x2 are x = t and
y = 2t2
At the point (0, 0), t=0
At the point (1, 2), t=1

Let r is the position vector of any point (x, y) in C, then r  xi  y j .
By putting the value of x and y in terms of t in the above equation, we get

r  ti  2t 2 j

dr ˆ
 i  4t j
dt

Now, in terms of t, a  6  t   2t 2  i   2t 2  j  12 t 3 i  4 t 4 j
2

    dr 
 
1
3 4   
  a.dr    a.  dt   12 t i  4 t j .(i  4t j ) dt
c c  dt  0
1 1
12t 4 16t 6 
=  12 t + 16 t dt = 
3 5
   =3+  8
=
17
0  4 6 0 3 3
Example 14.4: Find the work done in moving a particle in the force field

f  3 x 2 i   2 xz  y  j  z k̂ along:
(i) The straight line from (0, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3)
(ii) The curve defined by x2 = 4y, 3x3 = 8z from x = 0 to x = 2.
 
Solution: Work done =  f .dr
C

 2   

 
=  3 x i  (2 xz  y ) j  z k . dx i  dy j  dz k
C

=  3x dx  (2 xz  y ) dy  z dz 
2
…(1)
C

Self-Instructional
Material 203
Line and Surface (i) Equation of straight line from (0, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3) are
Integrals
x0 y0 z0 x y z
  or,    t (say)
2  0 1 0 3  0 2 1 3
NOTES  x = 2t, y = t, z = 3t
 dx = 2dt, dy = dt, dz = 3dt
The points (0, 0, 0) and (2, 1, 3) correspond to t = 0 and t = 1 respectively.
From Equation (1), we have
1

Work done =  3(2t ) 2 dt  2(2t )(3t )  t  dt  (3t )3dt 

2

0
1

=  (24t  12t  t  9t )dt

2 2

0
1
1
=  (36t  8t ) dt = 12t  4t  0 = 16
2 3 2

t2 3t 3
(ii) Let x = t, then C: x = t, y = ,z=
4 8
t 9t 2
 dx = dt, dy = dt , dz = dt
2 8
From x = 0 to x = 2, t varies from 0 to 2.
 From Equation (1), we have
 2 2
  t 2  t  3t 3  9t 2  
 3t 3
Work done =   3t dt   2(t )      dt    dt  

0    8  4 
  2  8  8  
2
 2 3 5 1 3 27 5 
=   3t  8 t  8 t  64 t  dt
0 
2
 51 5 1 3 2 
=   64 t  8 t  3t  dt
0 
2
 51 t 6 t 4  17 1
=  .   t3  =  8
 64 6 32 0 2 2
= 16
Theorem

If a =  , where  (x, y, z) is single-valued and has continuous derivatives in a
region R, defined by a1  x  a2 , b1  y  b2 , c1  z  c2 , then
m2
 
1.  a.dr is independent of the path C in R joining M 1
and M2.
 
m1

2. 
 .dr  0 around any closed curve C in R.
a
c
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204 Material
In such cases, A is called a conservative vector field and  is its scalar potential. Line and Surface Integrals
 
A vector field A is conservative if and only if  × a = 0 or a =  .
Properties of Line Integrals for Plane Curves
Line integrals have following properties: NOTES

1.  P( x, y)dx  Q( x, y )dy =  P( x, y )dx   Q( x, y )dy

c c c
( a2 , b2 ) ( a1 ,b1 )

2. 
( a1 ,b1 )
Pdx  Qdy   
( a2 ,b2 )
Pdx  Qdy

( a2 , b2 ) ( a3 ,b3 ) ( a2 ,b2 )

3. 
( a1 ,b1 )
Pdx  Qdy  
( a1 ,b1 )
Pdx  Qdy  
( a3 ,b3 )
Pdx  Qdy

Similar properties hold for line integrals in space.

Example 14.5: Evaluate  ( x  y ) dx  2 xy dy , where C is the polygonal path
2 2

from (0, 0) to (0, 2) to (1, 2).

Solution: Let C = C1  C2, where curve C1 is given by x = 0, y = t, 0  t  2
and C2 is the curve given by x = t, y = 2, 0  t  1 (Refer Figure 14.1). Then
 (x  (x  y 2 ) dx  2 xy dy
2
2
 y 2 ) dx  2 xy dy =
C C1

 (x  y 2 ) dx  2 xy dy
2
+
C2
2 1

  (0 
 t )(0)  2(0)t (1) dt   (t 2  4)(1)  2t (2)(0) dt  
2 2
=
0 0
1

 t  4 dt 
2
=0+
0
1
 t3 
=   4t 
3 0
y
2 (1, 2)
C2

C1
x
0 1

Fig. 14.1 Line Integral of Plane Curve

1
= 4
3
11
=
3 Self-Instructional
Material 205
Line and Surface 14.2.2 Surface Integrals
Integrals
A definite integral taken over a surface (may be a curved set in space) is defined
as a surface integral. It can be imagined as the double integral analog of the line
NOTES integral.
For a given surface, one can integrate over it as scalar field and vector field.
It is convenient to express surface integrals as double integrals taken over
the projected area of the surface S on one of the coordinate planes. However, this
is possible only if any line perpendicular to the chosen coordinate plane meets the
surface in no more than one point.
Surface Integrals of Vector Fields
Let S be a two-sided surface, and A is a continuous vector field on it with unit
normal vector n (Refer Figure 14.2), then the surface integral of A over S is
 

S
A .dS   A.nˆ dS
S

This is also called the flux of A over S. Other surface integrals are

 dS , A  dS

S
 dS , 
S
 n  S

n̂

dS
S

Fig. 14.2 Surface Integral

Surface Integral in Terms of Limit of Sum

Subdivide the area S into N elements of area  S p where p = 1, 2, 3,…, N.
Choose any point Pp within  S p whose co-ordinates are (xp, yp, zp) (Refer Figure
 
14.3). Let nˆ p be the positive unit normal to  S p at P and A (xp, yp, zp) = A p .
N 
So, the sum will be A
p 1
p .nˆ p S p

 
where A p. nˆ p is the normal component of A p at Pp.

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206 Material
 Line and Surface Integrals
z
Ap
np
S Sp
Pp

NOTES

O y

R
xp yp
x

Fig. 14.3 Surface Integral as Limit of Sum

Now, limit N   , in such a way that the largest dimension of each  S p

approaches zero, if exists, is called the surface integral of normal component of

A over S and denoted by

A.n dS S

Note: The notation 

 is used to indicate integration over the closed surface S.

S

Example 14.6: Evaluate  A.nˆ dS , where A  18 z i  12 j  3 ykˆ and S is the
S
surface of the plane 2x + 3y + 6z = 12 in the first octant.
  dxdy
Solution:  A. nˆ dS =  A. nˆ | nˆ.kˆ |
S R

To obtain n̂ note that a vector perpendicular to the surface 2x + 3y + 6z = 12 is

given by (2 x  3 y  6 z )  2iˆ  3 ˆj  6kˆ . Then, a unit normal to any point of S is
2iˆ  3 ˆj  6 kˆ
2 3 6
nˆ   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
2 3 62 7
2 72 7
2 3 6 6 dx dy 7
Thus, nˆ. kˆ  ( iˆ  ˆj  kˆ).kˆ  and so  dx dy.
7 7 7 7 | nˆ.kˆ | 6
 2 3 6 36 z  36  18 y 36  12 x
Also, A.nˆ  (18 z iˆ  12 ˆj  3 y kˆ).( iˆ  ˆj  kˆ)   .
7 7 7 7 7
12  2 x  3 y
using the fact that z  from the equation of S. Then
6
  dx dy  36  12 x  7
S A.nˆ dS  R A.nˆ | nˆ.kˆ |  R  7  6 dx dy  R (6  2 x)dx dy
to evaluate this double integral over R, keep x fixed and integrate with respect to
12  2 x
 from  = 0 to   ; then integrate with respect to x from x = 0 to x = 6.
3
In this manner R is completely covered. The integral becomes
Self-Instructional
Material 207
Line and Surface 6 (12  2 x ) / 3 6
4 x2
Integrals

x 0

y 0
(6  2 x) dy dx  
x 0
(24  12 x 
3
)dx  24

If we had chosen the positive unit normal n̂ opposite to that used earlier,,
NOTES we would have obtained the result – 24.

Example 14.7: If f  4 xziˆ  y 2 ˆj  yzkˆ and S is the surface of the cube

bounded by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y = 1, z = 0, z = 1. Then, show that f .n dS 
S

3
= .
2
Solution: Face DEFG: nˆ  iˆ, x  1. Then
 1 1

 f .nˆ dS    (4 ziˆ  y 2 ˆj  yzkˆ ).iˆ dy dz

DEFG 0 0
1 1

=   4 z dy dz  2
0 0

Face ABCO: nˆ  iˆ, x  0. Then

 1 1

 f .n dS  
ˆ  ( y 2 ˆj  yzkˆ).(iˆ)dy dz  0
ABCO 0 0

Face ABEF: nˆ  ˆj , y  1. Then

 1 1 1 1

 f .nˆ dS    (4 xziˆ  ˆj  zkˆ). ˆj dx dz     dx dz  1

ABEF 0 0 0 0

Face OGDC: nˆ   ˆj , y  0. Then

 1 1


OGDC
f .nˆ dS  
0

0
(4 xziˆ).( ˆj ) dx dz  0

Face BCDE: nˆ  kˆ, z  1. Then

 1 1 1 1
1
 f .nˆ dS    (4 xiˆ  y 2 ˆj  ykˆ).kˆ dx dy    y dx dy 
BCDE 0 0 0 0
2
Face AFGO: nˆ   kˆ, z  0. Then
 1 1

 f .n dS    ( y ˆj ).(kˆ)dx dy  0
2
ˆ
AFGO 0 0
 1 3
Adding,  f .nˆ dS  2  0  ( 1)  0  2  0  2 .
S

14.2.3 Volume Integrals

Volume integral refers to an integral which is to be evaluated over a volume. It is a
triple integral of the constant function which gives the volume of a closed surface in
space or region. Volume integrals are sometimes called space integrals. The volume
integrals are expressed as
Self-Instructional
208 Material
  Line and Surface Integrals
 dV and
A   dV
V
V

If volume V is sub-divided into small cuboids by drawing planes parallel to the

coordinate planes, then dV = dx dy dz. NOTES

If A  A iˆ  A ˆj  A kˆ , then
1 3 3
   
 A dV = i 
V V
A1 ( x, y, z ) dxdydz  j  A2 ( x, y , z )dxdydz  k  A3 ( x, y, z )dxdydz
V V

Let  k be continuous through out region V. Divide V into M cubes having volume
Vk  xk yk zk k = 1, 2,…, M and let (xk, yk, zk) be a point within this cube.
M
Then, the sum will be   k Vk . If we take the limit of this sum M   in such
k 1

a manner that the largest of the quantities Vk approach zero, then it is denoted

by   dV .
V
 
Example 14.8: If f   2 x  3z  i  2 xy j  4 x k , then evaluate  . f dV ,
2

where V is bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and 2x + 2y + z = 4.

   
Solution: . f  (2 x 2  3z )  (2 xy )  (4 x)
x y z
= 4x – 2x
= 2x

 . f dV =  2 x dxdydz
V V
2 2  x 4 2 x  2 y

=  
0 0 0
2 x dzdydx

2 2 x

  2x  z
4 2 x  2 y
= 0
dydx
0 0
2 2 x

=   2 x(4  2 x  2 y) dydx
0 0
2 2 x

=    4 x(2  x)  4 xy dydx
0 0
2
2 x
=   4 x(2  x) y  2 xy  0 dx
2

Self-Instructional
Material 209
Line and Surface 2
Integrals
=   4 x(2  x)  2 x(2  x)  dx
2 2

0
2

=  2 x(2  x ) dx
2
NOTES
0
2

= 2 (4 x  4 x  x )dx
2 3

0
2
 2 x3 x4 
2
=  2 x  4  
 3 4 0
 32 
= 28   4
 3 
8
=
3

Check Your Progress

1. What are line integrals?
2. What are surface integrals?
3. What are volume integrals?

14.3 THE GAUSS OR DIVERGENCE THEOREM

The Gauss theorem states that the outward flux of a vector field through a surface
to the behaviour of the vector field inside the surface.
The Gauss (or Divergence) Theorem
The Gauss theorem demonstrates equality between triple integral (volume integral)
of a function over a region of three-dimensional space and double integral (surface
integral) of the function over the surface that bounds the corresponding region.
In vector calculus, the Gauss theorem is also known as divergence theorem.
n
A
S
V

Fig. 14.4 Region of Three-Dimensional Space

Self-Instructional
210 Material
  Line and Surface Integrals
Let A be a vector point function that is continuously differentiable on a closed-
space region, V bounded by a closed surface S. Then,
 
 .A dV   A.n dS
V S NOTES
 is the outwardly drawn unit normal vector to the surface S.
where n

If we take n as direction cosines, i.e., n = i cos  + j cos  + k cos  ,


 = A cos  + A cos  + A cos 
then, A . n 1 2 3
 Gauss theorem can also be expressed as:
 A1 A 2 A 3 
 
V
x

y
  dV   (A1 cos   A 2 cos   A 3 cos  ) dS
z  S

14.4 GREEN’S THEOREM

The Green’s theorem gives the relationship between a line integral around a closed
curve C and a double integral over the plane region R enclosed by C. It is named
after British mathematician George Green.
y = f2(x)
Y
F
B
R
A
E
y = f1(x)
x=a x=b

O X
Fig. 14.5 Line Integral Around a Closed Curve
If R is a closed region of the xy plane enclosed by a closed curve C and if M(x, y)
and N(x, y) be continuous functions of x and y having continuous partial derivatives
in R, then
 N M 
C ( Mdx  Ndy)  R  x  y  dxdy
where C is traversed in the counterclockwise (positive) direction.
Relation to the Gauss Theorem
If we generalised the Green’s theorem such that the differential arc length dS of a
closed curve C is replaced by dS of closed surface S and corresponding region R
Self-Instructional
Material 211
Line and Surface bounded by C is replaced by the volume V enclosed by S, results to Gauss theorem
Integrals
or Green’s theorem in space.
  
 A. n dS   dV
 .A
NOTES S V

14.5 STOKES’S THEOREM

Stokes’ theorem demonstrates the equality of the double integral of a vector field
over a portion of a surface and the line integral of the field over a simple closed
curve enclosing the surface portion.

Let a closed curve C, bounds an open surface S and F be a vector point function
having continuous first order partial derivatives, then
   
 = 
F.
C
d r (  F). n dS
S
   
where n = cos  i  cos  j  cos  k is a unit normal vector at any point of S with
   
 ,  and  representing the angles made by n and i , j and k , respectively..

Fig. 14.6 Line Integral of a Vector Field

          
Suppose F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k and r = x i + y j + z k so that d r = i dx + j dy

+ k dz.

Self-Instructional
212 Material
    Line and Surface Integrals
i j k
     F3 F2    F1 F3    F2 F1  
  F = x =   i  j  k
y z  y z   z x   x y 
NOTES
F1 F2 F3
   F3 F2   F1 F3   F F 

Now,   F .n =  
 y
  cos   
z 

 z x 
 cos    2  1  cos 
 x y 
 
Also, F .d r = F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz
 Stokes’ theorem can be written as

  F dx  F dy  F dz  =
C
1 2 3

 F3 F2   F1 F3   F F  

  y
S

z
 cos   


 z x 
 cos    2  1  cos   dS
 x y  

Check Your Progress

4. Which theorem is also known as divergence theorem?
5. What is the relation between Gauss theorem and Green’s theorem?

14.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. A line integral (also known as a path integral, contour integral, or curve

integral) is an integral, which is evaluated along a curve.
2. A definite integral taken over a surface (may be a curved set in space) is
defined as a surface integral. It can be imagined as the double integral analog
of the line integral.
3. Volume integral refers to an integral which is to be evaluated over a volume.
It is a triple integral of the constant function which gives the volume of a
closed surface in space or region. Volume integrals are sometimes called
space integrals.
4. The Gauss Theorem.
5. If we generalised the Green’s theorem such that the differential arc length
dS of a closed curve C is replaced by dS of closed surface S and
corresponding region R bounded by C is replaced by the volume V enclosed
by S, results to Gauss theorem or Green’s theorem in space.

Self-Instructional
Material 213
Line and Surface
Integrals 14.7 SUMMARY

 A line integral (also known as a path integral, contour integral, or curve

NOTES integral) is an integral, which is evaluated along a curve. The function to be
integrated may be both a scalar or vector field. The sum of values of the
field at all points on the curve, weighted by some scalar function on the
curve gives the value of the line integral.
m2
   
  a.dr   a.dr   a dx  a dy  a dz
m1 C C
1 2 3


where a  x, y, z   a1 i  a2 j  a3 k is a vector function of position defined
and continuous along curve C.
 
 A vector field A is conservative if and only if  × a = 0 or a =  .
 A definite integral taken over a surface (may be a curved set in space) is
defined as a surface integral. It can be imagined as the double integral analog
of the line integral.
 Let S be a two-sided surface, and A is a continuous vector field on it with
unit normal vector n then the surface integral of A over S is
 
 A.dS   A.nˆ dS
S S

 The Gauss theorem states that the outward flux of a vector field through a
surface to the behaviour of the vector field inside the surface.
 The Green’s theorem gives the relationship between a line integral around a
closed curve C and a double integral over the plane region R enclosed by
C. It is named after British mathematician George Green.
 Stokes’ theorem demonstrates the equality of the double integral of a vector
field over a portion of a surface and the line integral of the field over a
simple closed curve enclosing the surface portion.

14.8 KEY WORDS

 Integral: A function of which a given function is the derivative, i.e. which

yields that function when differentiated, and which may express the area
under the curve of a graph of the function.
 Vector: A quantity having direction as well as magnitude, especially as
determining the position of one point in space relative to another.
 Vector field: A function of a space whose value at each point is a vector
quantity.
Self-Instructional
214 Material
  Surface: A continuous set of points that has length and breadth but no Line and Surface Integrals

thickness.

14.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND NOTES

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Write a short note on integral of vectors.
2. What do you understand by line integrals?
3. What do you understand by surface integrals?
4. What are the properties of line integrals for plane curves?
5. What does divergence theorem state?
6. What does Green’s theorem state?
7. What does Stokes’ theorem state?
Long Answer Questions
 3

2 ˆ ˆ ˆ
1. Given F (t )  (3t  2t )i  (6t  4) j  4tk , evaluate  F (t ) dt .
2
  
2. If A  tiˆ  3 ˆj  2tkˆ , B  iˆ  2 ˆj  2 kˆ , C  3iˆ  tjˆ  kˆ , Evaluate
2 
 
  C dt .
1
A . B

  
3. If F  (3 x 2  6 y )iˆ  14 yzjˆ  20 xz 2 kˆ , evaluate  F .dr from (0, 0, 0) to
C
(1, 1, 1) along the path x = t, y = t2, z = t3.
4. Determine the total work done in moving a particle in a force field given by

F  3xyiˆ  5 zjˆ  10 xkˆ along the curve x = t2 + 1, y = 2 t2, z = t3 from t
=1 to t = 2.
5. Using the line integral, compute the work done by the force

F  (2 y  3)iˆ  xzjˆ  ( yz  x)kˆ when it moves a particle from the point
(0, 0, 0) to the point (2, 1, 1) along the curve x = 2 t2, y = t, z = t3.
6. Evaluate the line integral  ( x  xy ) dx  ( x  y ) dy  where C is the
2 2 2

C
square formed by the lines y =  1 and x =  1.
 
7. Evaluate  F .dr along the curve x2 + y2 = 1, z = 1 in the positive direction

C

from (0, 1, 1) to (1, 0, 1) if F  ( yz  2 x)iˆ  xzjˆ  ( xy  2 z )kˆ.

Self-Instructional
Material 215
Line and Surface   
Integrals 8. If F  (2 x  y 2 )iˆ  (3 y  4 x) ˆj , evaluate  .dr around the triangle C in
C
F

the counter clockwise direction whose vertices are (0, 0), (2, 0) and (2, 1).
NOTES  
9. Evaluate  F .ndS
ˆ , where F  4 xiˆ  2 y 2 ˆj  z 2 kˆ and S is the surface
C

bounding the region x2 + y2 = 4, z = 0, z = 3.

 
 
ˆ if F  ( x  2 y )iˆ  3zjˆ  xkˆ and S is the surface
10. Evaluate    F .ndS
S

of 2x + y + 2z = 6 bounded by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0 and y = 2.
 
11. Evaluate  F .nˆ dS if F  2 yiˆ  zjˆ  x 2 kˆ and S is the surface of the
C

parabolic cylinder y2 = 8x in the first octant bounded by the planes y = 4

and z = 6.

14.10 FURTHER READINGS

Zameeruddin, Qazi, Vijay K Khanna and S K Bhambri. 2009. Business

Mathematics, 2nd edition. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Roueche, Nelda, Virginia Graves and Michael Tuttle. 2004. Business Mathematics,
9th edition. India: Pearson Education.
Bill, R.J.T. 2018. Elementary Treaise on Coordinary Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Jain, P.K., Khalil Ahmad. 2003. A Textbook of Analytical Geometry of Three
Dimensions. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Weatherburn, C. E. 2002. Elementary Vector Analysis. London: G. Bell &
Sons Ltd.
Spiegel, M. R. 1959. Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis. New York:
Schaum Publishing Company.
Narayana, S. 1987. A Textbook of Vector Calculus. New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.

Self-Instructional
216 Material
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300 036 – IDUKIARA
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NOITACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
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RIDDISTANCE EDUCATION
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND

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VECTOR CALCULUS
II - Semester

B.Sc. [Mathematics]
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FO ETAROTCEOF
RIDDISTANCE EDUCATION VECTOR CALCULUS
II - Semester