“Let the Vargasian Spirit Come Alive in Us”

DYNAMICS OF
FLUID FLOW_1
DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:
1. Apply the mass equation to balance the incoming and
outgoing flow rates in a flow; and
2. Derive Bernoulli’s equation and apply it to fluid flow
problems.
INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with several equations commonly
used in hydrodynamics with points of emphasis on the
mass and Bernoulli equations. The mass equation is an
expression of the conservation of mass principle. The
Bernoulli equation is concerned with the conservation of
kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid stream
and their conversion to each other in regions of flow
where net viscous forces are negligible and where other
restrictive conditions apply.
Fluid Flow

Fluid flow may be steady or unsteady; uniform or non-

uniform; laminar or turbulent; one-dimensional, two-
dimensional, or three-dimensional; rotational or irrotational.

Steady Flow

Steady flow occurs if, at any point, the velocity of

successive fluid particles is the same at successive periods of
𝜹𝒗
time. Thus, the velocity is constant with respect to time, or = 𝟎,
𝜹𝒕
but it may vary at different points or with respect to distance.
This statement implies that other fluid variables will not vary
𝜹𝒑 𝜹𝑸
with time, or = 𝟎, = 𝟎, etc.
𝜹𝒕 𝜹𝒕
Steady Flow

Uniform flow occurs when the magnitude and

direction of the velocity do not change from point to
𝜹𝒗
point in the fluid, or = 𝟎. This statement implies that
𝜹𝒔
other fluid variables do not change with distance, or or
𝜹𝒚 𝜹𝝆 𝜹𝒑
= 𝟎 , or = 𝟎 , or = 𝟎 , etc. Flow of fluids under
𝜹𝒔 𝜹𝒔 𝜹𝒔
pressure through long pipelines of constant diameter is
uniform flow whether the flow is steady or unsteady.
Streamlines

Streamlines are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to

indicate the direction of motion in various sections of the flow of
the fluid system. A tangent at any point on the curve represents
the instantaneous direction of the velocity of the fluid particles at
that point.

Streamtubes

A streamtube represents elementary portions of a flowing

fluid bounded by a group of streamlines that confine the flow. If
the streamtube’s cross-sectional area is sufficiently small, the
velocity of the midpoint may be taken as the average velocity for
the whole section.
Continuity Equation – the principle of this basic equation of fluid
motion stems from the “law of conservation of mass”.

CONSERVATION OF MASS
 The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor
destroyed, it just transforms into components.
 For any system, the conservation of mass is expressed in the following
relation or equation:
Change of
Mass entering
the system ̶ Mass leaving
the system = mass stored in
the system

𝒅min - 𝒅 mout = 𝒅(∆𝒎s)

𝒎ሶ in – 𝒎ሶ out = ∆𝒎ሶ s (8.2a)
▪ For the steady-flow open system ▪ Steady-flow open system is
shown in, an open system in which the
mass entering the system is
𝐦ሶ 1 – 𝐦ሶ 2 = ∆𝐦ሶ s (8.2b) equal to the mass leaving the
system, there is no change in
the stored mass of the
system. Then,

𝐦ሶ 1 – 𝐦ሶ 2 = ∆𝐦ሶ s
Figure 8.1 Steady-Flow (Control
Volume) Open System 𝐦ሶ 1 – 𝐦ሶ 2 = 0 (8.3)
Derivation of the Continuity Equation
The “law of conservation of mass” states that “the rate of change of
mass in the flowing fluid relative to time is constant”. Mathematically
expressed as

∆𝒎1/∆𝒕 = ∆𝒎2/∆𝒕 = ∆𝒎3/∆𝒕 = constant (8.4a)

As the time interval ∆𝑡 → 0, the equation takes

the differential form,
Figure 8.2 Law of
𝒅𝒎1/𝒅𝒕 = 𝒅𝒎2/𝒅𝒕 = 𝒅𝒎3/𝒅𝒕 = constant (8.4b) Conservation of Mass

Note: Equations (8.4a) & (8.4b) are expressed in mass per unit time,
or kg/sec.
The volume of fluid passing a cross- Integration of equation
section dA of the stream tube in a unit (8.5), considering that v
period of time dt is, represents the average
velocity over the total flow
v dA or (ds/dt)dA (m3/s) area A, gives,

The symbol used for which dQ (Q being Q = Av (m3/s) (8.5a)

volume of fluid passing a section per unit
time, called as the “discharge”). So, Multiply equation (8.5a) by
the density 𝝆 of the fluid in
motion,
dQ = v dA (8.5)
𝝆Q = 𝝆Av (kg/s) (8.5b)
in which v is the average velocity acting
over the differential area dA.
If equation (8.5a) is multiplied by the specific weight 𝛾 of the
flowing fluid,
𝛾 Q = 𝛾Av (N/s) (8.5c)

Equations (8.5a), (8.5b), and (8.5c), are respectively, the volume,

mass, and weight discharges, each is the same at any section of the
flowing fluid, the continuity equation is expressed in the following
forms,
Q = Av = A1v1 = A2v2 = constant
𝝆Q = 𝝆Av = 𝝆1A1v1 = 𝝆2A2v2 = constant
𝜸Q = 𝜸Av = 𝜸1A1v1 = 𝜸2A2v2 = constant
Note: For incompressible fluids (liquids mostly), the density 𝝆 and
the specific weight 𝜸 are constants, so the last two equations above
will reduce to the same form as the first, between two or more flow
sections.
 Continuity equation is derived from the first law
of thermodynamics for a steady-flow, open system. It is
used to determine the mass and volume flow rates of
fluid.

1. Mass flow rate, 𝒎ሶ = 𝝆Av = 𝝆Q

2. Discharge or Volume flow rate, Q = Av

Wherein, 𝒎ሶ = mass flow rate, kg/s

𝝆 = density of the fluid, kg/m3
A = cross-sectional area, m2
v = velocity of the fluid, m/s
Q = volume flow rate, m3/s
EQUATIONS OF MOTION

According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the net force Fx acting

on a fluid element in the direction of x is equal to the mass m of the
fluid element multiplied by the acceleration ax in the x-direction.
Thus Mathematically,

Fx = m ax (8.1)
In the fluid flow, the following forces are present:
i. Fg, gravity force.
ii. Fp, the pressure force.
iii. Fv, force due to viscosity.
iv. Ft, force due to turbulence.
v. Fc, force due to compressibility.
Thus, in equation (8.1), the net force
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x
a. If the force due to compressibility, Fc is negligible, the
resulting net force
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x
is known as Reynold’s Equation of Motion.

b. For flow, where Ft is negligible and Fc, the resulting equation

of motion is known as Navier-Stokes Equation.
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x

c. If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force Fv is zero,

and considering Ft and Fc are also negligible the equation of
motion is known as Euler’s Equation of Motion.
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x
EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION
Consider a cylindrical element of
cross-section dA and length ds, In 𝒑+
𝜹𝒑
𝒅𝒔 𝒅𝑨
𝜹𝒔
a stream-line where flow occurs in
s-direction, as shown in Fig. 8.3.
1. Pressure force 𝒑𝒅𝑨 in the
direction of flow.
𝜹𝒑
2. Pressure force 𝒑 + 𝒅𝒔 𝒅𝑨 𝜽 Fig. 8.3
𝜹𝒔
opposite to the direction of dA Cylindrical
Element of fFuid
flow. with Cross-
3. Weight of element 𝝆𝒈𝒅𝒔𝒅𝑨. 𝒑𝒅𝑨 Section dA and
Length ds
Let 𝜽 be the angle between
𝝆𝒈𝒅𝒔𝒅𝑨
the direction of flow and the line
of action of the weight of element.
According to the Newton’s 2nd Law: 𝑭𝒔 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔
𝜹𝒑
𝛿𝑝 𝒑+ 𝒅𝒔 𝒅𝑨
𝑝𝑑𝐴 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑠𝑑𝐴 cos𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝑠𝑑𝐴 𝑎𝑠 𝜹𝒔
𝛿𝑠
𝛿𝑝
𝑝𝑑𝐴 − 𝑝𝑑𝐴 − 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑠𝑑𝐴 cos𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝑠𝑑𝐴 𝑎𝑠
𝛿𝑠

𝛿𝑝
− 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐴 cos𝜃 = 𝜌𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝐴 𝑎𝑠
𝛿𝑠
𝜹𝒑 𝜽
− − 𝝆𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝝆𝒂𝒔 (1)
𝜹𝒔
𝒅𝒗 dA
Acceleration in the s-direction is 𝒂𝒔 = 𝒅𝒕
. Since 𝒗 𝒔, 𝒕
1
𝑎𝑠 =
𝛿𝑣 𝑑𝑠
+
𝛿𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝒑𝒅𝑨
𝛿𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝑑𝑡 For a steady-flow, with respect to
time the velocity is constant such
𝛿𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝛿𝑣
𝑎𝑠 = + that
𝛿𝑣
= 0. While velocity is the first 𝝆𝒈𝒅𝒔𝒅𝑨
𝛿𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
𝜹𝒗 𝑑𝑠
𝒂𝒔 = 𝒗 (2) derivative of displacement, 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡
𝜹𝒔
Substitute eqn. (2) into eqn. (1)
𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑣
− − 𝜌𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜌𝑣 Hence,
𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑠
𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑣 𝒅𝒑
𝛿𝑠
+ 𝜌𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜌𝑣
𝛿𝑠
=0 + 𝒈𝒅𝒛 + 𝒗 𝒅𝒗 = 𝟎
𝝆

𝒅𝒛
But, 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝒅𝒔 𝜽
𝒅𝒔
𝒅𝒛 Euler’s Equation of Motion for
incompressible, inviscid, steady-flow
Then, system.
𝛿𝑝 𝑑𝑧 𝛿𝑣
+ 𝜌𝑔 + 𝜌𝑣 =0
𝛿𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝛿𝑠
𝛿𝑝 𝑑𝑧 𝛿𝑣
+𝑔 + 𝑣 =0
𝜌𝛿𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝛿𝑠
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FROM EULER’S EQUATION
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow
where net frictional forces are negligible.
𝒅𝒑
+ 𝒈𝒅𝒛 + 𝒗 𝒅𝒗 = 𝟎 EULER’S EQUATION
𝝆
Integrating

𝒅𝒑
න + න 𝒈𝒅𝒛 + න 𝒗 𝒅𝒗 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝝆
𝑝 𝑣2
+ 𝑔𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2
𝒑 𝒗𝟐 BERNOULLI’S
+ + 𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 EQUATION
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

𝒑 𝒗𝟐 BERNOULLI’S
+ + 𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 EQUATION
𝜸 𝟐𝒈
𝒑
Where: = Pressure Head
𝜸
𝒗𝟐
= Kinetic Head
𝟐𝒈
𝒛 = Potential Head
Statement of Bernoulli’s Theorem:
“In a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total
energy at any point of the fluid is constant.” The total energy
consists of pressure, kinetic, and potential energy.
 Head of fluid is the height to which a column of fluid must rise
to contain the same amount of energy as contained in one unit
weight or mass of fluid under the conditions being considered.

1. Pressure head is the energy contained in the fluid as a result

𝒑 𝒑
of its pressure and is equal to = .
𝝆𝒈 𝜸
2. Kinetic or velocity head is the measure of the kinetic energy
contained in a unit mass of the fluid due to its velocity and is
𝒗𝟐
given by a familiar expression for kinetic energy, .
𝟐𝒈
3. Potential or actual head (static head) is a head based on the
elevation of the fluid above some arbitrary chosen datum
plane.
Problem 8.1 Water flows through a pipe of 5 cm diameter
under a pressure of 29.43 N/cm2 (gauge) and with a mean
velocity of 2.0 m/s. Find the total head or the total energy per
unit weight of the water at a cross-section, which is 5 m above
the datum line.

Given:
Diameter of pipe, d = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Pressure, p = 29.43 N/cm2 = 29.43 x 104 N/m2
Velocity, v = 2.0 m/s
Datum head, z=5m

Required:
Total Head = Pressure Head + Kinetic Head + Datum Head
Solution:
p = 29.43 x 104 N/m2
v = 2.0 m/s
d = 0.05 m

z = 5m

Datum Line

Total Head = Pressure Head + Kinetic Head + Datum Head

𝒑 𝒗𝟐 29.43 x 104 N/m2 (2.0 m/s)𝟐
H= + +𝒛 = 𝑵 + 𝒎 + 5m
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎 𝟑
𝒎
𝟐(𝟗.𝟖𝟏 𝒔 )

H = 35.51 m Ans.
Problem 8.2 A pipe through through which water is
flowing has dimeters of 20 cm and 10 cm at the cross-sections
1 and 2 respectively. The velocity of water in section 1 is 4.0
m/s. Find the velocity head at sections 1 and 2 and the rate of
discharge.
1
2
𝑚
v1 = 4.0 v2 = ?
𝑠

d2 = 10 𝑐𝑚
d1 = 20 𝑐𝑚

Required: hv1 , hv2 , and Q

 Required: hv1 , hv2 , and Q Substituting values,
Solution: 2
𝑚
(20 cm) 4.0 = (10 cm)2 v2
𝑚
𝑠
𝒎
1 v1 = 4.0 𝑠 v2 = 16
𝒔
2 v2 = ?
Velocity heads at sections 1 and 2,
𝑚 2
𝑚ሶ 1 𝑚ሶ 2 v1
2 4.0 𝑠
hv1 = = 𝒎 = 0.8153 m
2𝑔 𝟐(𝟗.𝟖𝟏 )
𝒔
𝑚 2
d2 = 10 𝑐𝑚 v2 2 16.0 𝑠
d1 = 20 𝑐𝑚 hv2 = = 𝒎 = 13.0479 m
2𝑔 𝟐(𝟗.𝟖𝟏 )
𝒔

Solve for the velocity at section 2, v2: Rate of Discharge, Q2

𝜋
Q1 = Q2 Q2 = A2v2 = d22 v2
4
A1v1 = A2v2 𝜋 𝑚
𝜋 2 𝜋 2 Q2 = m)2 (16.0 )
(0.1
4 𝑠
d v = d2 v2 Q2 = 0.1257 m3/s
4 1 1 4
d1 v1 = d22 v2
2 Q2 = 125.7 li/s
Problem 8.3 The water is flowing
through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10
cm at sections 1 and 2 respectively. The rate
of flow through the pipe is 35 liters/s. The
section 1 is 6 m above datum and sections 2 is
4 m above. If the pressure at section 1 is 29.24
N/cm2, find the intensity of pressure at
section 2.
Problem 8.4 What are the two (2) possible downstream
depths?(Refer to the figure shown). Width of channel is
3.0 upstream and 1.8 m downstream.

v1 = 4.8 m/s

1.2 m
d2

2.4 m
d2
Problem 8.5 Water is
flowing out of the pipe and
nozzle when the pressure at
point A is 55 kPa where the
diameter is 200 mm. Assuming
negligible head loss. Diameter
of nozzle is 100 mm.

a. Compute the velocity at point

A.
b. Compute the discharge
coming out of the pipe.
c. Compute the height above the
nozzle to which the water jet
will shoot.
Assignment:
1. (a) a city requires a flow of 1.50 m3/s for its water supply. Find
the diameter of the pipe if the velocity of the flow is to be 1.80
m/s.

(b) A pipe consists of 3 sections with different dimensions:

diameters of 50 cm, 40 cm, and 30 cm, respectively. With a
continuous flow of 300 liters/s of oil (SG = 0.75), compute the
mean velocity in each pipe.

(c) A 30 cm diameter pipe is connected by a “reducer” to a 10 cm

diameter pipe. Sections 1 and 2 are along the same elevation,
with pressure at section 1 is 200 kPa. If the flow is 30 liters/s of
water and the energy lost between points 1 and 2 is equivalent to
20 kPa, determine the pressure at the downstream point 2.
2. The water is flowing through a taper pipe of length 50 m
having diameters of 40 cm at the upper end and 30 cm at
the lower end, at the rate of 60 liters/s. The pipe has a
slope of 1 in 40. Find the pressure at the lower end if the
pressure at the higher level is 24.525 N/cm2.

3. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300

mm and 200 mm at the bottom and upper end
respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end
is 24.525 N.cm2 and the upper end is 9.81 N/cm2.
Determine the difference in datum head if the rate of
flow through the pipe is 40 liters/s.