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Sustainable Architecture Design

Definition:

Sustainable Architecture is an approach to designing and constructing buildings that aims to

minimize environmental impact while promoting energy efficiency, resource conservation, and
the well-being of occupants.

It focuses on reducing carbon emissions, conserving water, utilizing renewable energy, and
promoting the well-being of occupants, while ensuring the building's long-term resilience and
adaptability to future environmental changes.

Ken Yeang in his book “Eco Design and Architecture” defines Sustainable Architecture as "The
design of buildings that are ecologically responsible, reducing the environmental footprint
through energy-efficient, resource-conserving, and ecologically responsive methods."

How can a building be designed to be sustainable?

Designing a building sustainably involves approach that addresses environmental, economic,
and social factors. Here are key principles and strategies for achieving sustainable architecture:
• Choose a site that minimizes environmental disruption and optimizes natural light and
ventilation.
• Implement energy-efficient systems and renewable energy sources.
• Use sustainable, durable, and locally sourced materials.
• Incorporate water-saving fixtures and rainwater harvesting.
• Ensure good indoor air quality and maximize natural lighting.
• Minimize construction waste and evaluate the building’s lifecycle impact.
• Design for community engagement and accessibility.
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Sustainable Building Technology :

Sustainable building technology aims to reduce a building’s environmental impact through

efficient systems and innovative solutions.

1. Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency is a cornerstone of sustainable building technology. Incorporating

energyefficient systems like LED lighting, high-efficiency HVAC systems, and smart controls
helps minimize energy consumption. For instance, buildings with automated shading systems
adjust window coverings based on sunlight, reducing cooling needs.

2. Renewable Energy Integration

Incorporating renewable energy sources is essential for reducing a building’s reliance on fossil
fuels. For eg:

• Solar Power: Photovoltaic (PV) panels can be installed on roofs or facades to generate
electricity from sunlight. Solar thermal systems can also provide hot water for domestic
use or heating.
• Wind Energy: Small-scale wind turbines can be used to generate electricity in suitable
locations. Urban areas may use vertical-axis wind turbines, which are less obtrusive and
more efficient in turbulent wind conditions.
• Geothermal Systems: Geothermal heat pumps use the Earth’s stable underground
temperature to provide heating and cooling. They are highly efficient and have a low
operational cost over time.

3. Water Efficiency

Water efficiency reduces the demand on municipal water supplies and minimizes wastewater
generation.

• Low-Flow Fixtures: Installing low-flow faucets, showerheads, and toilets can

significantly reduce water consumption without sacrificing performance.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Systems that collect and store rainwater can be used for
irrigation, flushing toilets, or even potable water in some cases.
• Greywater Recycling: Greywater systems treat and reuse water from sinks, showers,
and washing machines for non-potable purposes like irrigation.
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4. Passive Design Strategies

Passive design strategies refer to a set of design approaches that focus on utilizing the natural
environment to provide heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting to a building. Unlike active
design strategies that rely on mechanical systems and processes, passive design strategies
depend on the laws of nature. They take advantage of the climate, site conditions, and
materials to create a building that functions in harmony with the environment. The key passive
design strategies that are helping desin sustainable architecture structures.

i. Orientation

Orientation is a passive design strategy that refers to the placement of a building on its site in
relation to the sun and wind. By orienting the building to maximise the amount of sun exposure
in the winter months and minimise it in the summer months, it is possible to reduce the need
for heating and cooling systems and improve indoor comfort.

ii. Insulation

Insulation is a passive design strategy that involves improving a building's thermal envelope to
reduce heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer. This helps to keep the indoor environment
comfortable and reduces energy consumption for heating and cooling. Insulation can be
applied to a building’s walls, roof, floor, and windows to reduce thermal transfer.

iii. Natural Ventilation

Proper ventilation helps to regulate indoor air quality, reduce indoor pollution, and improve
overall indoor comfort. It can also play a role in passive cooling and heating by allowing for the
exchange of indoor and outdoor air. When designing ventilation systems, it is important to
consider the orientation and size of openings.
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Fig: Natural Ventilation in Building

iv. Green Roofs and Green Walls

Green architecture concept encompasses the

idea of green roofs and walls, which offers a
wide variety of benefits, including improved
insulation and thermal performance, reduced
storm water runoff, increased biodiversity, and
improved air quality. Green roofs are typically
composed of a layer of growing medium and
vegetation, planted on top of a building's roof.
Vertical gardens, are similar to green roofs but
are designed to be incorporated into building
facades. When designing green roofs and
walls, it is important to consider factors such
as the type and amount of vegetation, the
growing medium, and the drainage and
irrigation systems.
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Sustainable Building Material

Sustainable building materials are becoming increasingly more popular due to their low
environmental impact and reduced carbon footprint. These materials are designed to conserve
natural resources, reduce waste, and minimize energy consumption. Here, we will explore
some sustainable building materials that are eco-friendly, durable, and energy efficient.

i. Eco-Friendly Materials

The choice of materials plays a crucial role in reducing a building’s environmental footprint.

 Renewable Materials: Materials like bamboo and cork grow quickly and are highly
renewable. Bamboo, for instance, can be used in flooring and cabinetry due to its rapid
growth rate and strength.
 Recycled Materials: Using recycled materials, such as reclaimed wood or recycled metal,
reduces the need for virgin resources and lessens the environmental impact of
production.
 Low-Impact Materials: Materials with low embodied energy, such as rammed earth or
straw bale, require less energy to produce and have a minimal environmental footprint.

Some of these materials are:

1. Bamboo
Bamboo is an ideal renewable building material that has been used for centuries. It is a
fast-growing grass that can reach maturity in just three to five years. Bamboo is also
lightweight, strong, and flexible, and therefore perfect for building structures and
furnishings.

2. Hempcrete
Hempcrete is an eco-friendly construction material made from the stalks of the hemp
plant. It is a mixture of hemp, lime, and water, and is known for its insulating properties.
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Hempcrete is also durable and fire-resistant, making it a great choice for building
homes.

3. Recycled Steel
Recycled steel is a sustainable material that is durable and can be recycled endlessly
without losing its strength. Steel is also fire-resistant and can withstand natural
disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes.

4. Reclaimed Wood
Reclaimed wood is an excellent sustainable building material that is environmentally
friendly and adds character and warmth to any structure. Reclaimed wood is sourced
from old buildings and barns, before being repurposed into new structures.

5. Rammed Earth
Rammed earth is an ancient building technique that uses natural resources such as soil,
clay, and sand to create sturdy and durable creations. Rammed earth structures are
energy-efficient and have excellent thermal mass, making them ideal for passive solar
design.

6. Cork
Cork is a sustainable building material that is harvested from the bark of cork oak trees.
It is a strong insulator, fire-resistant, and hypoallergenic, and therefore perfect for
building structures and furnishings.

7. Recycled Glass
Recycled glass is produced from old bottles and jars, and a great choice for flooring,
countertops, and other building applications due to its durability and low environmental
impact.

8. Straw Bale
Straw bale construction is an eco-friendly building technique that uses bales of straw to
create the walls of a structure. Straw bale buildings are highly insulated and energy
efficient, which is why most people utilize them in passive solar designs.

ii. Durability and Maintenance

 Selecting durable materials reduces the need for frequent repairs and replacements,
contributes to sustainability.
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Vernacular Architecture

Vernacular Architecture refers to traditional building styles and

techniques that are specific to a region, reflecting its culture,
climate, and locally available materials. These structures are often
designed without formal architectural training, relying on local
knowledge and sustainable practices. Examples include adobe
houses in arid regions and stilt houses in flood-prone areas.

The design then generally evolves over time, becoming more

refined and tailored to the contexts.

Advantages:

The benefits of vernacular architecture includes :

 Uses locally available materials, promoting sustainability.

 Adapts to the local climate for natural comfort and energy efficiency.
 Preserves cultural heritage and regional identity.
 Reduces costs through local resources and labor.
 Offers durability suited to local environmental conditions.
 Blends harmoniously with the natural landscape, contributing to the beauty and
cultural richness of the region.
 It evolves with changing needs, as it often allows for flexible spaces that can be
adapted over time.

Nepalese Vernacular Architecture

Nepalese vernacular architecture is varied due to variation in:

 Topography
 Natural Environment
 Ethnicity

Nepal vernacular architecture three broad vernacular architectural divisions:

Mountain, Hilly and Terai Vernacular Architecture:

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Mountain - Vernacular Architecture

Materials Availability

• This region provides abundant resources of

stones, rocks and mud.
• Due to the small availability of fertile land and the
harsh climatic condition timber and other organic
materials for building purposes are rather scarce.

Building Form and Orientation

 The building forms are compact, characterized by rectangular shapes.

 Nearly square ground floor plans are common in many houses in Manang, which are
positioned on southern slopes of hills or flat valleys to optimize solar heat gain.Building
stories and Internal space arrangements.

Interior Spaces Arrangements

 The arrangement of spaces in these houses is predominantly vertical.

 The ground and top floors serve secondary purposes and act as thermal buffers to keep
the main living area on the first floor as warm as possible.
 The internal spaces and building stories are organized efficiently.
 Flat roofs are designed as terraces, providing open areas for various activities on sunny
days.
 The shelters of the Thakali people in Mustang and Manang feature small courtyards,
which, in densely populated settlements, allow daylight to reach almost all inner rooms
of the house.
 Semi-open spaces are significant for providing suitable areas to work outside the house
during the daytime.

Walls

 Walls are traditionally made of natural stone, sun-dried

mud bricks, or rammed earth, depending on availability.
 In Humla, some houses feature massive walls of thick
masonry coated with white and red mud plaster.

Roof

 In alpine climates, roofs of vernacular houses are typically

flat due to the scarcity or absence of rainfall.
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 Made with locally available materials, the roofs are generally constructed from stone and
mud laid on a timber post-and-beam structure.
 A fine layer of mud is applied over the roof to ensure waterproofing.
 Wood is often piled along the roof edges to protect against strong winds.
 Some mountain houses feature a slight roof overhang to protect semi-enclosed spaces in
front of the house.

Foundation, Floor and Ceilings

 Houses are raised above the ground with foundations made from locally available
stones.
 The ceiling structure consists of timber posts and beams.
 The room height is typically low, with floors covered by a mud layer over roughly cut
wooden boards.

Openings

 Houses features small wooden doors and windows.

 Windows are often the most decorative part of the house, with intricate carvings of
Buddhist symbols.

Hilly - Vernacular Architecture

Building Form and Orientation

 Unlike the dense layout of Newar settlements, traditional houses in hilly Nepal are more
scattered.
 Most houses are rectangular, except for Gurung
houses, which have a circular floor plan.
 The elongated houses are typically positioned on
sunny hill slopes, with the longer facade facing
south, southeast, or southwest.
 Larger windows are placed on the longer facade to
capture sunlight.
 One or two buildings for cattle or storage are
usually situated around the open courtyard in front
of the main building.
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Internal Space Arrangements

 Newari houses have typically three or three and a

half stories and spaces are vertically planned.
 Depending on the number of stories, building space
is arranged either horizontally or vertically. Having
only one a half floor, the space in Limbu and Gurung
houses is organized more horizontally.
 Ground floor is also a big open space designated for
activities like cooking, dining, meeting and
worshipping which are sometimes visually divided by
lower walls.
 An important part of the house is the veranda which is a semi-open space in front of
longer facade normally covered by the roof or the balcony.

Walls

 The walls of houses are primarily constructed from locally available stones, with clay and
earth used as mortar.
 Exterior walls can be up to half a meter thick, contributing to the high thermal mass.
 Newari houses use sun-dried or burnt clay bricks as the primary material for walls.

Roofs

 Pitched roofs supported by a timber structure and

covered by locally available hatch, stone slates or tiles.
 A large roof overhang of minimum 50 cm protects the
walls from the heavy monsoon rain and avoids solar
penetration of the facade during summer.
 In Central Nepal, the roofs are typically covered by
thatches.

Openings

 The openings in houses are relatively small, though larger than those in mountain
houses.
 Windows are primarily located on the longer facade facing downhill, usually oriented
southward.
 The roof overhang protects the walls from heavy monsoon rains.
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Terai - Vernacular Architecture

Due to the climate, houses are designed to

protect from both heat and heavy rainfall.

Materials Used
 Local materials primarily used include
cane, timber, mud, bamboo and thatches.
 These materials contribute to the creation
of a house, where the building envelope is
permeable, enhancing natural ventilation.

Building Form and Orientation

 The buildings have rectangular floor plans.

 The longer facade is typically oriented north-south which reduces the exposure to the
sun.

Internal Space Arrangement

 A single floor generally with high ceilings for enhancing permanent ventilation that is
strongly needed in this hot and humid climate.
 The internal space is almost undivided and, thus enhances a continuous natural
circulation of cool air coming from the shaded area below the eaves.
Walls

 The walls of houses are rather light and promotes

ventilation.
 The upper portion of the exterior wall is seen to
be of bamboo strips that are loosely woven into
an open mesh which provide day lighting and
permanent ventilation.
 Unplastered walls of wood or reed have random
gaps.
 External walls might also be made of thin woven
cane mats tied onto a timber frame, rendered
with mud plaster and white washed.
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Roofs

 Most traditional roofs in this climate

are made of thatch in form of a pitched
roof.
 The opening at either end and the low
windows ensures the permanent inflow
of air from the shaded area below the
eaves that leads to inside temperatures
that are usually much lower than
outside temperatures.
 The wide roof overhang protects walls
from direct sun radiation.
 Verandas are formed by extending the roofs and provide a comfortable place to work
and even sleep at night.

Openings

 Buildings have very few and low windows

that together with an opening in the roof
enhance the air circulation to provide
comfort during hot and humid summer
months.
 Shading of the windows is provided
through roof overhangs and the planting
of trees around the buildings.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the diverse vernacular architecture of Nepal reflects the intricate interplay of
topography, ethnicity, environment influences. From the dense compact structures of the
Newar settlements to the dispersed houses of the hilly regions and the well-adapted dwellings
of the subtropical Terai, each region has developed unique architectural forms that cater to
local needs and conditions.
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Thermal Comfort

Definition: Thermal comfort refers to the state of mind that expresses satisfaction with the
surrounding thermal environment. It is achieved when a person feels neither too hot nor too
cold in a space.
Thermal comfort is a critical factor in architectural design, directly influencing human well-being
and productivity. In building design, ensuring thermal comfort is essential for creating spaces
where people can live, work, and learn efficiently and comfortably.
Heat transfer between human body and nearby surroundings takes place through:
 Convection (air currents over the body,
creating a cooling effect by inducing some
evaporation over the skin),
 Conduction (contact heat transfer with
other surfaces, e.g. flooring, furniture)
 Radiation (instantaneous infrared heat
transfer with any visible object or surface at
a different temperature than a person’s
body, e.g. the sun, the floor, the walls of a
room)
 Person’s biological processes including
evaporation (e.g. sweating, exhalation).

Key Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort

Some key factors influencing thermal comfort includes:

▪ Air Temperature: The warmth or coolness of the air affects comfort.
▪ Humidity: High humidity slows sweat evaporation; low humidity causes dryness.
▪ Air Velocity: Moving air cools the body; still air retains heat.
▪ Radiant Temperature: Heat from surrounding surfaces impacts body temperature.
▪ Clothing: Insulating clothes retain heat; lighter clothes promote cooling.
▪ Metabolic Rate: Physical activity increases body heat.
▪ Psychological Factors: Personal expectations and comfort preferences influences
perception.
▪ Age and Health: Younger, healthier individuals tolerate temperature extremes better.

Relevance in Building Design

Modern architectural design emphasizes the importance of achieving thermal comfort without
relying heavily on mechanical systems. Passive design strategies such as natural ventilation,
shading, the use of thermally responsive building materials etc. aims to reduce energy
consumption while maintaining occupant comfort.
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In Vernacular Architecture, especially in Nepal, buildings were traditionally designed to balance

thermal comfort using local materials and passive strategies, such as natural ventilation and
thermal mass, to adapt to the climate.
Creating spaces that maintain an optimal indoor climate is essential for ensuring comfort
without relying heavily on energy-intensive systems. The design considerations for thermal
comfort in building design includes the following aspects:

 Building Orientation: Properly

orienting the building to maximize or
minimize solar exposure based on
the local climate
• Natural Ventilation: Promote airflow
through cross-ventilation and stack
ventilation to cool spaces naturally.
• Building Materials: Choosing
materials with high thermal mass
that can absorb and store heat
during the day and release it at
night, helping to stabilize indoor
temperatures. Fig. Passive Design
• Insulation: Add insulation to walls, roofs, and floors to minimize heat loss in winter and
heat gain in summer.
• Thermal Zoning: Design spaces to group areas with similar heating/cooling needs,
reducing energy use.
• Adjustable Openings: Install windows, skylights etc. that can be used based on needs.
• Roof Design: Designing roofs that protect against excessive heat gain or heat loss. In hot
climates, reflective or light-colored roofing can minimize heat absorption, while in cold
climates, thicker, insulated roofs can retain warmth.
• Shading Devices: Use overhangs, louvers, or vegetation to block excess solar radiation .
• Evaporative Cooling: Use water features or green walls to cool air through evaporation.
• Interior Layout: Organizing spaces to enhance air circulation and ensure even
temperature distribution throughout the building. For example, placing living spaces
away from direct sunlight or using open layouts to facilitate airflow.
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CASE STUDY OF TAKA SERRA:

The vernacular settlement of the Magar community in the Taka village of East Rukum are still
lively and represents the society, culture and history of the place, which reflects the sustainable
living pattern of a rural community. This study of Taka village clearly defines the geography,
settlement pattern, community groups, settlement cluster, social structure, construction of
dwelling and rituals. It further identifies the dwelling types and construction technology on the
basis of three features:
 Representation of each community,
 Representation of each locality and
 Representation of variation in house forms.

The settlement pattern and dwelling form reflect the social structure and lifestyle, with shared
spaces enhancing the living environment. The dwelling design, materials, and construction
technology blend with the terrain and climate, creating a harmonious relationship between
nature and society. There is also a growing community awareness of preserving Taka’s rural
heritage, which helps maintain its identity.

Taka is located 100 meters above the narrow basin of Uttar-Ganga, facing the Kharimbang
stream at an altitude of 2200 m. The Kharimbang stream, also called Narsing Khola, flows past
the plain terrain of Chebang, about 1 km long and 300 m wide, before descending to Uttar-
Ganga. This flat basin, now a fertile farming area, was used as an airplane landing strip in the
2030s.
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Houses of Taka:

Rural house types within a

village is less diverse, and
often is difficult to
differentiate for the any
casual observers. Historic
developments are a matter
of detailed research and
often go unrecorded in
vernacular literature. One
could expect variations by the age of building, by the clan-community or by the topographical
feature of the dwelling site. Climate, terrain and building material may play critical role in
determining the house form. The climate of Taka situated at an altitude of 2200 m is temperate
for the larger part of the year and cold in section showing various household functions in
different floors winter with snowfall. The terrain of the settlement faces south: towards the
basin of a stream that irrigates the terraces of the village. All houses face south direction with
sunshine, and avoid strong westerly winds that rise and blow up through the passage of Sani
Veri gorge.

Taka houses are built with shared party walls, facing south along lanes that can stretch up to 100
meters. Most lanes have over 10 houses, each with a 4-5 meter frontage, creating a street scene
similar to a city housing estate.

On average, each lot is about 80 m² with a 4-5 meter frontage. Cattle are kept on the ground
floor, with space for fodder and firewood. The upper floor is for living, featuring a wide veranda
called mairā. Inside, there is a common hall with a fireplace. The flat roof serves as a communal
front yard, especially for houses in the upper terrace at the rear.
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Types, Extension, Partition and Variation of Houses:

Consequently, 2-4 dwellings were selected from each locality that represents type and
variations of the houses in Taka. Following the detailed survey measurement works, dwellings
of the village were categorized in the following ways:
 Type A- Basic dwelling unit
 Type B- Doubled basic unit
 Type C- Extended basic unit

 Type A- The Basic Dwelling Unit

Until BS 2045, most homes in Taka were two storeys, but many added a rear story later. The
ground floor front yard housed cattle and, until 2074, a pigsty separated by a low stone wall.
Pigs are now raised on farmland at the village outskirts, but cattle remain in the yards. Manure
is stacked in a yard corner, which is covered with dry leaves (sottar) in layers up to 45 cm thick
before being used as fertilizer. From Asar, cattle are taken to grazing grounds, farm fields, or
highlands.
The front yard with cattle is called "Malkhad." Inside, the ground floor, or bā (थे भुईतला), is
typically used to store firewood, farm tools, and wicker baskets. Recently, toilets have been
added in part of this space or the "Malkhad." The inner bay shelters cattle during cold or rainy
seasons, and some room space is used for storing fodder. The ground floor is unpaved and not
used for living.
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 Type B: Doubled Basic Unit

This dwelling type, in the nature of its construction and material, number of floor and usage is
essentially same with the type A-the basic dwelling unit. The only difference is that it is simply
double the size of the basic unit and is mirrored. The central stone stair leads to the upper floor.
The house's large size reflects the owner's wealth and plans for dividing it among heirs. It has
four hearths—two in the maira and two inside—used for cooking and winter heating as needed.
The upper floor has stone masonry outer walls and timber post interiors. When divided, a
central wall (one hat thick) is added, often with a front passage for communication between
units. Adjoining houses historically had these links for convenience, especially in rain or snow,
and many such passages still exist today.
There are 44 such dwellings altogether in Taka. There is one with three units, two being the
division from the mother unit and the third bought later from the previous owner. The
constitution of households in a lane is not so much defined by the genealogical distance. One
finds fair mix of households in a lane of a locality. Yet, in one of the lanes of Gharti- dera, the
survey found 7 dwellings belonging to one particular family line.

 Type C: Extended Basic Unit

Since 2045 (1988), Taka houses began adding a rear room over the thādā. In 2036 (1979), most
houses were two-storey with flat roofs, while a few had added a third level. Ranaprasad Gharti
recalls some three-storey houses as early as 2009 (1952). Roof types varied: thādā in
Ghartiderā, slate in Jethi and Kanchi, and wooden boards in one Kanchi-derā house. Houses
with this added level are called talejim, likely referring to the thādā as ground level. The new
room, often with a hearth, faces south with a window and door opening to the thādā. The area
in front is the ghām-thādā, above the second floor's mairā. In some houses, it’s turned into a
covered veranda, especially when the mairā is narrow.
The third floors added during that time were shorter than the second floors. Later, adding a
third level with a slate roof raised the ridge height to nearly double that of the earlier flat roofs.
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In some cases, thādā roofs were also replaced with slate roofs. While these changes didn’t alter
the house layout, they significantly impacted the village's appearance and living environment.

One could assume the need of additional room space to the increased household members
during those periods. The third-floor additions in Taka were considered disruptive to traditional
living patterns and were discouraged by the village chief (mukhiyā), as noted by Ranaprasad
Gharti. Survey observations reveal the following issues:

 The new floors block back-lane houses' traditional front yard access, disrupting the
village's original layout.
 Sloped roofs drain water to both front and back, causing drainage problems in malkhad
areas and inconvenience in lanes. Rainy season leakage has worsened.
 South sunlight, vital for cattle in winter and drying floors, is blocked for rear houses,
along with their southward views for farm supervision.
 While extra space was needed in the 2040s, many third floors now go unused as only
older generations remain in some homes.

This creates a conservation dilemma. Third floors provide well-lit, ventilated rooms with ghām-
thādā and unobstructed southern views for front houses, but rear houses suffer. This has led to
a chain effect where many houses in areas like Gharti-dera have added third floors, significantly
altering the village's east-west lane and overall character.

In sum, adding a third floor has significantly changed the village’s atmosphere. Another
consequence is the growing trend of fencing ghām-thādā, shifting from community to private
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space. If this continues, it could erase a key feature of the village’s identity. Thankfully, some
thādā still remain without third floors, preserving a glimpse of the village’s original layout.

Construction, Building Material and Structure:

All dwellings of Taka are built with stone and mud. Stone masonry in Taka uses boulders with
minimal dressing, and the course level varies with the boulder size. The ground floor walls are
about 1.5 hat (~60 cm) thick, while the upper floor walls are 1 hat thick. The wall section is
either stepped or tapered from both sides, with the tapered form called salāmi style. The
structure is a composite frame, with timber posts supporting the floor. In most cases, timber
posts are placed alongside the walls, with beams inserted to tie the timber frame to the
masonry.
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Wooden structural members are typically round, except for the front row in maira, which has
square sections. A timber plate, called phadkärne, is placed between the post and beam to
secure the joint, replacing carpentry joints. Joists are placed closely to support the floor above.
According to Vedaman Gharti, a local carpenter, different timbers are used for various structural
parts: khasru, thingre-salla, gurăs, and dhupi for posts, and dhupi-salla and khasru for main
beams (mairāgum). The flat roof is layered, with a chirpat base, dry grass (thūki) to bond the
mud, and a final mud and cow dung finishing. The floor surface requires regular re-coating, a
task traditionally done by women.

Conclusion

This case study explores the Magar settlement pattern in Taka, focusing on the connection
between social, cultural, and environmental factors. Three types of dwellings in the village were
identified, representing the community, locality and changes in building styles over time. The
study also examines traditional construction techniques using stone, mud, and timber. Despite
the influence of modern building materials and house forms brought by the development of
roads, the people of Taka remain dedicated to preserving their traditional settlement pattern
and Vernacular Architecture. The way their houses and settlement layout blend with the land
and climate highlights their strong cultural and environmental awareness.

References

https://www.scribd.com/document/543474600/Vernacular-Architecture-of-Nepal-1

https://www.slideshare.net/cricketreview/vernacular-architecture-of-nepalpptx

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Factors-that-influence-residential-building-thermal-
comfort_fig1_356656452

https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/thermal-comfort-in-buildings-251969850/251969850

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
379052784_Vernacular_Architecture_of_a_Rural_Magar_Settlement_of_Nepal_The_Case_of_T
aka_Putha_Uttarganga_Rural_Municipality_East_Rukum