Unit-IV FUELS AND COMBUSTION

1. FUEL.
Fuel is a combustible substance, which on combustion produces a large amount of heat is
called combustion.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL

 It should have high calorific value
 It should have low moisture content.
 It should have moderate ignition temperature.
 It should be easy to transport and readily available at low cost.
3. COALIFICATION OR METAMORPHISIM
The process of conversion of vegetable matter to anthracite is called coalification.
4. CARBONIZATION
When coal is heated strongly in the absence of air, it is converted into
lustrous,dense,porous and coherent mass known as coke. This process of converting coal to coke
is known as carbonisation
5. OCTANE NUMBER OR OCTANE RATING
The octane number is defined as "the percentage of iso-octane present in a mixture of iso-
octane and n-heptanes".
Octane number can be improved by adding anti-knocking agents like Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL).
(CH3)2-CH-CH2-C(CH3)3 CH3-(CH2)5-CH3
Iso octane (Octane number=100) n-heptane (Octane number=0)
6. CETANE NUMBER OR CETANE RATING
The cetane number is defined as “the percentage of cetane present in a mixture of cetane
and α - methyl naphthalene”.

7. KNOCKING
Knocking is a kind of explosion due to rapid pressure rise occurring in an IC engine.

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8. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHEMICAL STRUCTURE AND KNOCKING.
Straight chain paraffins> Branched chain paraffins> olefins>Aromatics
9.LPG
 LPG is Liquid Petroleum Gas.
 Its calorific value is about 25,000 kcal/m3 .

10. CNG
 CNG is Compressed Natural Gas.
 When the natural gas is compressed, it is called Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
 The primary component present in CNG is methane.
 CNG is the cheapest, cleanest fuel.
 Vehicles powered by CNG produce less carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon (HC)
emission.
 It is less expensive than petrol and diesel.
 The ignition temperature of CNG is about 55 °C.
11. HYDROGENATION OF COAL
The preparation of liquid fuels from solid coal is called hydrogenation of coal.
12. POWER ALCOHOL
When ethyl alcohol is blended with petrol at concentration of 5-10%, it is called as power
alcohol. Power alcohol is also known as absolute alcohol (100% ethyl alchohol).
13. REQUISITES OF METALLURGICAL COKE
 Purity: The moisture, ash, sulphur contents in metallurgical coke should be low.
 Porosity: Coke should be highly porous .
 Strength: It should have high mechanical strength.
 Calorific value: The calorific value of coke should be high.
 Reactivity:The reactivity of coke should be low.

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14. COTRELL'S PROCESS
The crude oil from oil well is allowed to flow between two highly charged electrodes,
where colloidal water droplets combine to form large drops, which is then separated out from the
oil.
15.REFINING OF PETROLEUM
The process of removing impurities and separating the crude oil into various fractions
having different boiling points is called refining of petroleum.

16. IGNITION TEMPERATURE

It is defined as, “the lowest temperature to which the fuel must be heated, so that it starts
burning smoothly".
17.SPONTANEOUS IGNITION TEMPERATURE
It is defined as, “the minimum temperature at which the fuel catches fire spontaneously
without external heating".
18.EXPLOSIVE RANGE OF GASEOUS FUELS
All gaseous fuels have two limits called upper limits and lower limits. These limits
represent percentage by volume of fuel present in fuel - air mixture.
 Lower limit represents the smallest proportion of Combustible gas.
 Upper limit represents the largest proportion of Combustible gas.
Example: The explosive range of petrol is 2-4-5.
19.COMPOSITION OF COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)
CNG is Compressed Natural Gas. The primary component is methane. It is derived from
natural gas. It is stored in a tank of vehicle as CNG at 3,000 or 3,600 psi.

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20. FUELS CLASSIFICATION WITH ONE EXAMPLE FOR EACH.

21.CALORIFIC VALUE
It is defined as the amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit mass of
the fuel. Unit: Cal or K cal
22.CALORIE.
Calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water
through one degree centigrade.
23.GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE (GCV) OR HIGHER CALORIFIC VALUE (HCV)
It is defined as "the total amount of heat generated when a unit quantity of fuel is
completely burnt and the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature". It is
represented as GCV or HCV.
24.NET CALORIFIC VALUE (NCV) LOWER CALORIFIC VALUE (LCV).
It is defined as “the net heat produced when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt
and the products of combustion are allowed to escape”. It is represented as NCV or LCV.
NCV = GCV - [Latent heat of condensation of water vapour produced].
NCV =GCV - [Mass of hydrogen x 9 x Latent heat of condensation of water
vapour]
25.THEORETICAL CALCULATION OF CALORIFIC VALUE ( DULONG'S FORMULA).
GCV=1/100 [8080(C)+34500(H-O/8)+2240(S)] kcal/kg.
NCV = [ GCV-9/100( H)x 587] kcal/kg (or)
NCV = GCV -0.09H x 587.
The latent heat of steam is 587 kcals/kg

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 PART B
1. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE.
It involves the determination of % of moisture content, volatile matter, ash content & fixed
carbon in coal.

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S.N Content Substance Apparatu Temperature/Time Furnace Formula
o s
1 Moisture 1 gram of air- crucible 100-105°C/1 hr electric hot % of moisture in coal x 100
content dried powdered air oven
coal sample
2 Volatile matter Residual coal Crucible 950°±200C for 7 muffle % of volatile matter in coal x
sample covered minutes furnace 100
with lid
3 Ash content Residual coal Crucible 700°±500C for 30 muffle % of ash content in coal x 100
sample without lid minutes furnace
4 Fixed carbon ---- ---- ---- ---- % of fixed carbon in coal = 100 -
% of (moisture content + volatile
matter + ash content)

SIGNIFICANCE OR IMPORTANCE OF PROXIMATE ANALYSIS:

 High percentage of moisture is undesirable because it reduces the calorific value of a fuel, & increases the transport cost.
 High percentage of volatile matter is undesirable because it reduces the calorific value of a fuel & coal burns with a long flame &
high smoke.
 High percentage of ash content is undesirable because it reduces the calorific value of a fuel & makes the additional cost in
disposal of ash.
 High percentage of fixed carbon in a coal is desirable because it increase its calorific value.

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2. ULTIMATE ANALYSIS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE.
It involves the determination of % of Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, ash &
Oxygen in coal.
I. CARBON & HYDROGEN CONTENT:
 Known amount of coal sample is burnt in a current of oxygen in combustion
apparatus.
 Carbon and Hydrogen present in coal is converted into CO2 & H2O vapours.
 CO2 & H2O vapours are absorbed in KOH and anhydrous CaCl2tube.
 From the increase in weight of KOH and CaCl2 tube , percentage of carbon
and hydrogen is determined

II. NITROGEN CONTENT:

 Nitrogen content in coal is determined by kjeldahl’s method.
 Known coal sample is heated with con.H2SO4 in the presence of K2SO4.
 Nitrogen in coal sample is converted into ammonia.
 From ammonia percentage of nitrogen is determined.

of acid
III. SULPHUR CONTENT:
Sulphur content in coal is determined by Bomb calorimeter.
During this process sulphur is converted to sulphate and extracted with water and is
then treated with BaCl2 and precipitated as BaSO4.The precipitate is filtered , dried and
weighed.

IV. ASH CONTENT:

Coal sample is taken in crucible without lid at a temperature of 700°±50 0C for 30 minutes in
muffle furnace.
% of Ash content in coal x 100

V. OXYGEN CONTENT:
% of Oxygen in Coal = 100 - % of ( C + H+N+S+ ash)
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IMPORTANCE OR SIGNIFICANCE OF ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
 High percentage of carbon and hydrogen in coal is desirable because it increase its
calorific value.
 Good quality coal should have very little nitrogen content.
 Presence of sulphur is undesirable because it forms SO 2 and SO3 during the
combustion. It shows corrosion effect on equipments.
 Lower the oxygen, higher its calorific value.

3. METALLURGICAL COKE MANUFACTURE BY OTTO-HOFFMAN’S METHOD

 This oven consists of a number of silica chambers.

 Each chamber is about 10-12 m long, 3-4 m height & 0.4 – 0.45m wide.
 Coal is introduced into the silica chambers & heated to 1200°C by air & producer
gas.
 1 & 4 hot regenerators are heated by hot flue gases and maintain the temperature
1000oC and 2 & 3 hot regenerators are heated by incoming air & producer gas.
 When the process is complete, the coke is removed & cooled with water.
 Time taken for carbonization is 12-20 hours
 Yield of coke is of about 70%
RECOVERY OF BY PRODUCTS:
 Liq. NH3 is sprayed on the coal gases, Tar is collected.
 Water is sprayed & NH3 gets in the form of NH4OH.
 Cooled water is sprayed, Naphthalene gets condensed.
 Petroleum oil is sprayed, benzene gets condensed.
 The remaining gases are then passed through a purifier packed with Fe2O3, H2S gas is
obtained.
 The final gas left out is called coal gas.

ADVANTAGES:
(i) Valuable by product like NH3, benzene, etc are obtained.
(ii) The carbonization time is less.
(iii) Heating is done by externally by producer gas.

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4. HYDROGENATION OF COAL (OR) SYNTHETIC PETROL MANUFACTURE BY BERGIUS
PROCESS OR SOLID FUEL INTO LIQUID FUEL.

The preparation of liquid fuels from solid coal is known as hydrogenation of coal & this
gasoline is known as synthetic Petrol.

RAW MATERIALS :
 Powdered coal
 Catalyst tin or Nickel oleate
 Heavy oil
TEMPERATURE/PRESSURE MAINTAINED:
 400 - 450°C under pressure of 200-250atm
CRUDE OIL ON FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION YIELDS
 Gasoline.
 Middle oil.
 Heavy oil.
 Finely powdered coal is made into paste with heavy oil and catalyst powder.
 The paste is pumped into converter with hydrogen gas at a temperature and
pressure of 400-450°C and 200-250atm.
 The middle oil is further hydrogenated get gasoline.
 The heavy oil is recycled for the process.
 The yield of gasoline is about 60%.

5. REFINING OF PETROLEUM OR CRUDE OIL

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 The process of removing impurities and separating the crude oil into various fractions
having different boiling points is called Refining of Petroleum. The process of refining
involves the following steps.
STEP 1: SEPARATION OF WATER (COTTRELL‟S PROCESS)

The crude oil from oil well is an extremely stable emulsion. The crude oil is allowed to
flow between two highly charged electrodes, where colloidal water droplets combine to form
large drops, which is then separated out from the oil.
STEP 2: REMOVAL OF HARMFUL SULPHUR COMPOUNDS

Crude oil with sulphur compounds + Copper Oxide  Copper Sulphide

STEP: 3 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

 The purified crude oil is heated to about 4000C in an iron retort, where the oil gets
vapourized.
 The hot vapors are then passed into the bottom of a “Fractionating Column”.
 The fractionating column is a tall cylindrical tower containing a number of horizontal
stainless steel trays at short distances.
 Each tray is provided with small chimney covered with a loose cap.

 In the fractionating coloumn fractions having higher boiling points condense at lower
trays whereas the fractions having lower boiling points condense at higher trays.
 The gasoline obtained by this fractional distillation is called straight-run gasoline.

6. FLUE GAS ANALYSIS BY ORSAT’S APPARATUS METHOD.

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  Flue gas analysis is carried out by Orsat apparatus method.
 A mixture of gases like CO2, CO& O2 coming out from the combustion chamber is
called flue gases.
 If the flue gas contains
CO → indicates incomplete combustion
O2 → indicates complete combustion is carried out in excess O 2
CO2 → indicates complete combustion

APPARATUS:
I bulb: It contains KOH solution & it absorbs CO2 only.
II bulb: It contains alkaline pyrogallol solution and it absorbs O2 only
III bulb: It contains ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution & it absorbs CO only
The decrease in volume of the flue gas in the burette indicates the volume of CO 2, O2 and CO
respectively.
SIGNIFICANCE: It gives clear idea about the complete or incomplete combustion process.

7. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL.

Sl. Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis
No

1 It involves the determination of It involves the determination of C, H, N, S,

moisture content, volatile matter, ash O and ash content.
content and fixed carbon.

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 2 It gives the approximate composition. It provides the exact composition.

3 Pricing of coal is decided by this Quality of coal is decided by this method.

method.
4 It is a simple and easy method. It involves extensive analysis.

8.LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS(LPG)

LPG is Liquid Petroleum Gas. Its calorific value is about 25,000 kcal/m3 .

 It is obtained as a by product during fractional distillation of crude oil.

 It consist of propane and butane
 It is liquefied under pressure and stored in cylinders for usage
USES:

 It is used as domestic and industrial fuel.

 It is used as motor fuel.
ADVANTAGES :
 LPG consists of hydrocarbons, so it burns clearly without leaving any residue.
 It is free from CO, so it is less hazardous.
 LPG has high calorific value than any other gases.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Due to its faint odour, leakage cannot be detected.
 Its octane value is low.
9.POWER ALCOHOL

 Ethyl alcohol is blended with petrol at concentration of 5-10% is called power alcohol.
 100% ethyl alcohol is also called power alcohol.
 Ethyl alcohol is used in internal combustion engine.
 Addition of ethyl alcohol to petrol increases octane number.
Power alcohol can be manufactured by two steps
STEP I MANUFACTURE OF ETHYL ALCOHOL

 Ethyl alcohol can be synthesized by fermentation of carbohydrate or molasses or cane

sugar in the presence of yeast.
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

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 Carbohydrate Ethyl alcohol
 Ethyl alcohol obtained by this process is 20%
 It can be improved to 97.6% by fractional distillation.
STEP II CONVERSIONOF ETHYL ALCOHOL TO POWER ALCOHOL
 100 % ethyl alcohol is obtained by adding benzene and dehydrating agent to remove
traces of water.
 Obtained ethyl alcohol is blended with petrol at concentration of 5-10% is called
power alcohol
PROPERTIES
 It has low calorific value of 7000k.cal/kg.
 It has high octane number.
 It is cheaper than petrol.
DISADVANTAGES
 Due to high surface tension vapourisation of power alcohol is difficult.
 It oxidizes into acetic acid, which corrodes the engine parts.
10.BIO-DIESEL

 Vegetable oils comprise of 90 to 95 % triglycerides with small amount of

diglceride and fatty acids.
 They also have high molecular weight in the range of 600 to 900.
 Viscosity of vegetable oil is high hence cannot be used as fuel directly as it
cannot be vapourised
 High viscosity causes mis fire and ignition delay.

The above problems can be rectified by Trans-Esterification or Alcoholysis

 Viscosity is reduced by Trans-Esterification
 Trans-Esterification or Alcoholysis is the process of displacement of alcohol
from an ester by another alcohol.

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