Chapter- 8

Transition and Inner

transition elements
Marks – 6 with option-8
 Prof. Sheetalkumar S Bhong
M.Sc. (Org.Chem), M.Ed., SET,M.Phil.,M.B.A.(Mktg.)DSM,CRCC,Ph.D(Appeared)
Member of Board of Studies Balbharti, Pune and Chemistry subject expert H.S.C
Board Maharashtra State
Sinhgad college of Arts,Science & commerce(Jr.) Ambegaon
bk.Pune-41

Contact- 9763520755
shitalbhong@gmail.com
8.1 Introduction : Transition Elements
 The d-block or transition elements are the elements in which the last electron enters
the d orbital of the penultimate shell i.e. (n-1) d orbital where n is the outermost shell.
e.g. Sc 21 has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1. the outermost shell is
n=4 and electrons are added in ( n-1)d i.e. 3d orbitals.

 They exhibit properties are in transition between those of s and p- block elements.
 According to IUPAC, transition metals are defined as metals which have incomplete d
subshell either in neutral atom or in their ions.
 (n-1) d -orbital successively filled in each element. They are d- block elements.
 It consists of four series.
i) 3d series – from Scandium (Z=21) to Zinc( Z= 30)
ii) 4d series – from Yttrium (Z= 39) to Cadmium (Z= 48)
iii) 5d-series – from Lanthanum (Z= 57) to Mercury(Z= 80)
[Without those from Cerium(Z=58) to Lutetium(Z=71)] -- - -----(4f) Lanthanoids
iv) 6d series – from Actinium (Z= 89) to Copernicium (Z = 112)
[Without those from Thorium(Z=90) to Lawrencium(Z=103)] ------(5f)Actinoids
8.2 Position in the periodic table

 Transition elements are placed at the centre of periodic table in between s and p -
block.
 They are placed in four long periods 4 to 7.
 They are placed in groups 3 to 12.
 They constitute 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d series of 10 elements each.
 They belongs to d- block of periodic table
Four transition series elements
 8.3 Electronic configuration
General electronic configuration of d-block element is (n-1) d 1-10 ns 1-2
General electronic configuration of four series of d -block elements.
1) 3 d series => [Ar] 3d 1-104s 1-2
Imp. 1 Mark
2) 4 d series => [Kr] 4d 1-10 5s 0-2

3) 5 d series => [Xe] 4f14 (except La) 5d 1-10 6s 2

4) 6 d series => [Rn] 5f14 (except Ac) 6d 1-10 7s 2

 Zn has completely filled (n-1)d- orbital in ground state (3d10,4s2) and in it’s common
oxidation state (+2) is (3d10). Therefore it is not regarded as transition metal.
 *Similarly Cd, Hg and Cn are not considered as transition metal as the have
completely filled d- orbital.
However, being the end members of the 3d, 4d ,5d and 6dtransition series, respectively,
their chemistry is studied along with the chemistry of the transition metals.

Copper in the elementary state (3d10 4s1) contains filled 3d orbitals but in the +2
oxidation state it has partly filled 3d orbital (3d9), hence copper is a transition
element.
Electronic configuration of 3d- series

स्क्टी वक्र मन फेकोनी कुझन

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Sachin Tendulkar Very Crazy Man Free Coaching to Nitin’s Cou Zn
Electronic configuration of chromium and copper

Expected electronic configuration of Cr is [Ar] 3d4 4s2 and that of

Cu is [Ar] 3d9 4s2
Half filled subshells and completely filled subshells are more stable than
partially filled subshells.
4s and 3d- orbitals have close energies.
To attain extra stability, last electron occupies 3d- orbital instead of 4s orbital.
Therefore observed electronic configuration of Cr is [Ar] 3d54s1 and that of
Cu is [Ar] 3d104s1.
Electronic Configurations of outer orbitals of the Transition Elements (ground state)
Oxidation states of first transition series
 Energies of ns and (n-1) d levels are almost same. Therefore, electrons from these levels are
available for chemical bonding.
 In the 3d series they have two electrons in their outermost shell with the exception of Cr(24)
and Cu(29) (4S1).
 Hence lowest oxidation states of these elements are +1 or +2 which is due to their 4s electrons
 Electrons in 3d orbital one after another take part in chemical bonding. Hence in addition to
+2 oxidation states there are many oxidation states as the number of 3d electrons..
Oxidation States of the first row Transition Metals (the most common ones are in bold types)

Elements Outer Oxidation states Elements Outer Oxidation states

electronic electronic
configuration configuration

Sc 3d14s2 +1,+2,+3, Fe 3d64s2 +2, +3, +4,+6

Ti 3d24s2 +2, +3, +4 Co 3d74s2 +2, +3, +4
V 3d34s2 +2, +3, +4, +5 Ni 3d84s2 +2, +3, +4
Cr 3d54s1 +2, +3, +4, +5, +6 Cu 3d104s1 +1,+2,
Mn 3d54s2 +2, +3, +4, +5, +6,+7 Zn 3d104s2 +2
Examples:
 Sc (3d1 4s2) show +1,+2 and +3 oxidation states but +1,+2 oxidation state is unstable.
 Mn ( 3d5 4s2) shows maximum number of oxidation states i.e. +2 to +7..
 From Fe onwards as the number of unpaired electrons in 3d orbital decreases, the
oxidation state also decreases.

Oxidation states of Scandium(Z=21),Titanium(Z=21)and Vanadium (Z=23)

Scandium (Z=21) has electronic configuration 3d1 4s2.Has two oxidation states
+2 (3d1) and +3 (3d0) Here +3 oxidation state is more stable.

 Titanium (Z=22) has outer electronic configuration 3d2 4s2.Has oxidation states
+2 (3d2) and +3 (3d1) and +4 (3d0). Here +4 oxidation state is more stable.

Vanadium (Z=23) has outer electronic configuration 3d3 4s2.Has oxidation states
+2 (3d3) and +3 (3d2) ,+4 (3d1) and +5(3d0). Here +5 oxidation state is more
stable.
 Oxidation states of Chromium (Z=24)
In case of chromium(Z= 24) with outer electronic configuration 3d5 4s1 should show
+1(3d5) ,+2(3d4),+3(3d3),+4(3d2),+5(3d1),+6(3d0) oxidation states.
Actually +1 (3d5) oxidation state should have been very stable as it has exactly half
filled state of d orbital which is stable.
 However chromium does not form normal salts in its +1 oxidation state.
But number of stable complexes of chromium in its +1 oxidation state with pyridine
are well known.
Chromous salts: +2 oxidation state . Chromous chloride CrCl2 and
Chromous sulphate CrSO4
+3 oxidation state . Chromium chloride CrCl3
+4 and +5 oxidation states are unstable

Chromate salts: +6 very stable. Salt like Chromate (K2 CrO4),

Dichromate(K2Cr2O7) , chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2) .

Chromium is very good oxidizing agent in its +6 oxidizing state. K2Cr2O7

 Oxidation states of Manganese (Z=25)

In case of Manganese (Z= 25) with outer electronic configuration 3d5 4s2 shows
oxidation states ranging from +2(3d5) to +7 (3d0) .
+2(3d5),+3(3d4),+4(3d3),+5(3d2),+6(3d1) ,+7(3d0)oxidation states.

+2 oxidation state is very stable as it has exactly half filled state.
 +2 oxidation state of Mn are called as Manganous or manganese salts.
Example: MnCl2
+3 and +5 oxidation states are unstable.
+4 oxidation state is also very stable …Manganese dioxide MnO2…
+6 oxidation state is called Manganate… e.g K2MnO4
+7 oxidation state is called permanganate. e.g KMnO4

Mn in +7 Oxidation state is a very good oxidizing agent…

 Oxidation states of Iron, cobalt and Nickel

Iron (3d6 4s2) , cobalt( 3d7 4s2),Nickel (3d8 4s2) show +2 and +3 oxidation states.

Iron forms salts in +2 as well as +3 oxidation states.

+3 oxidation state is more stable called as ferric compounds..
 +2 oxidation state are called as ferrous compounds….
 + 4 and +5 oxidation state of Iron are less stable..
+6 oxidation state of Iron is called as ferrates…
e.g. Potassium ferrate…K2FeO4…

Cobalt and Nickel forms salts in their +2 and +3 oxidation states..

Salts in +2 oxidation state are more stable..
 Oxidation states of Copper and Zinc

Copper (3d10 4s1) and Zinc (3d 10 4s2) shows +2 oxidation state..

Copper salts in +1 oxidation state are called cuprous salts…

 e.g. Cu2Cl2 cuprous chloride..and Cu2I2…..cuprous Iodide.
Copper salts in +2 oxidation state are called cupric or copper salts…
E.g. CuSO4

Zinc shows only +2 oxidation state..

8.5 Physical properties of first transition series :

1. They show characteristic metallic properties.

2.They are hard, high tensile strength ,lustrous, malleable, ductile and form
alloys with other metals.
3.They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
4. They have metallic structure (except Zn, Cd, Hg and Mn).
5.They are very hard and have low volatility. (except of Zn, Cd and Hg)
6.They have high melting and boiling points.
Hardness of Metals:

 Hardness of these metals indicates the presence of covalent bonds in them .

 Covalent bond is possible due to presence of unpaired electrons in them.
 The d-orbitals containing unpaired electrons may overlap to form covalent bonds.
 Higher the number of unpaired electrons present in transition metal
atom, more is the number of covalent bonds formed by it and greater is
the hardness of metal.
 Metals such as Cr, Mo and W( tungsten)have maximum number of
unpaired d-electrons.
 Therefore these metals are very hard.
 Zn,Cd,Hg are soft , because they do not have unpaired d- electrons.
Trends in Melting point of transition metals
• In transition metals atoms are held strongly by metallic bond due to low ionization
enthalpy and vacant d- orbitals in outermost shell.

• The metallic bond has strong covalent character due to presence of unpaired electrons in
(n-1) d – orbital.

• Transition metals have high melting point and boiling point.

• In all the transition series melting point steadily

increases up to nd5 configuration.

• Cr, Mo, W show highest melting point in their

respective series.

• After nd5 configuration, with increase in atomic number

melting point decreases regularly.
• Mn and Tc show anomalous value of melting point.
 Mn and Technetium (Tc) have abnormally low melting points
 Zn,Cd,Hg are exceptions as d10 elements in which d orbital are full hence have low
melting points less than 1000K
 The high melting and boiling points of transition metals are due to their close-
packed structures.
 In these close packed structures the transition metal atoms are held together by
strong metallic bonds.
 Large amount of energy required to break the metallic bonds in order to melt the
metal. Hence these metals have very high melting and boiling points.
 strength of metallic bond depends on the number of unpaired electrons. Greater
the number of unpaired electrons, stronger is the metallic bond.
 Number of unpaired electrons in (n-1) d subshell increases up to the middle i.e upto
d5 configuration.
 Strength of the metallic bonds increases and hence the melting point and boiling
point increases up to d5 configuration.
 Beyond d5 configuration the electrons start pairing up and the number of unpaired
electrons decreases and also strength of metallic bond decreases.
 As the atomic number increases, the number of unpaired electrons in 3d subshell
increases up to chromium ( Sc has 1,Ti has 2, V has 3, and Cr has 5 unpaired
electrons)
 Therefore strength of metallic bonds and melting and boiling point increases from
Sc to Cr.
 Chromium has the maximum melting in the first transition series.
 After Cr, the number of unpaired electrons go on decreasing
(Fe has 4, Co has 3,Ni has 2 unpaired electrons)
 Therefore the strength of metallic bonds and the melting and boiling points
decreases from Cr to Cu.
 Zn,Cd,Hg have no unpaired electrons therefore these metals are soft and have low
melting and boiling points.
 Mn and Tc unexpectedly lower melting point due to their complicated
lattice structure.
 Trends in atomic properties of the first transition series
8.6.1 Atomic and ionic radii Each trend for Imp. 1 Mark
 Atomic size of the elements of 3d series gradually decreases up to Cr and then
remains almost constant for a few more elements and then increases
slightly towards the end of the series.
 In the beginning with the increase in the atomic number the nuclear charge
increases left to right. last filled electron enters in same penultimate i.e (n-1) d -
orbital and poor screening effect of d - electrons.

 In the middle of the series with increase in the number of d- electrons.

The increase in the nuclear charge and increase in the screening effect
balance each other and this leads to constancy in the atomic radii.

 Towards the end of the series when electron pairing takes place in more and more of
the d- orbitals,the repulsive interaction between the added electrons in
each orbital is more than the attractive force due to the increase in the
nuclear charge.
i.With increase in nuclear charge ionic radii gradually decreases for same oxidation
state. Example - (Cr2+ 82pm , Cu2+ 72 pm).

ii.With variable oxidation states of same metal , ionic radii decreases with higher
oxidation state due to increase in effective nuclear charge.

iii. Ionic radii decreases from M2(+) to M3(+)

iv.Ionic radii of transition metals are smaller than ionic radii of representative elements
of same period
From the table below we notice that in 3d series the decrease in the atomic radii is small
and it takes place from scandium to chromium.

Trends in atomic radii of

Note:-Values are not expected from transition elements
students , only trends are expected.
8.6.2 Ionisation Enthalpy :

1. Ionization enthalpy :- The energy required to remove an electron from the

isolated gaseous atom in its ground state is called ionization enthalpy.
2. Ionisation enthalpies of transition metals are intermediate between s -block and
p- block elements.
3. Ionization enthalpy increases from left to right .
4. Transition elements are less electropositive than elements of group 1 and 2.
5. Generally in lower oxidation state they form ionic compound and in higher oxidation
state they form covalent compound.
6. Ionization enthalpy increases from first Ionization Enthalpy to third I.E.(IE1 to IE3)
7. Ionization enthalpies of elements of third transition series has higher ionization
enthalpy than the second and first transition series.
8. This is due to poor shielding effect of 4f-orbital.
Therefore valence electron experience more nuclear attraction.
 8.6.3 Metallic character:

 Transition elements have low ionization enthalpies and vacant d -orbitals in

outermost shell.
 They form metallic bonds with covalent character due to presence of unpaired
electron in (n-1) d- orbital.

 They show typical metallic properties .

 They are hard and have high melting point.

 They have simple hexagonal close packed(hcp), cubic close packed (ccp), or
body centred cubic lattice(bcc).
 8.6.4 Magnetic properties:
1) Compounds of transition metals exhibit magnetic property due to presence of
unpaired electrons.
2) Compound which are attracted towards magnetic field are Paramagnetic.
Example – Compounds containing Cu2+, Mn2+,Fe3+
3) When all electrons are paired then compounds are repelled by magnetic field.
These are called as diamagnetic substances. Example – Zn2+ , Cu1+ , Sc3+
4) Substances which are attracted very strongly are known as ferromagnetic.
Examples- Fe, Co, Ni
5) These metals can be magnetized i.e. they acquire permanent magnetic moment.
* Each unpaired electron gives small magnetic moment due to spin angular moment
and orbital angular moment.
*In case. of first transition series elements contribution from angular moment is
neglected.
 The spin only formula for magnetic moment is

μ= 𝑛 𝑛+2
BM where n = no. of unpaired electrons.

μ = magnetic moment expressed in Bohr Magneton.

A single unpaired electron has magnetic moment μ=1.73 BM.

Problem : Calculate the spin only magnetic moment of divalent cation(M2+) of a

transition metal with atomic number 25.

Solution : For element with atomic number 25, electronic configuration for its divalent
cation will be No. of unpaired electron (n) = 5
Imp. 2 Mark
μ= 5 5+2 = 5.92 𝐵𝑀

Calculate the ‘spin only’ magnetic moment of M2+(aq) ion (Z = 27).

8.6.5 Colour :

Any substance appears coloured if it absorbs a portion of visible light

 The colour depends upon the wavelength of absorption in the visible region
of electromagnetic radiation.

Most of the compounds of transition metals are coloured in their solid or solution
form.

Colour of the compounds of the transition metals may be attributed to the presence of
incomplete (n-1)d orbital and number of unpaired electrons..

In these compounds, the energies of the five d orbitals in the same subshell do not
remain the same or equal.
From the above table it is clear that transition metal ions with no unpaired electrons
are Colourless..
e.g. Sc3+(3d0)Ti 4+(3d0),Cu+(3d10),Zn2+(3d10)…
Ions with unpaired electrons are coloured .3d1 to 3d 9
 Colour explanation on the basis of d-d transition of electrons
The transition metal ions have incompletely filled d-orbitals.
Energy required to promote one or more electrons from a lower to higher energy level
within the d –orbitals with same quantum number is quite small.
Energy required for such transitions is available within the visible region.
Therefore transition metal ions absorb certain radiations from visible region and
appear coloured..
In case of free metal ion, all the d-orbitals are at the same energy level
(degenerate).
But when they are in the compound form, The five d-orbitals split into two groups..
One group consist of three orbitals mainly dxy,dxz,dyz, and they are of lower energy level.
The second group consist of two orbitals dx2-y2 and dz2 and are slightly higher energy level.
 The splitting of d-orbitals is caused by the groups linked to the metal ion..
 The difference in energy(ΔE) between two sets of d-orbitals is small.
 The cataion absorbs light of certain wavelength in the visible region and this energy
promots the electron from lower level to higher level.
 Hence the transmitted light imparts characteristic colour to cation.

Example : [ Ti(H2O)6]3+

Ti3+ has 3d1 configuration.

This one electron occupy one of the orbitals of lower energy.
This complex ion will absorb suitable wavelength of white light and promote the electron from
lower energy level to higher energy level.
 Since the complex absorbs light around 500nm region, yellow and green lights are
absorbed to excite the electron and the transmitted lights is the complementary colour i.e. Red
Blue (Purple).
Hence solution containing hydrated Ti3+ ion is purple in colour..
Colour of the transition metal ion due to ligand and Geometry of resulting complex

When cobalt chloride (Co2+) is dissolved in water, it forms a pink solution of

complex [Co(H2O)6]2+ which has octahedral geometry.

But when this solution is treated with concentrated HCl, forms a blue complex
[CoCl4]2- which has tetrahedral geometry.
[Co(H2O)6]2⊕ + 4Cl- [CoCl4]2- + 6H2O

Thus the colour of a transition metal ion relates to

1. presence of unpaired d electrons

2. d - d transitions
3. nature of ligands attached to the metal ion
4. geometry of the complex formed by the
Colours of some of the first row transition metal ions
metal ion in aqueous solutions. From left to right:
V4+,V3+,Mn2+,Fe3+,Co2+,Ni2+and Cu2+
 Colour of the transition metal ion due to Charge Transfer.

MnO4- ion has an intense purple colour in solution due to charge transfer.
In MnO4-, an electron is momentarily transferred from oxygen(O) to metal,
thus changing O2- to O- and reducing the oxidation state of metal from
Mn (+7) to Mn(+6)..

Charge transfer requires that the energy levels of the two different atoms
involved are fairly close…

Colours of Cr2O72-, CrO42-, MnO4-, Ni-DMG(dimethyl glyoxime) complex are

due to charge transfer transitions..
8.6.6 Catalytic Properties :

 Most of transition metals and their compounds exhibit good catalytic properties.

 They have proven to be good homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts.

 Partly because of their ability to participate in different oxidation-reduction steps of

catalytic reactions.
 These steps involve changes in the oxidation states of these metal ions.
 Compounds of Fe, Co, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cr, etc. are used as catalysts in a number of
reactions.
 Their compounds enhance the rate of the chemical reactions.

 In homogeneous catalysis reactions, the metal ions participate by forming unstable

intermediates.

 In heterogeneous catalysis reactions on the other hand, the metal provides a surface
for the reactants to react.
Examples : Imp. 1 Mark (MCQ or VSA)

1. MnO2 - for decomposition of KClO3 from O2

2. Mo/Fe - manufacture of ammonia by Haber’s process.
3. Co-Th alloy - synthesis of gasoline in Fischer Tropsch process .
4. Ni - hydrogenation of ethene to ethane and
hydrogenation of inedible oils into solid fat.( production of margarine.)
5. Fe-Cr – Formation of CO2 and H2 from carbon monoxide and steam.
6.Fe(III) –for reaction between iodide and persulphate ions.
7. Platinised asbestos- Production of H2SO4 by contact process
8. Fe-Cr – Formation of CO2 and H2 from carbon monoxide and steam.
Formation of Interstitial compounds:

 Defination:Interstitial compounds are those which are formed when small

atoms like Hydrogen,Carbon or Nitrogen are trapped inside the
interstitial spaces in the crystal lattice of metals.
 Sometimes sulphides and oxides are also trapped in the crystal lattice of transition
elements.
 They cannot be represented by definite composition and neither typically ionic nor
covalent.
 E.g. TiC, Mn4N, Fe3H, etc.
 These compounds have variable composition hence do not have any normal
oxidation state of the metal.
 As the vacant spaces in the lattice of these metals are filled up, they provide them
new properties……as follows.
 Steel and cast iron are the examples of interstitial compounds of iron and carbon.
Due to presence of carbon,the malleability and ductility of iron is reduced while its
tenacity (toughness or resistance to breaking) increases
 Some properties of interstitial compounds Imp. 2 Mark

1) Their chemical properties are similar to parent metal.

2) These interstitial compounds are hard and good conductor of heat and
electricity.
3) Their melting and boiling points are higher than the pure metals.(as the metal-non
metal bonds are stronger than metal-metal bonds in pure metals.)
4) Their densities are less than the parent metal.
5) Hydrides of transition metals are used as powerful reducing agents.
6) The metallic carbides are chemically inert and extremely hard as diamond.
Formation of Alloys :
1.Transition metals form alloys

2.In alloy atoms of one metal distributed randomly in the lattice of another metal.

3.The metals with similar radii and similar properties readily form alloys.

4.There are two types of alloys ferrous and non- ferrous.

Ferrous alloys have atoms of other elements distributed randomly in atoms of
iron in the mixture. As percentage of iron is more, they are termed ferrous alloys

e.g. nickel steel, chromium steel, stainless steel etc. All steels have 2% carbon

Non-ferrous alloys are formed by mixing atoms of transition metal other than iron
with a non transition element.
eg. Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin
Uses of alloys Imp. 1/2 Mark

• Bronze, an alloy of (Cu+Sn) is tough, strong and corrosion resistant. It is used for
making statues, medals and trophies.

• Cupra-nickel, an alloy of (Cu+Ni) is used for making machinery parts of marine

ships, boats. For example, marine condenser tubes.

• Stainless steel alloy of (Fe+Cr+C) are used in the kitchen accessories, cutlery and
cookware, construction of outer fuselage of ultra high speed air craft.

• Nichrome an alloy of (Ni+Cr) in the ratio 80 : 20 has been developed specifically

for gas turbine engines.

• Titanium alloys withstand stress up to high temperatures and outstanding

corrosion resistance are used for ultra- high speed flight, fire proof bulkhead etc.
 8.7 Compounds of Manganese (Mn) & Chromium(Cr)
[KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7]
• 8.7.1 Preparation of potassium permanganate
a) Chemical oxidation :-
Finely divided manganese dioxide (pyrolusite ore- MnO2) heated strongly
with fused mass of caustic potash (KOH ) and oxidizing agent potassium
chlorate(KClO3) then potassium manganate (K2MnO4) is formed. It is dark
green coloured.

In neutral or acidic medium K2MnO4 disproportionates to KMnO4 and MnO2.

•Liquid is filtered and evaporated until crystallisation.
•Black purple crystal of KMnO4 are formed.
b) Electrolytic oxidation
•Alkaline solution of magnate ion is electrolysed between iron electrodes separated by
diaphragm.
*Overall reaction is

The Oxygen evolved at anode convert magnate to permanganate .

•Solution is filtered and evaporated get deep purple black crystals of KMnO4 .
 8.7.2 Chemical properties of KMnO4 :
*Oxidizing reactions in acidic medium
 b) In neutral or weakly alkaline medium:
i) Oxidation of I Θ to iodate IO3 Θ :-

ii) Oxidation of thiosulphate( S2O32Θ )to sulphate(SO42Θ) :-

iii) Oxidation of Manganous salt to MnO2:-

 8.7.3 Uses of KMnO4:
1) It is used as an antiseptic.

2) It is used for unsaturation test in laboratory.(Bayer’s reagent-alkaline

KMnO4 is used for this test)

3) It is used in volumetric analysis of reducing agents.( like oxalic acid , ferrous

salts , hydrogen peroxides)

4) It is used for detecting halides in qualitative analysis.

5) It is used as powerful oxidising agent in laboratory and industry.

 8.7.4 K2Cr2O7 : Preparation of Potassium dichromate
*
 It is prepared from chromite ore.(FeO.Cr2O3).
A) Chromite ore is heated with anhydrous sodium carbonate and flux of lime in air
in a reverberatory furnace.

B) Sodium chromate(Na2CrO4) formed is extracted with water and treated with

conc. H2SO4. Then sodium dichromate is obtained.
Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4+ H2O
C) Sodium dichromate when treated with potassium chloride gives orange red
coloured potassium dichromate.
 8.7.5 Chemical properties of K2Cr2O7
i) Oxidation of I Θ from aq. solution of KI
Acidified K2Cr2O7 oxidises KI and gives iodine. Liberated iodine turns the solution
brown. Potassium dichromate is reduced to chromic sulphate.

ii) Oxidation of H2S

When H2S is oxidized by acidified K2Cr2O7 gives yellow precipitate of sulphur.
As potassium dichromate is reduced to chromic sulphate , colour of solution
changes from orange to green.
 8.8 Common properties of d- block elements
 Physical properties:-
1) All d -block elements are lustrous and shining.
2) They are hard and have high density.
3) They have high melting and boiling point.
4) They are good electrical and thermal conductors.
5) They have high tensile strength and malleability.
6) They form alloy with other transition and non transition elements.
7) Most of metals are efficient catalysts.
  Chemical properties of d-block elements :
1) They are electropositive metals.
2) They exhibit variable valencies and form colored salts and complexes.
3) They are good reducing agents.
4) They form insoluble oxides and hydroxides.
5) They catalyse biological reactions.
6) Iron , cobalt copper , molybdenum and zinc are biologically important metals.

Differences:- Most of the properties of d- block elements are same.

Elements of first row differ from second and third row in stabilization of higher
oxidation states in their compound.
Example Mo (V) and W (VI) compounds are more stable than Cr (VI) and Mn (VII).
• Highest oxidation state for elements of first row is +7 and in second and third
row is +8 as in OsO4 and RuO4.
8.9 Extraction of metals Def. Mineral and ore Imp. 1 Mark

Mineral : A naturally occurring substance found in the earth’s crust containing

inorganic salts, solids, siliceous matter etc, is called a mineral.

Ore: The mineral which contains high percentage of the metal and from which
the metal can be extracted economically is called an ore.
List of minerals and ores of some transition metals.

Imp. 1 Mark (VSA ) write

the molecular formula

Cu2S
 Metallurgy

Pyrometallurgy Hydrometallurgy Electrometallurgy

8.9.1 Metallurgy : The commercial extraction of metals from their ores is called
metallurgy.
Different methods are used for their extraction depending on the
nature of a metal and its ore.
a. Pyrometallurgy: The process in which ore is reduced to metal at high temperature
using reducing agents like carbon, hydrogen, aluminium, etc. is called pyrometallurgy.
b. Hydrometallurgy : The process of extracting metals from the aqueous solution of
their salts using suitable reducing agent is called hydrometallurgy.
c. Electrometallurgy : A process in which metal is extracted by electrolytic reduction of
molten (fused) metallic compound is called electrometallurgy.
Steps Involved in Process of Extraction:
Concentration :
Gangue : The sand, mud and other unwanted impurities which remain mixed with the
ore deposit are called gangue.
During the process of concentration, the ore is separated from the gangue
material using different methods such as washing, hydraulic classification, magnetic
separation, froth floatation, etc.
8.9.2 Extraction of Iron from Haematite ore using Blast furnace:
Composition of Haematite ore :
Fe₂O₃ + SiO₂ + Al₂O₃ + phosphates

Gangue
 Flow Chart of Extraction of Iron
Reduction by coke
Iron Ore Crushing and
Grinding Reduction by CO
Reduction by heat
Concentration Reduction Reduction by Al
Reduction by
Magnetic Gravity Leaching Froth electrolysis
Separation Separation flotation Refining Pure Iron

Liquification Distillation Oxidation Electro-refining

 Iron is extracted from haematite by its reduction using coke and limestone.
Carbon in the limestone is reduced to carbon monoxide. Carbon and carbon
monoxide together reduce Fe2O3 to metallic iron .
The extraction of iron from haematite ore involves the following steps.
i. Concentration :
The powdered ore is washed in a powerful current of water introduced into the
hydraulic classifier. The lighter gangue particles are separated and the
concentrated ore is collected at the bottom.
ii. Roasting :
The concentrated ore is heated in a current of air. The sulfur and
arsenic impurities present in the ore get converted into their oxides and escape
as vapour. Ferrous oxide in the ore is converted to Fe₂O₃.

The roasted ore is converted into lumps by sintering.

iii. Reduction (Smelting) :
• This step is carried out in a blast furnace.
• Blast furnace is a tall cylindrical steel tower which is lined with refractory bricks.
• The height of a typical blast furnace is 25 m and its diameter varies between 5 and
10 m.
• The furnace works on counter current principle where the charge comes down and
hot gases move up the tower

The furnace is comprised of 3 parts - 1. Hearth, 2. Bosh and 3. Stack

 The charge containing ore and lime stone is introduced into the furnace through a
cup and cone arrangement. In this arrangement the cone enables uniform distribution
of charge and the cup prevents the loss of gases.
 A blast of preheated air is introduced into the furnace below the bosh.

 The charge and hot air come in contact with each other and various reactions take
place.
 Blast Furnace

FeO
Reactions in the blast furnace :
There are 3 temperature zones in the furnace.
1. Zone of combustion : [Combustion of coke with O₂ in the air.]
The hot air blown through the tuyers reacts with coke from the charge to form CO.

Some of the CO formed dissociates to form finely divided carbon.

2. Zone of Reduction (22-25 m near the top):

Here, the temperature is around 900 K. Fe₂O₃ is reduced to spongy iron by CO

some amount of Fe2O3 is reduced to iron by carbon

Summary of reactions taking place in blast furnace at different temperature zones:
3. Zone of slag formation (20 m unit) :
The gangue present in the ore is converted to slag. Limestone decomposes to give
CaO(quick lime).

CaO combines with gangue to form molten slag of calcium silicate and calcium
aluminate.

4. Zone of fusion (15 m ht) :

The slag which is lighter floats on the surface of molten iron. Molten slag and iron are
collected through separate outlets. The molten iron is removed and cooled in moulds. It
is called pig iron or cast iron.
5. Refining:
Pure iron can be obtained by electrolytic refining of impure iron or other methods
given in flow chart.
Commercial forms of Iron:
Iron

Cast Wrought Steel

Differences between cast iron, wrought iron and steel:
Cast iron Wrought iron Steel
1. Hard and brittle 1. Very soft 1. Neither too hard nor too
soft.
2. Contains 4% carbon. 2.Contains less than 0.2% 2. Contains 0.2 to 2%
carbon carbon
3. Used for making pipes, 3. Used for making pipes, 3. Used in buildings
manufacturing automotive bars for stay bolts, engine infrastructure, tools, ships,
parts, pots, pans and bolts and rivets. automobiles, weapons etc.
utensils.
 8.10 Inner Transition (f-block) Elements
Lanthanoids And Actinoids
The elements in which the differentiating electron (last electron) enters into
(n-2) f orbital are known as f –block elements.
In these elements differentiating electron enters into prepenultimate shell.
 In all 28 elements from atomic number 58 to 71 and from 90 to 103 are collectively called f-
block elements.
These are, penultimate (n-1)d and prepenultimate(n-2)f.
4f and 5f orbitals are inner as compared to electropositive and electronegative elements.
 These elements are placed separately at the bottom of the periodic table.
 They are a subset of 6th and 7th periods.
 Since f-orbital lies much inside the d-orbital, in a relation to transition metals the f-block
elements are called inner transition elements.
 These elements have 1 to 14 electrons in there f-orbital, 0 (Zero) or 1 in the penultimate
energy level and 2 electrons in the outermost orbital.
 The lanthanoids are characterized by gradual filling of 4f and actinides by 5f-orbitals.
8.11 Properties of f-block elements :
1) Properties are similar to d-block elements.
2) Electrons are added to f-subshells of (n-2) level.
3) Placed between (n-1) d and ns block elements.
4) Lanthanoids begin with atomic number 57 and end at 71.
5) Lanthanoids are termed as rare earth elements, they are fairly abundant in
earth crust.
6) These metals are soft with moderate densities of about 7 g/cm3.
7) They have high melting (near about 1000 oc) and boiling points (near about
3000oc).
8) Lanthanoids in the metallic state are very reactive like alkali and alkaline earth
metals.
9) The common oxidation state of lanthanoids is +3. but some elements Europium(Eu)
and Ytterbium(Yb) show +2 oxidation state.
10)Higher oxidation states are unusual for lanthanoids only exception of Cerium which
show stable +4 oxidation state.
10) Lanthanoids have lower heat of atomization than transition metals.
11) Europium and Ytterbium resemble with alkaline earth metals, they dissolve in
liquid ammonia to give blue conducting solutions
12) Their ionic radii decrease from 117 pm of La to 100 pm for Lu.
13) Lanthanoid ions have higher coordination number varies from 6 to 12.
14) All the lanthanoids form hydroxides of the general formula Ln(OH)3. these are ionic
and basic. Since the ionic size decrease from La3+ to Lu3+,the basicity of
hydroxide decreases.
15) Lanthanoids react with nitrogen and halogens to give nitrides and halides of the
formulae LnN and LnX3 respectively.
16) In +3 oxidation state many of the lanthanoids are colored
8.12 Properties of Lanthanoids
 They are soft metals with silvery white color and moderate densities of ~7 g/cm3.
 They are good conductor of heat and electricity.
 Except Promethium (Pm),all are non-radioactive in nature.
 The atomic and ionic radii decrease from Lanthanum (La) to Lutetium (Lu).this is
known as lanthanoid contraction. Imp. 1 Mark
 Binding to water is common (i.e.) such that H2O is often found in products when
isolated from aqueous solutions.
 Coordination numbers usually are greater than 6 typically 8, 9,…(up to 12 found).
 The lanthanoids are strongly paramagnetic.
 They becomes ferromagnetic at much lower temperatures.
 Magnetic and optical properties are largely independent of environment
(similar spectra in gas/solution/solid).
 Electronic configuration
Ionic
Atomic Atomic
Element Symbol Expected Observed (ground +2 +3 radii
number radii,pm
(ground state) state) Oxidation oxidation Ln3+
state state
Lanthanum La 57 [Xe] 4f0 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f0 5d1 6S2 4f05d1 4f0 187 106

Cerium Ce 58 [Xe] 4f1 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f2 5d0 6S2 4f2 4f1 183 103

Praseodymium Pr 59 [Xe] 4f2 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f3 5d0 6S2 4f3 4f2 182 101
Neodymium Nd 60 [Xe] 4f3 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f45d06S2 4f4 4f3 181 99
Promethium Pm 61 [Xe] 4f4 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f55d0 6S2 4f5 4f4 181 98

Samarium Sm 62 [Xe] 4f5 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f65d06S2 4f6 4f5 180 96
Europium Eu 63 [Xe] 4f6 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f75d0 6S2 4f7 4f6 199 95
Gadolinium Gd 64 [Xe] 4f7 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f7 5d1 6S2 4f75d1 4f7 180 94

Terbium Tb 65 [Xe] 4f8 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f9 5d0 6S2 4f9 4f8 178 92

Dysprosium Dy 66 [Xe] 4f9 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f10 5d0 6S2 4f10 4f9 177 91

Holmium Ho 67 [Xe] 4f10 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f11 5d0 6S2 4f11 4f10 176 89

Erbium Er 68 [Xe] 4f115d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f125d06S2 4f1 2 4f11 175 88

Thulium Tm 69 [Xe] 4f12 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f13 5d0 6S2 4f1 3 4f12 174 87

Ytterbium Yb 70 [Xe] 4f135d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f145d0 6S2 4f14 4f13 173 86

Lutetium Lu 71 [Xe] 4f14 5d1 6S2 [Xe] 4f14 5d1 6S2 4f14 5d1 4f14 ------ -------
8.12.1 Electronic Configuration:

 The general valence shell electronic configuration of Lanthanoids is

[Xe] 𝟒𝐟 𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝟓𝐝𝟎−𝟐 𝟔𝐬 𝟐
 Elements La, Gd & Lu possess single electron in 5d subshell.
 In case of other Lanthanoids 5d orbital is empty.

 f 0 , f 7 , f 14 electronic configuration achieve extra stability due to empty, half filled

and completely filled f-orbitals.
 Examples- La ( 𝟒𝐟 𝟎 ), Gd ( 𝟒𝐟 𝟕 ) and Lu ( 𝟒𝐟 𝟏𝟒 )
Ionization enthalpies :
 The ionization enthalpies of inner transition metals are quiet high and lie between
those of s-block and p-block elements.
 The first ionisation enthalpy increases with increase in atomic number
across a given inner transition series.
Lanthanoid IE1 IE2 IE3
La 538.1 1067 1850.3
Ce 528.0 1047 1949
Pr 523.0 1018 2086
Nd 530.0 1034 2130
Pm 536.0 1052 2150
Sm 543.0 1068 2260
Eu 547.0 1085 2400
Gd 592.0 1170 1990
Tb 564.0 1112 2110
Dy 572.0 1126 2200
Ho 581.0 1139 2200
Values are not expected
Er 589.0 1151 2190 from students.
Tm 596.7 1163 2284
Yb 603.4 1175 2415
Lu 523.5 1340 2022
8.12.2 Oxidation state : Imp. 1 Mark

These elements have common +3 oxidation state to all elements.

 Besides these, some lanthanoids show oxidation states +2 and +4.

 They are formed in case of f 0, f 7, f 14 configurations or resulting ions.

Example : Ce 4(f 0) , Eu2 and Tb4 (f 7) ; Yb 2 (f 14)

8.12.3 Color and Spectra:
 Some trivalent ions (M3) are colored in solid state as well as in solution.
 The color of lanthanoid ion is due to f-f transitions.
 The color of ions having nf-electrons is about the same as those having
 (14 – n)f-electrons.

No. of
Ln Electronic
colour f-electrons
ion configuration

Pr3 4f 2 green (14 -n) f-electrons =14-2 =12

4f 12
Tm3 green n f-electrons =12

Nd3 4f 3 Pink (14 -n) f-electrons =14-3 =11

4f 11
Er3 Pink nf-electrons =11
 8.12.4 Atomic and ionic radii (Lanthanoid Contraction):

As we move along the lanthanoid series, there is a decrease in atomic and ionic radii.
This steady decrease in the atomic and ionic radii is called Lanthanoid
contraction.
As we move from one element to another the nuclear charge increases by one unit
and one electron is added.
The new electrons are added to the same inner 4f-subshell.
Thus the 4f-electrons shield each other poorly due to diffused shape.
Hence, with increase in atomic number, the effective nuclear charge experienced by
each 4f-electrons increases.
As a result, the whole of 4f-electron shell contracts at each successive element.
Lanthanoid contraction –
The atomic and ionic radii of lanthanoids shows gradual decrease with increase in
atomic number. It is known as lanthanoid contraction.
Causes of Lanthanoid contraction :

 As we move from Ce to Lu, the atomic number increases and effective

nuclear charge also increases by one unit at each element due to the addition
of electrons in 4f orbitals.
 The shielding effect of the 4f electrons is very poor
 Hence the 4f electrons are not able to shield perfectly the attraction
between the nucleus and the outermost electronic orbit.

 The effect of increased nuclear charge is more than that of shielding effect
of 4f orbitals.

 Hence with increase of nuclear charge the valence shell is pulled slightly
towards nucleus.
Effects of Lanthanoid contraction:
a) Decrease in Basicity:

Due to lanthanide contraction the size of the tripositive lanthanoid ion(M3+)

regularly decreases with increase in atomic number i.e. from La3+ to Lu3+.

 As size of the cation decreases,according to Fajan’s rule,the polarizability

increases and thus the covalent character of the M-OH bond increases and
ionic character decreases.

Basic nature of hydroxides decreases.

 Basicity and ionic character decreases in the order La(OH)3> Ce(OH)3……>

Lu(OH)3
b) Ionic radii of post Lanthanoids:
1. Elements following the Lanthanoids in the 6th period ( 5d series) are
called post lanthanoids

2. Due to lanthanoid contraction the atomic radii of elements which follow

lanthanum in the 6th period ( 3rd transition series Hf,Ta,W,Re) are similar
to the elements of the 5th period ( 4d series Zr,Nb,Mo,Tc)

3. Due to similarity in their atomic size, post lanthanoid elements ( 5d

series) have closely similar properties to the elements of the 2nd transition
series( 4d series) which lie exactly above them.

4. Pairs of elements namely Zr-Hf ( Group 4) ,Nb-Ta( Group 5), Mo-W

( Group 6), Tc-Re ( Gr-7) are called chemical twins.since they possess
almost identical sizes and similar properties
8.13 Applications:
The inside surface of a television tube or computer monitor is coated with tiny
patches of three different lanthanoid compositions to give three colors that make the
color image.
Example- mixed oxide of Europium and Yttrium (Eu,Y)2O3 releases an intense red
color.
The optoelectronics application uses of lanthanoid ions are active ions in
luminescent materials.
Example- Nd: YAG laser (Nd: YAG = Neodymium doped Yttrium aluminium garnet).
Erbium-doped fibre amplifiers are significant devices in the optical fibre
communication systems.
Lanthanoids are used in hybrid cars, superconductors and permanent magnets.

Misch metal (La,Fe, and traces of S,C,Ca & Al ) alloy of lanthanoid used to
manufacture of bullets and shells
8.14 Actinoids

The last row of elements in the periodic table is the actinoid series.

It begins with Thorium (Z =90) and ends with Lawrencium (Z=103).

Most of these elements are not found in nature.

They are all radioactive and man-made.

These elements have high densities (~ 15-20 g cm-3).

High melting points (~1000 oc) and high boiling points (~3000 oc).

Actinoids are less reactive than lanthanoids.

For example, they react with hot, but not cold water to give the hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Unlike lanthanoids, they exhibit a range of oxidation numbers in their compounds
which varies from +2 to +8.

The series of elements from Thorium (Z=90) to Lawrencium (Z=103) on

which 5f-orbitals are progressively filled are called Actinoids.
 Table 8.14 Electronic configuration :
 The general valence shell electronic configuration of Actinoids is [Rn] 5f 0−14 6d0−2 7s 2
Atomic Electronic configuration *Atomic *Ionic
Element Symbol number ground ground state +3 oxidation state radii, pm radii
state(Expected (Ac3+), pm
(Observed)
)
Actinium Ac 89 [Rn]5f 06d17s2 [Rn]5f 06d17s2 5f 0 203 126
Thorium Th 90 [Rn]5f 16d17s2 [Rn]5f 06d27s2 5f 1 180 -
Protactinium Pa 91 [Rn]5f 26d17s2 [Rn]5f 26d17s2 5f 2 162 118
Uranium U 92 [Rn]5f 36d17s2 [Rn]5f 36d17s2 5f 3 153 118
Neptunium Np 93 [Rn]5f 46d17s2 [Rn]5f 46d17s2 5f 4 150 116
Plutonium Pu 94 [Rn]5f 56d17s2 [Rn]5f 66d07s2 5f 5 162 115
Americium Am 95 [Rn]5f 76d07s2 [Rn]5f 76d07s2 5f 6 173 114
Curium Cm 96 [Rn]5f 76d17s2 [Rn]5f 76d17s2 5f 7 174 112
Berkelium Bk 97 [Rn]5f 86d17s2 [Rn]5f 96d07s2 5f 8 170 110
Californium Cf 98 [Rn]5f 96d17s2 [Rn]5f 106d07s2 5f 9 186 109
Einsteinium Es 99 [Rn]5f 106d17s2 [Rn]5f 116d07s2 186 98
5f 10
11 1 2 12 0 2
Fermium Fm 100 [Rn]5f 6d 7s [Rn]5f 6d 7s 198 91
5f 11
Mendelevium Md 101 [Rn]5f 126d17s2 [Rn]5f 136d07s2 194 90
5f 12
Nobelium No 102 [Rn]5f146d07s2 [Rn]5f146d07s2 197 95
5f 13
Lawrencium Lr 103 [Rn]5f 146d17s2 [Rn]5f 146d17s2 171 88
5f 14
8.15 Properties of actinoids :
They appear silvery white in color.
These are highly reactive radioactive elements.
They experience decrease in the atomic and ionic radii from Actinium (Ac) to
Lawrencium (Lr) known as Actinoid contraction.
They usually exhibit +3 oxidation state. Elements of first half of the series usually
exhibit higher oxidation states.

Actinoid contraction – The atomic

and ionic radii of Actinoids shows
gradual decrease with increase in
atomic number. It is known as
Actinoid contraction.
8.16 Applications of actinoids :

Th(IV) oxide, ThO2 with 1% CeO2 was used as a major source of indoor
lighting before incandescent lamps came into existence only because these
oxides convert heat energy from burning natural gas to an intense light.
Even today, there is a great demand for these lights for outdoor camping.
Similarities and differences between lanthanides and actinoids
Similarities Differences
Imp. 2 Mark
Both the series show a +3 oxidation state Lanthanoids show a maximum oxidation state of +4
while actinoids show oxidation states of +3, +4, +5, +6
and +7

In both the series, the f-orbitals are filled gradually Lanthanoids do not form complexes easily. Actinoids
have a greater tendency to form complexes with ligands
such as thioethers

Ionic radii of the elements in both series decreases with All lanthanoids are non-radioactive except promethium
an increase in atomic number but actinides are radioactive in nature.

The electronegativity of all the elements in both the Lanthanoids do not form oxocations, but actinides
series is low and are said to be highly reactive form oxocations such as UO+, PuO+, NpO2+

The nitrates, perchlorates and sulphates of all the Most of the lanthanoids are colourless in nature whereas
elements are soluble while the hydroxides, fluorides the actinoids are coloured ions
and carbonates are insoluble
 Table 8.15 Some comparison between s-Block, Lanthanoids & Transition Metals :

S-Block Lanthanoids Transition Metals

Essentially in (+3) oxidation
Essentially monovalent - show state (+2/+4 for certain Show variable oxidation states
group (n+) oxidation state configurations)
Periodic trends dominated by
effective nuclear charge at noble Lanthanoid contraction of  Size changes of Mn, less
Ln3
gas configuration marked
Similar properties for a given Substantial changes in
Similar properties
group properties
Always 'hard' (O, X, N donors, heavier metals (increasingly from
Always 'hard' (O, X, N donors,
preferably negatively Fe-Cu) may show a 'soft'
preferably negatively charged)
charged) character
No ligand field effects Insignificant ligand field effects Substantial ligand field effects
Coordination number 6
Poor coordination properties(C.N. High coordination numbers (C.N.
is typical maximum (many
determined by size) determined by size)
exceptions)
Fixed geometries (ligand field
Flexibility in geometry Flexibility in geometry effects)
No magnetism Show magnetism Show magnetism
 8.17 Post actinoid elements :

The elements with atomic number greater than 92 are called ‘Transuranium
elements. Imp. 1 Mark

Elements from atomic number 93 to 103 now are included in actinoid series and
those from 104 to 118 are called as post actinoid elements.

The post actinoid elements are transition elements.

They are included as post actinoids because similar to actinoid elements, they can
be synthesized in the nuclear reactions.

It is difficult to study their chemistry owing their short half life.

For example, element 112 has a half-life of only 2.8 x 10-4 seconds.
 Previously asked Questions in HSC Board Examination

• Feb.2020 Marks
Q.1) During oxidation of ferrous sulphate using mixture of dil.H2SO4and potassium
dichromate; oxidation state of chromium changes from (1)
a) +6 to +2 b) +6 to +3 c) +6 to +1 d) +6 to +4
2) What is electrometallurgy ? (1)
3) Write name and chemical formula of one ore of zinc. (1)
4) What is action of acidified potassium dichromate on following:
a) KI b) H2S (2)
3) Write general electronic configuration of lanthanides. Why are most of the (3)
compounds of transition metals are colored?
• July 2019 Marks
Q.1) Distinguish between lanthanides and actinides. (2)
Q.2) Write note on lanthanoid contraction. Write two uses of KMnO4. (3)

Feb.2019
Q.1) Oxidation states of scandium are---- (1)
a) +1, +2 b) +1, +3 c) +2, +3 d) +3, +4
Q.2) How is potassium dichromate prepared from chrome iron ore? (4)
Q.3) What is action of sulphur on lanthanoids ? Explain the position of actinoid
in periodic table . Calculate the magnetic moment of divalent ion in aqueous
solution if its atomic number (Z)= 24. (4)
Deleted and non-evaluative portion due to COVID 19 for HSC examination
Feb./Mar. 2020-21

Sr.No. Page Deleted non-evaluative portion

No.
1 165 8.1.1 General introduction
2 169 Table 8.5 Atomic properties of first Transition series
3 170 Table 8.6 Ionization enthalpy of first Transition series, Remember
4 175 8.7 Compound of Mn & Cr
5 177 8.9.1 Metallurgy
8.9.2 Extraction of iron from hematite ore using blast furnace
6 184 Table 8.12 I.E. of Lanthanoids, Problem
7 186 Table 8.13 Effective magnetic moments of Lanthanoids
• THANKU