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Choong)
CHAPTER 13: TRANSITION ELEMENTS (Part 1)

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Ø The elements with proton number 21 (Sc) to 30 (Zn) are known as the first d-block series.
Ø The members of the first d-block series are:

Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Proton 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
number
Ø They are called the d-block elements because valence electrons occupy the d subshell.

13.2 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

• The electronic configuration for the first transition series (from Sc to Zn) is given in the table below.
Element Symbol Proton number Electronic configuration Valence electronic
configuration
Scandium Sc 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2 3d1 4s2
2 2 6 2 6 2 2
Titanium Ti 22 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 3d2 4s2
2 2 6 2 6 3 2
Vanadium V 23 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 3d3 4s2
2 2 6 2 6 5 1
Chromium Cr 24 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s (*) 3d5 4s1
2 2 6 2 6 5 2
Manganese Mn 25 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 3d5 4s2
2 2 6 2 6 6 2
Iron Fe 26 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 3d6 4s2
2 2 6 2 6 7 2
Cobalt Co 27 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 3d7 4s2
2 2 6 2 6 8 2
Nickel Ni 28 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 3d8 4s2
2 2 6 2 6 10 1
Copper Cu 29 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s (*) 3d10 4s1
2 2 6 2 6 10 2
Zinc Zn 30 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4s2
2 2 6 2 6 4 2
Note that the electronic configuration of chromium is not 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s as expected. This is because the electronic
configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 is energetically more stable as the 3d orbitals are half -filled.
Energetically less stable

Energetically more stable

v Similarly, the electronic configuration of copper is not 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s2 as expected. This because the electronic
configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 is energetically more stable as the 3d orbitals are fully-filled.
v The electronic configuration of the first transition series can be represented as [Ar] 3dx 4sy, where x has one of the values
1 to 10 (except 4 and 9) and y is 2 in all cases except chromium and copper, where its value is 1.
v The electronic configuration of the d-block elements is different from that of the Period 3 elements. A
Across Period 3, (Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar), each additional electron goes into outermost subshell.
Whereas across the series of d-block, each additional electron is being added to the inner 3d subshell.
The inner subshells of the Period 3 elements are all fully filled, whereas the inner sub-shells of the d-block elements may
not.

13.3 TRANSITION ELEMENTS

ü Transition element is defined as an element that can form at least one stable ion that has partially-filled d-subshell.
ü Hence, scandium and zinc are not transition elements (even though they are d-block elements).
ü Scandium forms only one stable ion Sc3+ with the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 in which the 3d orbitals are
empty.
ü Zinc forms only the Zn2+ ion with the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 where the 3d orbitals are full.
ü Hence, the first transition series are elements from titanium (proton number 22) to copper (proton number 29).

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13.4 Physical Properties
Paramagnetic: weakly attracted by an external magnetic field due to the presence of unpaired electrons.

Dimagnetic: repelled by magnetic field, all electrons are paired.

13.5 CHARACTERISTIC/ GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE TRANSITION ELEMENTS

a) exhibit variable oxidation states in their compounds
b) form complexes
c) form coloured compounds or ions
d) show catalytic properties

13.5.1 (a) Variable Oxidation States

1. Transition elements can make use of the 3d and 4s electrons in bonding due to the small energy difference between the 3d
and 4s orbitals. Hence, they show variable oxidation states.
2. For example, the two important oxidation states of iron are +2 and +3:
a) Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
b) Fe2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s0
c) Fe3+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s0
3. The oxidation states of the transition elements (Ti to Cu) in their compounds are shown in the table below.
The more common oxidation states are circled.
4. From titanium to manganese, the maximum oxidation states increase from +4(Ti) to +7(Mn) corresponding to the
involvement of all the electrons in the 3d and 4s orbitals.
5. Subsequently, the maximum oxidation state decreases from manganese to copper. This is because the pairing of 3d
electrons occurs after manganese which in turn decrease the number of available unpaired 3d electrons.
Hence, the number of oxidation states decreases from +7 in manganese to +2 in copper.
For example, nickel ([Ar]3dx 4s2) has two electrons and two unpaired 3d electrons available for bond formation.
‘Hence, the maximum oxidation state for nickel is +4.

Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu
+1
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
+5 +5 +5 +5 +5
+6 +6 +6
+7
[Ar]3d2 4s2 [Ar]3d3 4s2 [Ar]3d5 4s1 [Ar]3d5 4s2 [Ar]3d6 4s2 [Ar]3d7 4s2 [Ar]3d8 4s2 [Ar]3d10 4s1

6. (a) Transition elements in lower oxidation states (+1, +2, +3) exist as simple ions.
For example, Cr2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Co2+, Co3+, Cu2+.
The lower oxidation states of transition elements are usually found in ionic compounds such as MnO and MnCl2.

(b) Transition elements in higher oxidation states ( +4 to +7) do not form simple ions because too much energy would be
needed to remove so many electrons.
Furthermore, the cations with higher oxidation states (e.g. Ti4+, V5+, Cr6+, Mn4+, Mn7+) have high charge density and high
polarizing power.
The transition elements in higher oxidation states are usually bonded covalently to electronegative elements like oxygen,
forming oxo-ions (e.g. !"! #"!# , %&#$# , '#!% , ()#!% ) or forming covalent molecules (e.g. TiO2, V2O5, CrO3, MnO2,
Mn2O7).
The formation of oxo ions and covalent molecules involve the sharing of unpaired electrons.

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7. Oxides of elements in low oxidation states are ionic oxides and tend to be basic such as MnO and Mn2O3.
Oxides of elements in high oxidation states are covalent oxides and tend to be acidic such as MnO3 and Mn2O7.
Some oxides such as Cr2O3 and MnO2 are covalent compounds with ionic character and tend to be amphoteric.

Species Oxidation state Bonding Properties

MnO +2 Ionic Basic
Mn2O3 +3 Ionic Basic
MnO2 +4 Covalent with ionic character Amphoteric
MnO3 +6 Covalent Acidic
Mn2O7 +7 Covalent Acidic

8. (a) Transition metal ions in high oxidation states are good oxidizing agents as such as manganate(VII), MnO#
$ and
dichromate(VI), Cr! O!#" ions.
These metals ions have the highly positive standard reduction potentials.
Cr! O!# % # ;%
"('() + 14H('() + 6e ⇌ 2Cr('() + 7H2O(l) 7 ∅ = +1.33'

MnO# % # !%
$('() + 8H('() + 5e ⇌ Mn('() + 4H2O(l) 7 ∅ = +1.52'
FeO!# % # ;%
$('() + 8H('() + 3e ⇌ Fe('() + 4H2O(l) 7 ∅ = +2.20'
!# % #
MnO$('() + 4H('() + 2e ⇌ MnO!(*) + 2H2O(l) 7 ∅ = +2.26'
Transition metal ions in low oxidation state are good reducing agents example Ti2+ ion, V2+ ion and Cr2+ ions are tend to
be oxidized to +3 oxidation state.

(b) Ions with intermediate oxidation states tend to undergo disproportionation. For example,
Mn(VI) Mn(VII) MN(IV)
!# % #
3MnO$('() + 4H('() ⇌ 2MnO$('() + MnO!(*) + 2H2O(l)
Green purple brown
Copper(I) ion undergoes disproportionation in aqueous solution to form brown precipitate of copper metal and the
solution turns from colourless to blue due to the formation of Cu2+ ions.
Cu+ + 6 # ⇌ Cu 7 ∅ = +0.52'
#
Cu + 6 ⇌ Cu
2+ +
7 ∅ = +0.15'
% !% ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
2!=(,-) → !=(.) + !=(,-) 7/011 = 7/,23450 − 7,6450 = 74785,2846 + 7905:/2846
Colourless brown solid blue = (+0.52) − (+0.15) = −0.15 + 0.52 = +0.37'

9. Stability of a particular oxidation state may be affected by the pH of a solution.

For instance, MnO!# #
$ is stable in alkaline solution but disproportionates rapidly to MnO$ and MnO2 in acidic solution.
3MnO!# % #
$('() + 4H('() ⇌ 2MnO$('() + MnO!(*) + 2H2O(l)
The yellow chromate(VI) ion, CrO!# $ is stable in alkaline solution but transforms to the orange dichromate(VI) ion,
Cr! O!#
" ion in acidic solution.
2CrO!# % !#
$('() + 14H('() ⇌ Cr! O"('() + 7H2O(l)

10. Most transition metals react with oxygen to form oxides.

The oxides are nearly all insoluble in water with appreciable covalent character. The oxides are either black or coloured.

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The table below lists the common simple ions, oxo ions, oxides and chlorides of the transition elements.

+1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
Ti TiCl2 Ti2O3 TiO2
Ti2+ TiCl3 TiCl4
Ti3+ TiO2+
V VO V2O3 VO2+ V2O5
VCl2 VCl3 VO#
;
V2+ V3+ VO%
!
Cr CrO Cr2O3 CrO3(dark red)
CrCl2 CrCl3 CrO!#
$
Cr2+(blue) Cr3+(green) Cr! O!#
" (orange)
Mn MnO MnCl3 MnO2 MnO!#$ Mn2O7
MnCl2 Mn3+ (Brown (green) MnO#
$ (purple)
Mn2+(light pink) solid)
Fe FeO Fe2O3 K2FeO4
FeCl2 FeCl3 FeO!#
$
Fe2+(green) Fe3+(Brown)
Co CoO Co2O3
CoCl2 Co3+
Co2+
Ni NiO NiO2
NiCl2
Ni2+
Cu Cu2O CuO (Black solid)
Cu2Cl2 CuCl2
Cu+(colourless) Cu2+ (blue)

(b) Relative Stability of the +2 and +3 Oxidation State

1. The most common oxidation states of transition metals are +2 and +3.
2. The relative stabilities of the +2 and +3 oxidation states in aqueous solution can be predicted based on the standard
electrode potentials.
Consider the standard electrode potentials for the following system.
;% !%
M('() + e# ⇌ M('()
System 7 ∅ /'
;% # !%
Ti('() + e ⇌ Ti('() -0.37
;% !%
V('() + e# ⇌ V('() -0.26
;% # !%
Cr('() + e ⇌ Cr('() -0.41
Mn;%('() + e #
⇌ Mn !%
('() +1.49
;% # !%
Fe('() + e ⇌ Fe('() +0.77
;% # !%
Co('() + e ⇌ Co('() +1.82
Ni;%
('() + e #
⇌ Ni !%
('() -
;% # !%
Cu('() + e ⇌ Cu('() -
%
O2(g) + 4H('() + 4e# ⇌ 2H2O(l) +1.23
#
2H + 2e ⇌ H2
+
0.0

Element Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu
∅ -0.37 -0.26 -0.41 +1.49 +0.77 +1.82 - -
7< !" ⁄< #" (')

∅
3. Across the series, 7< !" ⁄< #" increases (becomes more positive).
;% !%
M('() + e# ⇌ M('() equilibrium lies further to the right.
The relative stability of +2 oxidation state increases but the stability of +3 oxidation state decreases across the series from
left to right.
This is because the 3rd ionization energy increases as the effective nuclear charge increases across the series.
The 3d electrons are attracted more strongly by nucleus.
Therefore, it is more difficult to remove the third electron from 3d orbital.

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∅
4. The negative 7<6 !" ⁄<6#" values of Ti, V and Cr indicates that +3 oxidation state of Ti, V and Cr is more stable.
∅
The positive 7<!"⁄<#" values of Mn and Co indicate that +2 oxidation state of Mn and Co is more stable.
∅
5. The 7<6 !" ⁄<6#" is more positive than expected because when Mn
3+
is reduced by accepting one electron, the electronic
configuration of the Mn2+ formed is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 in which the half-filled subshell is more stable.
Hence, Mn3+ can be reduced to Mn2+ easily.
Mn;% # !%
('() + e ⇌ Mn('()
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
∅
6. The 7>0 !" ⁄>0 #" is more negative than expected because when Fe with electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 is
3+

reduced to Fe2+ by accepting one electron, the stable electronic configuration is destroyed.
Therefore, Fe3+ is energetically less favourable to be reduced to Fe2+.
Fe;% # !%
('() + e ⇌ Fe('()
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6
Graphical method

M2+ ions with 7 ∅ more negative than 0.0V will be oxidised by H+ to M3+.
M2+ ions with 7 ∅ more positive than 0.0V cannot be oxidised by H+ to M3+.

M3+ ions with 7 ∅ more positive than 0.0V will oxidise H2 to H+.

M2+ ions with 7 ∅ more negative than +1.23V will be oxidised by O2 to M3+.
M2+ ions with 7 ∅ more positive than +1.23V cannot be oxidised by O2 to M3+.

M3+ ions with 7 ∅ more positive than +1.23V will be oxidised H2O to O2 and itself get reduced to M2+.
M3+ ions with 7 ∅ more negative than +1.23V will not oxidise H2O to O2 and itself will not get reduced to M2+.

∅
• For ions whose 7< !" ⁄< #" values are higher (more positive) than +1.23V, the +2 oxidation state will be more stable in the

presence of acidic air.

∅
• For ions whose 7< !" ⁄< #" values are lower (more negative) than +1.23V, the +3 oxidation state will be more stable in the

presence of acidic air.

7. In aqueous solution, Mn3+ and Co3+ will oxidise water to oxygen and they are being reduced to Mn2+ and Co2+
∅ ∅
respectively. [The 7<6 !" ⁄<6#" and 7?4!" ⁄?4#" are more positive than +1.23V]

4Mn;% !% %
('() + 2H2O(l) ⇌ 4Mn('() + 4H('() + O2(g)
∅
7/011 ∅
= 7905 ∅
+ 74785 = +1.49 + (−1.23) = +0.26'

4Co;% !% %
('() + 2H2O(l) ⇌ 4Co('() + 4H('() + O2(g)
∅
7/011 ∅
= 7905 ∅
+ 74785 = +1.82 + (−1.23) = +0.59'

8. On the other hand, oxygen from the air will oxidise Fe2+, Cr2+, V2+, Ti2+ to their respective +3 ions.
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
[7>0 !" ⁄>0 #" , 7?9 !" ⁄?9 #" , 7@ !" ⁄@ #" and 7A8 !" ⁄A8 #" are more negative than +1.23V]

(a) 4Ti!% % ;%
('() + 4H('() + O2(g) ⇌ 4Ti('() + 2H2O(l)
∅
7/011 ∅
= 7905 ∅
+ 74785 = +1.23 + (+0.37) = +1.60'
!% % ;% ∅ ∅ ∅
(b) 4V('() + 4H('() + O2(g) ⇌ 4V('() + 2H2O(l) 7/011 = 7905 + 74785 = +1.23 + (+0.26) = +1.49'
!% % ;% ∅ ∅ ∅
(c) 4Cr('() + 4H('() + O2(g) ⇌ 4Cr('() + 2H2O(l) 7/011 = 7905 + 74785 = +1.23 + (+0.41) = +1.64'
(d) 4Fe('() + 4H('() + O2(g) ⇌ 4Fe;%
!% %
('() + 2H2O(l)
∅
7/011 ∅
= 7905 ∅
+ 74785 = +1.23 + (−0.77) = +0.46'

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13.5.2. FORMATION OF COLOURED COMPLEXES OR IONS

1. Most compounds of transition metals are coloured except those cations whose d subshells are completely empty (such as
TiO2+) or completely filled (such as Cu% ).
2. Colour arises when a substance absorbs light in some portion of the visible spectrum (O: 400&Q − 700&Q).
If a substance absorbs all visible light, it will appear black.
If the substance does not absorb does not absorb any visible light but reflects all, it is white.
Different colours result when certain portion of light is reflected or absorbed by a substance.
The reflected light gives the colour of the substance.
3. Each colour has a complementary colour. For example, red and green are complementary colours.
If the substance absorbed red colour, its complementary colour, green colour will be observed.

Colour absorbed Colour observed

red green
orange blue
yellow dark blue
yellow-green violet or purple
blue-green red
dark blue yellow or orange-yellow
violet yellow-green
4. Formation of coloured ion/ compound. For example, explain why aqueous Ni2+ ion is green.
i. The electronic configuration of Ni2+ ion is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5.
ii. The 3d orbitals of Ni2+ ion are partially-filled.
iii. In the presence of ligands in the complex, the five 3d orbitals split into two groups with an energy difference, Δ7
that corresponds to visible light region.
Δ7 = ℎT [The energy difference, Δ7 is also known as splitting energy.]
iv. When exposed to light, electron in the lower energy 3d orbitals absorbs frequency corresponds to the energy
difference and get excited to the higher energy 3d orbitals.
v. d-d electronic transition occurs.
vi. Red light is absorbed.
vii. Complementary colour, green is observed.

5. The figure below shows the process of splitting of the 3d orbitals and absorption of light energy in the [Ti(H2O)6]3+ complex
ion resulting in the violet colour of the complex ion.

6. Sc3+ complexes and Ti4+ complexes are colourless.

This is because Sc3+ and Ti4+ ions have completely empty 3d subshell/ orbitals.
Hence, d-d electronic transition cannot occur.

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7. Zn2+ complexes and Cu+ complexes are also colourless.

This is because the 3d orbitals of Zn2+ and Cu+ are fully-filled.
d-d electronic transition cannot occur.

8. The colour of a complex ion depends on the energy difference or energy gap (Δ7) between the two groups of split 3d-
orbitals. This in turn depends on
a) the nature and oxidation state of the central metal atom/ metal ion.
For examples,
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ is pale green while [Cu(H2O)6]2+ is blue.
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ is pale green while [Fe(H2O)6]3+ is yellowish brown.
[V(H2O)6]2+ is violet while [V(H2O)6]3+ is green.
Normally, the higher the oxidation state of central metal ion, the larger the energy difference between the two
groups of split 3d-orbitals.
b) the type of the ligand
Different ligands have different effects on the energy difference between the two groups of split 3d-orbitals of a
particular ion.
For example,
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ is blue while [Cu(NH3)4]2+ is dark blue.
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ is pale green while [Cu(CN)6]4- is yellow.
The basis of the ‘cobalt chloride’ test for water is another example of effect of ligand on the colour of ion.
[CoCl4]2- + 6H2O → [Co(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl#
Blue pink

The colour of some simple aqueous ion or aqua complexes are given in the table below:

Sc3+ (aq) or [Sc(H2O)6]3+ (aq) Colourless

Ti3+ (aq) or [Ti(H2O)6]3+ (aq) Purple
V2+ (aq) or [V(H2O)6]2+ (aq) Violet
V3+ (aq) or [V(H2O)6]3+ (aq) Green
Cr2+ (aq) or [Cr(H2O)6]2+ (aq) Blue
Cr3+ (aq) or [Cr(H2O)6]3+ (aq) Green
Mn2+ (aq) or [Mn(H2O)6]2+ (aq) Pale pink
Fe2+ (aq) or [Fe(H2O)6]2+ (aq) Pale green
Fe3+ (aq) or [Fe(H2O)6]3+ (aq) Yellowish brown
Co2+ (aq) or [Co(H2O)6]2+ (aq) Pink
Co3+ (aq) or [Co(H2O)6]3+ (aq) Brown
Ni2+ (aq) or [Ni(H2O)6]2+ (aq) Green
Cu2+ (aq) or [Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) Blue
Zn2+ (aq) or [Zn(H2O)6]2+ (aq) colourless

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Oxidation +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
State
Titanium [Ti(H2O)6]2+ or
(colour) Ti3+ (violet)
Vanadium [V(H2O)6]2+ or [V(H2O)6]3+ or [V(H2O)5O]2+ or [V(H2O)4O2]-
(colour) V2+ (violet) V3+ (blue-green) VO!# (blue) or VO#!
(yellow)
Chromium Cr2+ or Cr3+ or Cr! O!#
"
[Cr(H2O)6]2+ [Cr(H2O)6]3+ (orange)
(blue) (green or violet)
CrO!#
$
3-
[Cr(OH)6] (yellow)
(bright green)

[Cr(H2O)5Cl]2+
(light green)

[Cr(H2O)4Cl2]+
(dark green)
Manganese Mn2+ or MnO!#$ MnO# $
[Mn(H2O)6]2+ (green) (purple)
(light pink)
Iron Fe2+ or Fe3+ or [FeO4]2-
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ [Fe(H2O)6]3+ (red)
(pale green) (yellowish
brown)
[Fe(CN)6]4-
(yellow) [Fe(EDTA)]-
(colourless)

[Fe(CN)6]3-
(yellow)

[Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+
(blood red)
Cobalt [Co(H2O)6]2+ [Co(H2O)6]3+
(pink) (brown)

[Co(NH3)6]2+ [Co(NH3)6]3+
(yellow-brown) (yellow or
orange)
[CoCl4]2-
(blue)
Nickel [Ni(H2O)6]2+
(pale green)

[Ni(NH3)6]2+
(light blue)
Copper [Cu(H2O)6]2+
(Blue)

[Cu(NH3)4]2+
(dark blue)

[CuCl4]2-
(yellow)

[Cu(EDTA)]2-
(light blue)

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13.5.3. FORMATION OF COMPLEXES

1. Transition metal atom or ion is able to form complex because

a) the ion has high charge density to attract lone pairs of electrons of the ligands and
b) the metal or its ion has empty or vacant orbitals in the valence shell (3d, 4s, 4p, 4d) to accept lone pair electrons
and form coordinate bonds with ligands.
2. A complex is formed when a central metal ion or atom is bonded to surrounding molecules or ions, called ligands, using
coordinate bonds (where the ligands donate electron pairs to the metal).
3. Ligand is an anion or polar molecule that has at least one lone-pair of electrons that are readily to be donated to a metal
atom or ion to form a coordinate bond.
Examples are:
H2O NH3 CN# Cl#

The oxygen atom (in H2O), nitrogen atom (in NH3), carbon atom (in CN# ) are known as donor atom (or coordinating atom).

4. In the formation of complex ions, the central metal ion uses its empty orbitals in the valence shell to accept the lone pair
electrons from the donor atom of ligands to form coordinate bonds.
The central metal atom or ion acts as Lewis acid, that is electron pair acceptor.
Ligand is a Lewis base, that is an electron pair donor.
5. The coordination number of a metal atom or ion in a complex is the number of coordinate bond formed, which is not
necessarily the number of ligands. It is normally 2, 4, or 6.
6. Examples of complex ions are [FeCl$ ]# , [Fe(CN)6]- and [Fe(H2O)6]2+.
a) In the formation of the tetrachloroferrate(III) ion, [FeCl$ ]# . The Fe3+ ion makes use of the empty 4s and 4p
orbitals to accept the lone-pair electrons of Cl# and form coordinate bonds with Cl# ions.
The Fe3+ ion undergoes sp3 hybridisation. The shape of [FeCl$ ]# is tetrahedral.

b) In the formation of the [Fe(CN)6]4- ion, the Fe2+ ion uses the empty 3d, 4s and 4p orbitals to undergo d2sp3
hybridisation and form 6 coordinate bonds with six CN# ions. The shape is octahedral. Fe2+ ion acts as electron
pair acceptor and CN# acts as electron pair donor.

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c) In the formation of the [Fe(H2O)6]2+ ion, the Fe2+ ion uses the empty 4s, 4p and two of the energy 4d orbitals to
undergo sp3d2 hybridisation and form 6 coordinate bonds with six H2O ligands. The shape is octahedral. Fe2+ ion
acts as electron pair acceptor and H2O acts as electron pair donor.

7. Some non-transition metal atom or ions also form complexes. Examples are[AlF6]3-, [BeF4]2-, [Pb(OH)4]2-,
[BeCl2(NH3)2].

13.5.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF LIGANDS

ü Ligands are classified according to the number of donor atoms that can form coordinate bonds with the central metal atom
or ion.

(I) Monodentate Ligand

ü A monodentate ligand has one donor atom and forms one coordinate bond with the central metal ion or atom by donating
lone pair of electrons to it.
ü Examples and names of some common monodentate ligands are shown in the table below:

Ligand H2O NH3 F# CO CN# OH# Cl# NO NO# !

Name as aqua ammine fluoro carbonyl cyano hydroxo chloro nitrosyl nitrito
ligand

Ligand NO# ; O!# CO!#

; I# Br # SCN# NCS#
Name as nitrato oxo carbonato iodo bromo Thiocyanato Isothiocyanato
ligand (central metal (central metal
attached to S) attached to N)

(II) Polydentate ligand

ü Polydentate ligand is ligand that has more than one donor atoms and can form more than one coordinate bonds with the
central metal ion or atom.
ü Polydentate ligands that bonded to the central metal atom or ion through two, three, four, five or six donor atoms are called
bidentate, tridentate, tetradentate/ quadridentate, pentadentate and hexadentate respectively.

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ü Polydentate ligand also known as chelating ligand as it forms ring structures with the central metal ion by forming several
coordinate bonds.
ü This property is known as chelation and the resulting complex is called chelate complex.

a) Bidentate ligand
ü Bidentate ligand is a ligand that has two donor atoms and can form two coordinate bonds with the central
metal ion or atom.
ü Examples are:
(a) ethylenediamine (en) or ethane-1,2-diamine (IUPAC name)

(b) oxalate (ox) or ethanedioato (IUPAC name)

ü Examples of complexes with bidentate ligands:

[Cu(en)3]2+ [Ni(ox); ];#

b) Hexadentate ligand
ü A hexadentate ligand has six donor atoms and can form six coordinate bonds with the cental metal ion
or atom.
ü The complex ion formed is very stable.
ü An example of hexadentate ligand is ethylenediaminetetraacetato which is ethylenediaminetetraacetato
ion which is normally written as EDTA.
EDTA has lone pairs of electrons on four oxygen atoms and two nitrogen atoms. EDTA bears a total
charge of 4-.

ü EDTA is a strong ligand because it is a hexadentate ligand that is bonded to the central metal ion or atom
by 6 coordinate bonds. The EDTA complex is stable.

The complexes with EDTA as ligand:

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13.5.3.2 NOMENCLATURE OF COMPLEX IONS
1. The ligands are named first in alphabetical order (ignoring the prefixes, di, tri, tetra, penta and hexa and the metal ion or
metal atom is named last.
2. There is no space between the names of the ligand and the metal ion.
3. The oxidation number of the central metal ion is written in Roman numerals enclosed in brackets.
4. For neutral or cationic (the overall charge is positive) complexes, the normal name of the metal is used.
5. For anionic (the overall charge is negative) complex, the metal is named as its salt that end with -ate. However, if the metal
has a Latin name, then the Latin name is used in the complex.
Below are the name of some central metal in anionic complex.
Metal Name in anionic complex Metal Name in anionic complex
Aluminium Aluminate *Lead Plumbate
Cobalt Cobaltate Chromium Chromate
Manganese Manganate Vanadium Vanadate
Nickel Nickelate *Iron Ferrate
Zinc Zincate *Copper Cuprate
*Tin Stannate *Silver Argentate
Platinum Platinate *Gold Aurate

6. The prefixes of bis, tris, tetrakis, pentakis and hexakis are used to replace the prefixes of di, tri and tetra if the ligand itself
already has the later prefixes. For example, (H2NCH2CH2NH2)2 is named as bis(ethylenediamine) and not
di(ethylenediamine).
7. Examples of anion ligands which the name ended with ‘o’.
Ligand \;# F !]# ^" # !\ # #_# !#;!# !! #$!# #!# 7`(a$#
Name in azido fluoro chloro bromo cyano hydroxo carbonato Oxalato or oxo
complex ethanedioato
(IUPAC)
!#
b #
\!c #
c!\ #
c#$ c! #;!# \#;# \#!#
iodo Isothiocyanato Thiocyanato (central sulphato thiosulphato nitrato nitrito
(central metal metal attached to S)
attached to N)

Examples of Neutral Ligands

Ligand H2N-CH2CH2-NH2 H2O NH3 CO C5H5N NO
Name ethylenediamine aqua ammine carbonyl pyridine nitrosyl

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13.5.3.3 The Geometry/ shape of complex
v The geometry (shape) of a complex ion depends on the number of coordinate bonds (the coordination number) formed
between the central metal atom or ion and the ligands. It is not the number of ligands that are bonded to the central ion.

Complexes with the coordination number of 2 are linear. Examples,

a. diamminesilver(I) ion, [Ag(NH3)2]+ c. dichloroaurate(I) ion, [AuCl2]-

[H; N → Ag ⟵ NH; ]+
b. dichlorocuprate(I) ion, [CuCl2]-
[Cl → Cu ⟵ Cl]-

Complexes with the coordination number of 4 are either tetrahedral or square planar

The geometry with the coordination number 4 depends on the nature of the ligands and the central metal ion.

v Generally, tetrahedral shape is common for complexes where the metal has d6 or d10 electronic configuration. Such as Cu2+,
Zn2+, Cd2+.
Whereas, the square planar shape is prevalent for complexes where the metal has d8 electronic configuration such as Rh+,
Ir+, Pd2+, Pt2+, Ni2+ and Au3+.

(a) tetraamminecopper(II) ion (b) tetrachlorocobaltate(II) ion

[Cu(NH3)4]2+, square planar [CoCl4]2-, tetrahedral

(c) tetracarbonylnickel, [Ni(CO)4] Square planar [Ni(CN)4]2-

(tetrahedron) [Pd(Cl)4]3-
[Cu(NH3)4]2+
[Pt(Cl)4]2-

Tetrahedral [Cu(CN)4]3-
[Zn(NH3)4]2+
[Cd(Cl)4]2-
[Mn(Cl)4]2-

Complexes with the coordination number of 6 are octahedral

Hexaaquairon(II) ion [Fe(H2O)6]2+ Tetraamminedichlorochromium(III) ion

Trans isomer

tris(ethanedioato)nickelate(II) ion bis(ethylenediamine)dichorocobalt(III) ion ethylenediaminetetraacetatonickelate(II) ion

[Ni(C2O4)3]4- [Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)2Cl2]+ [Ni(EDTA)]2-

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13.5.3.4 Ligand Exchange/ ligand displacement, colour change and stability of complexes
1. Complexes have different stabilities and may undergo ligand displacement reaction in a solution.
2. A stronger ligand will displace a weaker ligand from a complex ion.
3. Relative stability of a complex can be determined by the stability constant, Kstability.

[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl- → [CuCl4]2- + 6H2O

[[CDCE$]#% ]
Kstability = [[CD(G #" ][CE% ]$
# H)& ]

Kstability is the stability constant for [CuCl4]2-.

4. The larger the stability constant, the stable the complex compared to aqua complex.
The more stable complex will have stronger ligand.
Sometimes logarithm of the stability constant (logK) is used because stability constants have a wide range of values.
5. Factors affecting the stability of a complex:
(a) Type of ligand – chelating effect
Chelating ligands (polydentate ligand) tend to form more stable complexes than non-chelating ligands (monodentate). This
is because the chelating ligand is bonded to the central metal atom or ion by several coordinate bonds.
Complex Type of ligand Kstability
[Ni(NH3)6]2+ Monodentate ligand 8.9 × 108
2+
[Ni(en)3] Bidentate ligand 1.9 × 1018
2-
[Ni(EDTA)] Hexadentate ligand 2.0 × 1019

(b) Oxidation state of the central metal ion

Central metal ion with the higher oxidation state tends to form a more stable complex ion.
The metal ion with the higher oxidation state has higher charge density that enables it to form stronger coordinate bond
with the ligands.
Complex Oxidation state of central metal ion Kstability
[Fe(CN)6]4- +2 4.21 × 1045
3-
[Fe(CN)6] +3 4.08 × 1052
6. The exchange of ligands often involves colour change. For example,
(a)(i) On addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid to aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution.
The solution turns from blue to yellow. This is because the Cl- displace H2O to form [CuCl4]2- complex which is yellow in
colour.
Cl- ion is a stronger ligand than H2O. [CuCl4]2- complex is more stable than [Cu(H2O)6]2+ complex.
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl- → [CuCl4]2- + 6H2O
yellow dark blue
Addition of excess water will reverse the above reaction.
If the amount of hydrochloric acid is not enough, the solution turns green and not yellow. This is because the reaction has
not gone to completion. The green colour is a combination of the blue and yellow.

(ii) If excess aqueous ammonia is added to the yellow solution, a dark blue solution containing the [Cu(NH3)4]2+ complex
ion is formed. In the reaction, the NH3 ligand displaces the Cl- ligand. NH3 is a stronger ligand than Cl-.
[Cu(NH3)4]2+ complex is more stable than [CuCl4]2-.
[CuCl4]2- + 4NH3 → [Cu(NH3)4]2+ + 4Cl-
Blue yellow

(iii) Subsequently, ethylenediaminetetraacetate ions (EDTA4-) are added to the solution, the colour changes from dark to
light blue. This is because ethylenediaminetetraacetate ions (EDTA4-) displaces the NH3 ligand to form [Cu(EDTA)]2-
which is light blue in colour. EDTA4- is a stronger ligand than NH3. [Cu(EDTA)]2- complex is more stable than
[Cu(NH3)4]2+.
[Cu(NH3)4]2+ + EDTA4- → [Cu(EDTA)]2- 4NH3 Ligand exchange or displacement is not a redox reaction.
Dark blue light blue Oxidation number of transition element does not change.
In ligand displacement, breaking and formation of dative
bonds occur, new complex (or ion) is formed.

Relative stability of complex increases in the order: [Cu(H2O)6]2+ < [CuCl4]2- < [Cu(NH3)4]2+ < [Cu(EDTA)]2-.
Relative strength of ligand increase in the order: H2O < Cl- < NH3 < EDTA4-

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Stronger ligand (with the larger Kstab) will displace the weaker ligand.
EDTA4- is a stronger ligand than Cl- and NH3 because it is a hexadentate ligand that is bonded to the metal ion by six
coordinate bonds.

(b)
Complex ion Colour Kstability log Kstability
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ yellow
[Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ blood red 8 × 103 3.9
[FeF6]3- colourless 2.0 × 1015 15.3
[Fe(EDTA)]- colourless 1.3 × 1025 25.1
[Fe(CN)6]3- yellow 1 × 1031 31.0

(i) When aqueous potassium thiocyanate is added to an aqueous solution of iron(III) chloride. The solution turns from
yellowish brown to blood red due to the formation of [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ complex ion.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ + SCN- → [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ + H2O
Yellowish brown blood red
[Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ complex ion is more stable than [Fe(H2O)6]3+.
SCN- is a stronger ligand than H2O. SCN- displaces H2O ligand.

(ii) But, when aqueous potassium thiocyanate is added to a solution of [Fe(CN)6]3-.

The blood red solution is not formed. (No visible change)
Kstability (or log Kstability) [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ is lower than that of [Fe(CN)6]3-.
[Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ ion is less stable than [Fe(CN)6]3-.
SCN- is a weaker ligand than CN-. SCN- cannot displace CN-.
[Fe(CN)6]3- + SCN- → displacement of ligand does not occur/ Ligand exchange does not occur.

(iii) If aqueous solution of EDTA4- is added to the solution formed in (i), the blood red colour disappear (or the red colour
fades) due to the formation of [Fe(EDTA)]- complex ion.
Kstability (or log Kstability) of [Fe(EDTA)]- is higher than that of [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+.
[Fe(EDTA)]- ion is stable than [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+.
EDTA4- is a stronger ligand than H2O and SCN-. EDTA4- displaces SCN- and H2O ligands.
[Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ + EDTA4- → [Fe(EDTA)]- + 5H2O + SCN-

(iv) If solutions of KSCN(aq) and NaF(aq) are added to a yellow solution containing FeCl3, the solution turns from yellow
to colourless due to the formation of [FeF6]3-. Kstability (or log Kstability) [FeF6]3- is larger than that of [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+.
[FeF6]3- is more stable than [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+. F- is a stronger ligand than SCN- and H2O. F- displaces H2O ligand.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ + 6F- → [FeF6]3- + 6H2O

(c) When potassium cyanide solution is added to a pale green solution containing iron(II) ions, the solutions turns from
pale green to yellow due to the formation of [Fe(CN)6]4-.
[Fe(CN)6]4- complex is more stable than [Fe(H2O)6]3+.
CN- is a stronger ligand than H2O. CN- ligand displaces H2O ligand.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ + 6CN- → [Fe(CN)6]4- + 6H2O

(d) [Ni(H2O)6]2+ + 6NH3 → [Ni(NH3)6]2+ + 6H2O

Green blue
When excess ammonia is added to nickel(II) sulphate solution, the solution turns from green to blue due to the formation
of [Ni(NH3)6]2+. [Ni(NH3)6]2+ complex is more stable than [Ni(H2O)6]2+.
NH3 is a stronger ligand than H2O. NH3 ligand displaces H2O ligand.

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Example:
Complex ion Colour Kstability log Kstability
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ blue
[CuCl4]2- yellow 4.2 × 105 5.6
[Cu(NH3)4]2+ Dark blue/ deep blue 1.2 × 1013 13.1
[Cu(EDTA)]2- Light blue 6 × 1018 18.8
1. Explain what will happen when concentrated hydrochloric acid is added to an aqueous solution of copper(II) sulphate.
Ans: [CuCl4]2- ion is more stable than [Cu(H2O)6]2+.
Cl- ligand is a stronger ligand than H2O. Cl- can displace H2O ligand. The solution changes colour from blue to yellow due
ot the formation of [CuCl4]2- complex.
Equation: [Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 4Cl- → [CuCl4]2- + 6H2O

2. Explain what will happen when concentrated hydrochloric acid is added to a solution of [Cu(NH3)4]2+ complex.
Ans: No visible changes
[CuCl4]2- is less stable than [Cu(NH3)4]2+ because Kstability of [CuCl4]2- is smaller than that of [Cu(NH3)4]2+.
Cl- is a weaker ligand than NH3. Cl- cannot displace NH3.
Ligand exchange does not occur/ Displacement of ligand does not occur.

3. Explain what will happen when aqueous ammonia is added to aqueous copper(II) sulphate and then follow by EDTA
solution.
Kstability of [Cu(NH3)4]2+ is large shows that [Cu(NH3)4]2+ is more stable than [Cu(H2O)6]2+.
NH3 is a stronger ligand than H2O. It displaces H2O.
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 4NH3 → [Cu(NH3)4]2+ + 6H2O
When aqueous ammonia is added, the solution changes from blue to dark blue due to the formation of [Cu(NH3)4]2+.

Kstability of [Cu(EDTA)]2- is larger than that of [Cu(NH3)4]2+ shows that [Cu(EDTA)]2- is more stable than [Cu(NH3)4]2+.
EDTA4- is a stronger ligand than NH3. EDTA4- displaces NH3.
When EDTA4- is added, the dark blue solution becomes light blue due to the formation of [Cu(EDTA)]2-.
[Cu(NH3)4]2+ + EDTA4- → [Cu(EDTA)]2- + 4NH3

4. (a) State and explain what would be observed when an aqueous solution potassium thiocyanate is added to an aqueous
solution of iron(III) ions.
The solution changes colour from yellow to blood red due to the formation of [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ complex ion.
SCN- displace H2O. SCN- is a stronger ligand than H2O. [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ complex ion is more stable than [Fe(H2O)6]3+.
Equation: [Fe(H2O)6]3+ + SCN- → [Fe(H2O)5SCN]2+ + H2O

(b) A Fe2+ ion reacts with CN- ions to form the complex ion hexacyanoferrate(II).
(i) Draw the shape of this complex ion.

(ii) State the number of 3d orbitals which are not filled with electrons, and give reasons for your answer.
The 3d orbitals of Fe2+ split into two groups with energy difference. The six electrons of Fe2+ ion occupy the 3d orbitals at
lower energy level and the other two 3d orbitals with higher energy are empty. This is because CN- is a strong field ligand
that produce large energy difference, ∆7 between the two groups of split 3d orbitals.
Fe2+ uses the two empty 3d orbitals, one 4s orbital and three 4p orbitals to undergo d2sp3 hybridisation to form 6 d2sp3
hybrid orbitals.

13.5.3.5 Effect of ligand on ! ! value

[i6(_! #)I ];% # !% ;% #
(,-) + 6 → [i6(_! #)I ](,-) or i6(,-) + 6 → i6(,-)
!%
7 J = +0.77V----------(1)
;# # $#
[i6(!\)I ](,-) + 6 → [i6(!\)I ](,-) 7 J = +0.36V----------(2)
There is a decrease in 7 J value when H2O ligand is displaced by CN- ligand.

The decrease of the 7 J value from +0.77V of equation (1) to +0.36V of equation (2) indicates that [Fe(CN)6]3- is a weaker oxidizing
agent than [Fe(H2O)6]3+.

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A catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of reaction by providing an alternative route (pathway) with lower activation energy and itself does not change.

Homogeneous Catalysis Heterogeneous catalysis

Homogeneous catalysts involves a catalyst that in the same physical state as the reactants. Heterogeneous catalysis involves a catalyst that is not in the same phase/ physical state as the
reactants. Usually, the catalyst is a solid and the reactants are gases or solution.
Many transition metal ions are homogeneous catalysts because they exhibit variable oxidation Many transition elements or their compounds are heterogeneous catalysts because they have
states. d-orbitals which are either empty or have unpaired electron.
In the homogeneous catalysis, there is a change in oxidation state of catalyst and an In heterogeneous catalysis, absorption takes place. Catalyst uses its empty or partially filled
intermediate compound is formed. d-orbitals to form temporary bonds with reactants.
There are three steps in heterogeneous catalysis: Adsorption, Reaction and Desorption
Example: Redox reaction of persulphate (or peroxodisulphate) ions and iodide ions with Fe2+ EXAMPLE: Hydrogenation of alkene with nickel or platinum or palladium as catalyst
or Fe3+ as catalyst.
Step 1: Adsorption
S! OK !# + 2e# ⇌ 2SO!#
$ 7 J =+2.01V The nickel atoms at the surface of nickel metal make use of their empty or partially filled
Fe;% + e# ⇌ Fe!% 7 J = +0.76V orbitals to form temporary bonds with the ethene and hydrogen molecules. This is called
I! + 2e# ⇌ 2I# 7 J = +0.54V adsorption.

Uncatalysed reaction: c! #K !#
(,-)
#
+ 2b(,-) !#
→ b!(,-) + 2c#$(,-)
J
7/011 = +2.01 − (+0.54) = +1.47' Adsorption
i. increase the concentration of reactants at the surface of catalyse;
J
Although the 7/011 the uncatalyzed reaction is positive but the reaction has high activation ii. weakens the covalent bonds in the reactant molecules (H2 and CH2=CH2);
energy because the reaction is between two negatively charged ions and there is repulsion iii. allow correct orientation for effective collisions to occur.
between the reacting ions and hence the rate of reaction is slow. The catalysed reaction occurs By this, the activation energy for the reaction is lowered and more effective collisions can
via 2-step mechanism if Fe2+ is used as catalyst: take place.
As a result, the rate of reaction increases.
Step 1: c! #K !#
(,-)
+ 2i6(,-)!%
→ 2i6(,-);% !#
+ 2c#$(,-) J
7/011 = −0.77 + 2.01 = +1.24'
# ;%
Step 2: 2b(,-) + 2i6(,-) → b!(,-) + 2i6(,-) !% J
7/011 = −0.54 + 0.77 = +0.23' Step 2: Reaction on the surface
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Hydrogen atom in hydrogen molecule form bonds with carbon atom of ethene.
Overall reaction: c! #K !# (,-)
#
+ 2b(,-) → b!(,-) + 2c#$(,-) !#

J
The 7/011 for each step is greater than 0.0V shows that each step is energetically feasible under
standard conditions. Step 3: Desorption of the product from the surface of catalyst
Each step involves two oppositely charged ions which will attract each other.
This lowers the activation energy and increases the rate of reaction.
Other metal cations may also be used as catalyst for this reaction. In order to catalyse the
reaction, the 7 J value of the catalytic system must be between +2.01V and +0.34V.

The 7 J value of the homogeneous catalyst must be more positive than the reducing agent and After that, the ethane molecules formed leave the surface of the catalyst, and other H2 and
more negative than the oxidizing agent of the catalysed redox reaction so that the catalyst can CH2=CH2 molecules can be absorbed.
oxidise the reducing agent and can reduce the oxidizing agent.

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Homogeneous Catalysis Heterogeneous Catalysis
The mechanism if Fe3+ is used as catalyst:
Other examples:
# ;% !%
Step 1: 2b(,-) + 2i6(,-) → b!(,-) + 2i6(,-)
Step2: c! #K !# !%
+ 2i6(,-) ;%
→ 2i6(,-) !#
+ 2c#$(,-) Industrial Process Reaction Catalyst
(,-)
Haber process in the 3H2(g) + N2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) Finely divided Fe; K2O
production of and Al2O3 as promoter
Other example:
ammonia
Oxidation of atmospheric sulphur dioxide gas to sulphur trioxide catalysed by nitrogen
monoxide gas. Contact process in the The 2nd step: Vanadium (V) oxide,
production of 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) V2O5
MN(() /MN#(() sulphuric acid
2SO2(g) + O2(g) j⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯l 2SO3(g) Ostwald process in The 1st step: Pt/ Rh
the production of 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) ⇌ 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Step 1: O2(g) + 2NO(g) → 2NO2(g) nitric acid
Step 2: SO2(g) + NO2(g) → SO3(g) + NO(g) Hydrogenation of CH2=CH2(g) + H2(g) → CH3CH3(g) Ni or Pd or Pt
alkenes
Catalytic converter in 2NO + 2CO → 2CO2 + N2 Rh
P P
the car exhaust system CxHy + (x+$) O2 → xCO2 + ! H2O Pt/ Pd
2CO + O2 → 2CO2

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13.6
(a) Magnetic Properties

1. A species with unpaired electron is paramagnetic and is weakly attracted by an external magnetic field.
A species with all electrons paired up exhibits diamagnetism and is not attracted by a magnetic but is rather slightly repelled.
2. Many transition metals and their compounds are paramagnetic because they have unpaired electrons.
The greater the number of unpaired electrons, the more paramagnetic the ion.

(b) Acidic property of some 3+ ions of transition elements

1. The aqueous solution of iron(III) containing [Fe(H2O)6]3+.

2. Due to the high charge density and high polarizing power of Fe3+ ion
The O-H bond of coordinated H2O molecule is polarized and weakened.
3. Hydrolysis occurs to produce H3O+ ions and hence the solution is acidic.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ + H2O → [Fe(H2O)5(OH)]2+ + H3O+
[Same explanation applied to the aqueous solution of Be2+, Al3+ and Cr3+]

13.7 THE USES OF TITANIUM, CHROMIUM, COBALT, MANGANESE AND COBALT

The uses of Titanium

1. Titanium has a very low density (light) and it is strong and corrosion resistant due to the non-porous TiO2 oxide layer.
Titanium is added to steel to make alloy.
2. Titanium alloy is used in the making of aircraft body, space capsules and nuclear reactors.
Titanium alloys are also used in hip and knee replacement units and tooth or bone implants due to their inert nature.
3. Titanium(IV) oxide, TiO2, is used as white pigments in paints and ‘fillers’ for plastic and rubber. It is called titanium white.
It has the following advantages:
(a) It is non-toxic.
(b) It does not darken when exposed to air.
(c) It has high refractive index.
4. Titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4, is a colourless liquid and is used together with Al(C2H5)3 as Ziegler-Natta catalyst in the
polymer industry.

The uses of Chromium

1. Chromium is mainly used as the major component in stainless steel as it is corrosion resistant due to non-porous Cr2O3
oxide layer.
2. Alloy of chromium with vanadium and tungsten is used in high-speed cutting tools.
3. Chromium is used as electroplating metal in electroplating to produce a hard, beautiful surface and to prevent corrosion.

The major use of manganese

1. The major use of manganese is in alloy making to increase the strength and hardness.
2. Alloy of manganese and steel is very hard and is used to make high speed cutting tools and railway points.

The uses of cobalt

1. Cobalt is used in alloy making.

Alloy of cobalt is used to make jet engines and gas turbine parts because cobalt is very resistant to corrosion.
Alloy containing cobalt, chromium and tungsten is used in making high-speed cutting tools and surgical instrument.
2. Radioisotope Co-60 is used as a source of radiation for treatment of cancers.
3. Cobalt compound is a constituent of blue pigment in ceramic, glass and paint industries.
4. Anhydrous cobalt chloride is used as a test for the presence of water.
5. Alnico (Al + Ni + Co) alloy is used to make strong permanent magnet.

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