3 Polynomials

In this chapter you

will learn:
• the formal definition of
a polynomial
• operations with
polynomials
• a trick for factorising
polynomials and
finding remainders
• how to sketch the
graphs of polynomials
• how to identify the
number of solutions of
a quadratic equation.

Definition:

In mathematics, a polynomial is an expression consisting of

variables and coefficients, that involves only the operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and non-negative inte-
ger exponentiation of variables..

3A Working with polynomials

Note:
fa
The order o The polynomial functions of x make up a family of functions,
ia l is
polynom each of which can be written as a sum of non-negative integer
s a lso
sometime powers of x. Polynomial functions are classified according to the
e gree.
called its d highest power of x occurring in the function, called the order of
the polynomial.

General form of the polynomial Order Classification Example

a 0 Constant polynomial y=5
ax + b 1 Linear polynomial y=x+7
ax + bx + c
2
2 Quadratic polynomial y = −3x2 + 4x − 1
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d 3 Cubic polynomial y = 2x3 + 7x
ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e 4 Quartic polynomial y = x4 − x3 + 2x + 12
The letters a, b, c, … are called the coefficients of the powers of
x, and the coefficient of the highest power of x in the function The Greeks knew how
to solve quadratic
(a in the table above) is called the lead coefficient and the term
equations, and
containing it is the leading order term. general cubics and quartics
Coefficients can take any value, with the restriction that the were first solved in 14th
lead coefficient cannot equal zero; a polynomial of order n Century Italy. For over three
which had a lead coefficient 0 could be more simply written as hundred years nobody was
able to find a general
a polynomial of order (n − 1). The sign of the lead coefficient
solution to the quintic
dictates whether the polynomial is a positive polynomial equation, until in 1821 Niels
(a > 0) or a negative polynomial (a < 0). Abel used a branch of
Adding and subtracting two polynomials is straightforward – mathematics called group
it is just collecting like terms. For example: theory to prove that there
could never be a ‘quintic
( x 4 3x 2 1) − (2x
2 x 3 x 2 2) = x 4 x 3 + 4 x 2 − 3. formula’.
Multiplying is a little more difficult. Below is one suggested
way of setting out polynomial multiplication to ensure that you
include all of the terms.

Worked example 3.1

Expand ( x 3 3x 2 2) ( x 2 5x
5x 4 ).

Multiply each term in the 1st (x3 + 3x2 − 2)(x2 − 5x + 4)

bracket by the whole of the = x3 (x2 − 5x + 4) + 3x2 (x2 − 5x + 4) − 2 (x2 − 5x + 4)
2nd bracket = x5 − 5x4 + 4x3
+ 3x4 − 15x3 + 12x2
− 2x2 + 10x − 8
= x5 − 2x4 − 11x3 + 10x2 + 10x − 8

It is important to be able to decide when two polynomials are

‘equal’. x 2 and 3 2 may take the same value when x = 1 o 2
but when x = 3 they do not. However, 3 2 and 4x ( x 2)
are always equal, no matter what value of x you choose.
This leads to what seems like a very obvious definition of
equality of polynomials:
KEY POINT 3.1

Two polynomials being equal means that they have the

same order and all of their coefficients are equal.
 However, this definition can be used to solve some quite tricky
problems. We tend to use it in questions which start from
telling us that two polynomials are equal; we can then compare
coefficients.

Worked example 3.2

If (ax ) + bx + 3 (ax 2 + x )
2
x − 2 x 2 find the values of a and b.

Rearrange each side to make the coefficients LHS: a2x2 + bx + 3ax2 + 3x

clear = a2 x2 + 3ax2 + bx + 3x
= x2 (a2 + 3a) + x(b + 3)

Compare coefficients and solve the resulting x2 : (a2 + 3a) = −2

equations ⇔ a2 + 3a + 2 = 0
⇔ (a + 1)(a + 2) = 0
⇔ a = −1 or a = −2
x: b+3=4
⇔b=1

A very important use of this technique is factorising a

polynomial if one factor is already known. To do this we need
to know what the remaining factor looks like. For example, if a
cubic has one linear factor, the other factor must be quadratic.

Worked example 3.3

( ) is a factor of x 4 3x 2 2 x − 6. Find the remaining factor.

The remaining factor must be a cubic. x4 3x2 2x 6 ( x 1)(ax 3 + x 2 + x + )

We can write the original function
as a product of (x − 1) and a
general cubic

Multiplying out the right hand side = ax 4 + b x 3 + c x 2 + d x

and grouping like terms allows us to − ax 3 − b x 2 − c x − d
compare coefficients = ax 4 + x 3 (b − a) + x 2 (c − b ) + x (d − c ) − d
 continued . . .

Remember that the coefficient of x3 in Compare x4 :

the original expression is zero! a=1
Compare x3 :
b−a=0
b=1
Compare x2 :
c−b=3
c=4
Compare x:
d−c=2
d=6

Answer the question The remaining factor is x 3 x 2 + 4x 6

‘Finding the remaining factor’ is another way of asking you

to divide. We can conclude from this example that:
Note
e previous
x 4
3x 2 x − 6
2
Notice in th
= x3 x 2 + 4x
4x 6 example we
could
x −1 the
check using
constant te rm
that d = 6.

Exercise 3A
1. Decide whether each of the following expressions are
polynomials. For those that are, give the order and the lead
coefficient.
(a) 3x 2 + 2 x
x 3 3x (b) 1 3x 3 − x5
5
(c) 5x 2 x 3
(d) 9 x 4 −
x
(e) 4e 3e2 x (f) x 4 5x 2 3 x
(g) 4 x 5 33xx 3 + 2 x 7 4 (h) 1

2. Expand the brackets for the following expressions:

(a) (i) ( )( 2
)
(ii) ( )( 2
)
(b) (i) ( )( 3 2
)
(ii) ( )( 3 2
)
 (c) (i) (b b )(b b )
(ii) ( 2
)( 2
)
(d) (i) ( 2
( 4
2 x 3 + 1)
(ii) ( 3
(x
(x 3 x − 1)

3. Find the remaining factor if

(a) (i) x 3 3x 2 11x 2 has a factor of x − 2
(ii) x 3 4 x 2 3x − 18 has a factor of x + 3
(b) (i) 6 x 3 13x 2 2 x − 6 has a factor of 2 3
(ii) 25x 3 5x 2 10 2 has a factor of 5 1
(c) (i) x 4 5x 3 9 x 2 2 x 21 has a factor of x − 3
(ii) x 4 5x 3 5x 2 + 3x
3x 28 has a factor of x − 4
4 3 2
(d) (i) x 3x 12 x 15x 15x 35 has a factor of x 2 3x
3x 7
(ii) x 2 x 3x − 6 has a factor of x + 3
3 2 2

4. Given that the result of each division is a polynomial, simplify

each expression.

x4x 3 − 2 x 2 3x − 6 x 4 3x 3 2 x 2 + 2x
2x 4
(a) (i) (ii)
x −2 x+2
4
2 x 277 x 362
2 x 3x − 27
3 2
(b) (i) (ii)
x + 12
2
2 x 2 33xx + 9

5. Find the unknown constants a and b in these identities.

(a) (i) ax 2 + bx
b = 4x2 6x (ii) ax 2 + 4 3x b
(b) (i) ax 2 + bx
b = 4 x bx
b 2 − ax (ii) ax 2 + 2bx
b 6x = 0
2bx
(c) (i) (ax + 1)2 + 3bx = 2ax 2 − 2 x + 1
(ii) ( x + a ) + b x 2 + 4 x + 9
2

(d) (i) ax 2 + bx
b − 2ax 2x x2
(ii) ax 2 − 3bx b 4x = x2 + 7x
b 2 bx
3bx
(e) (i) (ax )2 − (bbx )2 + bx = 2 x
(ii) (ax + b )
2
x 2 − 20 x + 25

6. In what circumstances might you want to expand brackets? In

what circumstances is the factorised form better?

7. (a) Is it always true that the sum of a polynomial of order n and

a polynomial of order n − 1 has order n?
(b) Is it always true that the sum of a polynomial of order n and
a polynomial of order n has order n?
 3B Remainder and factor theorems
We saw in the last section that we can factorise polynomials
by comparing coefficients. For example, if we know that
( ) is one factor of x 3 x 2 x 2, we can write
x3 x 2 x 2 ( x + 2) (ax 2 + bx + c ) and compare coefficients
to find that the other factor is ( 2 ).
If we try to factorise x 3 2 x 2 x 5 using ( ) as one
factor, we find that it is not possible; ( ) is not a factor
of x 3 2 x 2 x 5. However, using the factorisation of
x3 x 2 x 2 we can write:
x 3 2x 2 x 5 ( x + 2)( x 2 1) + 3
The number 3 is the remainder – it is what is left over when we
try to write x 3 2 x 2 x 5 as a multiple of ( ). In the last
section we saw that factorising is related to division. In this case,
we could say that:
x3 2x 2 x 5
= ( x 2 + 1) ih i d 3
x+2
This is similar to the concept of a remainder when dividing
numbers: for example, 25 = 3 7 + 4, so we would say that 4 is
the remainder when 25 is divided by 7.
We can find the reminder by including it as another
unknown coefficient. For example, to find the reminder when
x 3 2 x 2 x 5 is divided by ( ), we could write
x3 2x 2 x 5 ( x + 2)(ax 2 + bx + c ) R
then expand and compare coefficients. This is not a quick task.
Luckily there is a shortcut which can help us find the reminder
without finding all the other coefficients. If we substitute in a
value of x that makes the first bracket equal to zero, in this case
x = −2, into the above equation, it becomes
3 (0 ) ( 2
+b + )+ R
so R = 3. This means that R is the value we get when we
substitute x = −2 into the polynomial expression on the left. Fill-
in proof sheet 6 on the CD-ROM, ‘Remainder theorem’, shows
you that the same reasoning can be applied when dividing any
polynomial by a linear factor. This leads us to the Remainder
theorem.
 KEY POINT 3.2

note The remainder theorem

b
x= The remainder when a polynomial expression is divided by
Notice that a
b
lu e w h ic h ( b) is the value of the expression when x = .
is the va a
b = 0.
makes ax −

Worked example 3.4

Find the remainder when x 3 + 2x

2 x 7 is divided by x + 2.

Use the remainder theorem by rewriting the ( + 2) (x − (−2))

divisor in the form (ax − b)…

When x = −2 ( − ) + 2 × ( − ) + 7 = −5
3
… then substitute the value of x (obtained from
b b So the remainder is −5
x = ) into the expression when x =
a a

If the remainder is zero then (ax − b) is a factor. This is

summarised by the factor theorem.
KEY POINT 3.3

The factor theorem

b
If the value of a polynomial expression is zero when x = ,
then ( b) is a factor of the expression. a

Worked example 3.5

Show that 2x − 3 is a factor of 2 x 3 133x 2 19 6.

3
To use the factor theorem we When x = :
3 2
need to substitute in x = ⎛ 3⎞
3 2
− 13 ⎛ ⎞ + 19 × ⎛ ⎞ − 6
2 3 3
2×
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
27 117 57
= − + −6 = 0
4 4 2
 continued . . .

Therefore, by the factor theorem, ( ) is a factor of

2 x 3 13
3 2 19 6.

We can also use the factor theorem to identify a factor of an

expression, by trying several different numbers. Once one factor
has been found, then comparing coefficients can be used to find
the remaining factors. This is the recommended method for
factorising cubic expressions on the non-calculator paper.

Worked example 3.6

Fully factorise x 3 3x 2 33x 35.

When factorising a cubic with no obvious When x = 1 the expression is −64

factors we must put in some numbers and When x = 2 the expression is −81
hope that we can apply the factor theorem When x = −1 the expression is 0
Therefore x + 1 is a factor.

We can rewrite the expression as x3 3x2 33 x 35

( x + 1) × general quadratic and compare = ( x + 1) ( x 2 + x + )
coefficients
= ax 3 + ( + ) x 2 + ( + ) x + c
a , b = 2, c = −35
x3 3x2 33 x 35 ( x 1) (x 2 + 2x
2 x 35)

The remaining quadratic also factorises = ( + )(

) ( + )(x − 5)

exam hint
If the expression is going to factorise easily then you only
need to try numbers which are factors of the constant term.

A very common type of question asks you to find unknown

coefficients in an expression if factors or remainders
are given.
Worked example 3.7

x3 x 2 + ax + b has a factor of (x − 1) and leaves a remainder of 17 when divided

by (x − 2). Find the constants a and b.

Apply factor theorem when x = 1 :

1+4+a+b=0
⇔ a + b = −5 (1)

Apply remainder theorem when x = 2 :

8 + 16 + 2a + b = 17
⇔ 2a + b = −7 (2)

Two equations with two unknowns can (2) − (1)

be solved simultaneously a = −2
b = −3

Exercise 3B

1. Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when:

(a) (i) x 2 + 3x
3x 5 is divided by x + 1
(ii) x 2 + x − 4 is divided by x + 2
(b) (i) x 3 6x 2 4 x + 8 is divided by x − 3
(ii) x 3 7 x 2 11x is divided by x − 1
(c) (i) 6 x 4 77xx 3 − 5x 2 5x
5x + 10 is divided by 2 3
100 x 3 + 11x 2 − 5 is divided by 3
(ii) 12 x 4 10x 1
(d) (i) x 3 is divided by x + 2
(ii) 3x 4 is divided by x − 1

2. Decide whether each of the following expressions are

factors of 2 x 3 73 3x + 2.
(a) x (b) x − 1
(c) x + 1 (d) x − 2
1
(e) x + 2 (f) x −
2
1
(g) x + (h) 2 x 1
2
(i) 2 x 1 (j) 3 1
 3. Fully factorise the following expressions:
(a) (i) x 3 x2 x 2 (ii) x 3 x2 − 4x 4
(b) (i) x 3 7 x 2 16 x 12 (ii) x 3 6 x 2 12 x 8
(c) (i) x 3 3x 2 12 x 10 (ii) x 3 x 2 2 x − 15
(d) (i) 6 x 3 11x 2 6 x − 1 13x 2 − 37 x − 30
(ii) 12 x 3 13x

4. 6 3 2
b 8 has a factor (x + 2) and leaves a
remainder of −3 when divided by (x − 1).
Find a and b. [5 marks]

5. x 3 x 2 + ax + b has a factor of (x − 2) and leaves a

remainder of 15 when divided by (x − 3).
Find a and b. [5 marks]

6. The polynomial x kx k has a factor (x − k). Find the

possible values of k. [5 marks]

7. The polynomial x (k + 1) x 3 has a factor

(x − k + 1). Find k. [6 marks]

8. x 3 ax bx + 168 has factors (x − 7) and (x − 3).

(a) Find a and b.
(b) Find the remaining factor of the expression. [6 marks]

9. x 3 ax 2 + 9 x + b has a factor of (x − 11) and leaves a

remainder of −52 when divided by (x + 2).
(a) Find a and b.
(b) Find the remainder when x 3 ax 2 + 9 x + b is divided
by (x − 2). [6 marks]

10. f ( x ) = x 3 + ax 2 + 3x + b.
f(x) is just a
name given to the
The remainder when f (x) is divided by (x + 1) is 6. Find expression. You will
the remainder when f (x) is divided by (x − 1). [5 marks] learn more about
this notation in
11. The polynomial x 2 5x5x 6 is a factor of chapter 5.
3
155x + ax + b. Find the values of a and b.
2 x 15x 2
[6 marks]