Mathematics ‘A’ level Module PC1: Pure Mathematics 1

Lesson
Five
Polynomials

Aims The aims of this lesson are to enable you to

 multiply and divide polynomials

 factorise polynomials

 use the Factor and Remainder theorems

 sketch the graphs of cubic functions

Context Polynomials appear throughout Mathematics. This lesson covers

some of the tools that will be useful in later work.


References are made throughout this lesson to the Heinemann
textbook, which provides further worked examples and
exercises.

Oxford Open Learning

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Lesson Five Polynomials

Introduction

The following are all examples of polynomials:

(a) 2x + 7

(b) 3 – 4x + 5

(c) 4 –7

(d) 1 + 5x – 6

(e) 3 +5 –2 +x

Example (a) would usually be referred to as a linear expression (in

x), whilst (b) and (c) are quadratic expressions (or just ‘quadratics’).
Example (d) would be described as a cubic, whilst (e) could be
described as a 5th order (or 5th degree) polynomial (although the
terms ‘quartic’ and ‘quintic’ are sometimes used for 4th and 5th order
polynomials, respectively).

The multiples of the powers of x are termed ‘coefficients’. Thus the

coefficient of in (e) is 5.

If there is a term which is a number only (i.e. does not involve x),
then this is referred to as the constant term. Thus the constant
term in (d) is 1.

It is possible to have a polynomial involving some other letter, but x

is by far the most commonly used.

Polynomials can be added or subtracted, by grouping together the

same powers of x.

Example 1
(2x + 7) + (3 – 4x + 5) = 3 – 2x + 12

Example 2
(2x + 7) – (3 – 4x + 5) = 2 + 6x – 3

Polynomials tend to be written in descending powers of x for most

purposes, but note how the answer in Example 2 has been written
in ascending powers in order to avoid starting with –3 .

Note: Polynomials can only be added or subtracted if they involve

the same letter (or ‘variable’).

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Mathematics ‘A’ level Module PC1: Pure Mathematics 1

 Practice at adding and subtracting polynomials (if needed) can

be obtained in Exercise 5A of the textbook.

Multiplying Polynomials

You will be familiar with the multiplication of linear expressions

e.g. (x + 2)(2x – 3) = 2 – 3x + 4x – 6 = 2 +x–6

The same process can be applied to higher order polynomials:

Example 3
(2x + 7)(3 – 4x + 5) = 6 –8 + 10x + 21 – 28x + 35

=6 + 13 – 18x + 35

Example 4
(x – 1)(x + 2)(x + 1)

Method 1: ( + x – 2)(x + 1) = + + + x – 2x – 2
= +2 –x–2

Method 2: Spotting the ‘difference of two squares’:

(x – 1)(x + 1) = – 1,

we have ( – 1)(x + 2) = +2 –x–2

Note: As for ordinary multiplication of numbers, the order of the

factors isn’t important.

Activity 1 Multiply together the following polynomials, and simplify the

result.

(i) x + 1 and 2 –x+3

 
(ii) – 2 and +x–1

(iii) x – 1 and +x+1

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Lesson Five Polynomials

 Further practice at multiplying polynomials can be obtained in

Exercise 5B of the textbook.

Division of Polynomials by Linear Factors

Example 5
Suppose that we are given a polynomial such as +3 – 2x + 4
and wish to write it in the form (x – 2)Q(x) + R

where Q(x) is a quadratic expression and R is a constant.

In other words, we are trying to divide the polynomial by (x – 2), and

there may or may not be a remainder R.

Q(x) is termed the quotient.

This can be done as follows:

The term in Q(x) must be 2 , as this is the only way that we will
obtain the required .

We then have (x – 2)( 2 + ...), and expanding what we have so far

gives:

–4

However, we want +3 instead of –4 , and therefore we need to be

adding 7 . The only way that we will obtain this is by making the x
term 7x.

We then have (x – 2)( 2 + 7x + ...), and expanding this gives:

–4 +7 – 14x

We want –2x instead of –14x, and so we need another 12x, which

will come from making the constant term in the quadratic equal to
12.

We then have (x – 2)( 2 + 7x + 12), which expands to give:

–4 +7 – 14x + 12x – 24 = +3 – 2x + 4 – 28

So +3 – 2x + 4 = (x – 2)( 2 + 7x + 12) + 28

and we have a remainder of 28.

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Mathematics ‘A’ level Module PC1: Pure Mathematics 1

Another way of expressing this result is to say:

–
+3 – 2x + 4 divided by x – 2 =
=2 + 7x + 12 +

Note: It is also possible to carry out this division using the

traditional long division, adapted to polynomials. However, the
above method is quicker.

Example 6
Factorise –6 – 9x + 14 fully, given that (x – 1) is a factor.

–6 – 9x + 14 = (x – 1)( + ...)

So far we have – and we therefore need to make an

adjustment of –5 (in order to obtain the desired –6 ).

The next term in the quadratic therefore has to be –5x, to give

(x – 1)( – 5x + ...) = – –5 + 5x + ...

The next adjustment required is –14x, so that the last term in the
quadratic has to be –14, and we have

–6 – 9x + 14 = (x – 1)( – 5x –14)

Note that this is self–checking, as the constant term of 14 is

obtained when we expand the brackets.

Finally we need to see if – 5x –14 can be factorised, and we thus

obtain

– 6 – 9x + 14 = (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 7) as the complete

factorisation.

Activity 2 Write each of the following polynomials in the form

(x – a)Q(x) + R, where R is a constant (which may be zero):

(i) 5 +2 –x+7 where a = 2

 (ii) 2 – 11 + 22x – 61 where a = 4

(iii) 4 + 11 – 2x + 3 where a = –3

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Lesson Five Polynomials

Example 7
Divide x + 7 by x + 8

All we need to do is write x + 7 = (x + 8) – 1, and divide both sides

by x + 8, to give:

=1–

Example 8
Divide 5 +5 – 6x – 4 by x + 1

This example will be carried out by another approach, which,

although not quicker in this case, will prove to be valuable in other
situations later in the course.

Suppose that 5 +5 – 6x – 4 = (x + 1)(a + bx + c) + d

This has to be true for all values of x, and the only way in which this
can happen is if the coefficient of on the left–hand side (5) equals
the coefficient of on the right–hand side (a). Thus a = 5.

So far, this is only really what we have been doing all along. But we
can apply this idea to the other powers of x as well:

: 5 = a + b (we look to see which terms involve when the right–

hand side is expanded)

As we know that a = 5, it follows that b = 0.

x: –6 = b + c, which means that c = –6

constant term (or ): –4 = c + d, so that d = –4 – (–6) = 2

So we have 5 +5 – 6x – 4 = (x + 1)(5 – 6) + 2 (A)

and this could be checked by expanding the right–hand side.

This approach is known as the method of equating coefficients.

As we are asked to divide 5 + 5 – 6x – 4 by x + 1, the final

answer is

5 –6 + (we are dividing both sides of (A) by x +1).

Activity 3 Carry out each of the following divisions:

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Mathematics ‘A’ level Module PC1: Pure Mathematics 1

(i) (x + 7) ÷ (x – 2)

 (ii) (2x + 5) ÷ (x – 7)

(iii) ( +4 – x – 4) ÷ (x + 4)

 Further practice at dividing polynomials by linear factors can be

obtained in Exercise 6D of the textbook.

The Factor Theorem

In Example 6 we were able to factorise – 6 – 9x + 14 fully to

give

–6 – 9x + 14 = (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 7) (B)

Notice what happens when we put x = 1. The right-hand side equals

zero, because (x –1) is a factor.

Because (B) is true for all values of x, the left–hand side must also
equal zero when x = 1.

If we use the notation f(x) = –6 – 9x + 14, then f(1) = 0.

Similarly f(7) = 0 and f(–2) = 0. Note that the values of x that are
chosen are the ones that make the linear factors zero.

In general, if (x – a) is a factor of f(x), then f(a) = 0.

The opposite is also true: if f(a) = 0, then (x – a) must be a factor of

f(x).

This is the Factor Theorem.

Example 9
Factorise f(x) = +3 – 13x – 15

There might not seem much to go on here, but the Factor Theorem
can be used, by trying some small values of x.

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Lesson Five Polynomials

First of all, suppose that (x – 1) is a factor. We are hoping that

f(1) = 0.

Now f(1) = 1 + 3 – 13 – 15 = – 24. So that doesn’t work.

The next simplest value to try is –1:

f(–1) = –1 + 3 + 13 – 15 = 0

So (x +1) is a factor, and we can write:

+ 3 – 13x – 15 = (x + 1)( + ... )

It is possible to continue trying out other values of x, but they may

not turn out to be small numbers. In any case, we can find the
quadratic on the right–hand side by the usual method, and then
factorise that quadratic.

So we get (x + 1)( + 2x – 15) [you might like to check this]

which factorises to give (x + 1)(x – 3)(x + 5).

Note: We can tell from the constant term in f(x) [–15] that if (x – a) or
(x + a) is to be a factor of f(x), then a must be a factor of 15. So there
would be no point in trying the value 2, for example.

Activity 4 Factorise fully the following cubics, and hence solve the
equations f(x) = 0

(i) f(x) = –2 – 11x + 12

 (ii) f(x) = – – 4x + 4

 (iii) f(x) = 2

(iv) f(x) = +1
+9 – 33x + 14

 Further practice at using the Factor Theorem can be obtained

in Exercise 6A of the textbook.

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Mathematics ‘A’ level Module PC1: Pure Mathematics 1

The Remainder Theorem

In the previous section we considered f(x) = – 6 – 9x + 14,

which could be factorised fully as (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 7).

Suppose now that we change f(x) slightly,

and let g(x) = –6 – 9x + 15.

Then we know that g(x) = (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 7) + 1

The remainder when g(x) is divided by x – 1, x + 2 or x – 7 is 1.

And g(1) = 0 + 1 = 1, since the factor x – 1 becomes 0 when x = 1.

Similarly, g(–2) and g(7) also equal 1.

In general, if the polynomial g(x) is divided by (x – a), then the

remainder will be g(a).

This is the Remainder Theorem.

The Factor Theorem is in fact the special case of the Remainder

Theorem where the remainder is zero.

Example 10
Find the remainder when +3 – 2x + 4 is divided by (x – 2)

Let f(x) = +3 – 2x + 4. Then the remainder when f(x) is divided

by (x – 2) is

f(2) = 16 + 12 – 4 + 4 = 28

f(x) in fact appeared in Example 5, where we saw that

+3 – 2x + 4 = (x – 2)(2 + 7x + 12) + 28

Important point: If a question only asks for the remainder (and not
the quotient [2 + 7x + 12 in this case]) when a polynomial is
divided by a factor of the form (x – a) [or (x + a)], then there is no
need to actually carry out the division: the Remainder Theorem can
be used instead. Similarly, if we only need to decide whether (x – a)
is a factor of a polynomial, then the Factor Theorem is all that is
needed.

Activity 5 Factors and Remainders

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Lesson Five Polynomials

(i) Is (x – 1) a factor of – 2 – 3x – 3? If not, give the

 remainder.

(ii) Is (x + 2) a factor of 2 + 5 + x – 5? If not, give the

remainder.

(iii) If (x + 1) is a factor of k +4 + 6, what is the value of k?

(iv) Is (x – 3) a factor of 16 – 53x +15? If not, give the

remainder.

(v) The remainder when – – 3x + 6 is divided by (x – 2) is

4. Find k.

 Further practice at using the Remainder Theorem can be

obtained in Exercise 6E of the textbook.

Sketching Graphs of Cubic Functions

First of all, note the basic shape of the simplest possible cubic
function: y =

Figure 1: y =

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Mathematics ‘A’ level Module PC1: Pure Mathematics 1

If a cubic function has been factorised, then we know where its

graph crosses the x-axis.

Example 11
Sketch f(x) = +3 – 13x –15

In Example 9 we saw that f(x) could be factorised as

(x + 1)(x – 3)(x + 5).

This means that the equation f(x) = 0 has the solutions –5, –1 and 3,
and these are the x-coordinates of the points where the graph of f(x)
crosses the x-axis.

The graph crosses the y-axis when x = 0, i.e. when y = –15.

When x is large and positive, f(x) will be large and positive. Provided
that the coefficient of is positive, this will be true whatever the
coefficients of the other powers of x, when x is large enough
(because the term outweighs the other terms).

Also, when x is large and negative, f(x) will be large and negative.

When asked to sketch a curve, these are the features that are
relevant:

 (roughly) where the curve ‘starts’ and ‘ends’

 where the curve crosses the x-axis
 where the curve crosses the y-axis

For f(x) above, a sketch might look as follows:

–5 –1 3 x

–15

Figure 2

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Lesson Five Polynomials

Note the following:

The points where the curve crosses the x and y–axes should be
labelled.

The scale on the y-axis does not need to be the same as the scale on
the x-axis.

The precise location of the ‘turning points’ of the curve (between

x = –5 and –1, and between x = –1 and 3) does not need to be found.
It is sufficient to make the curve as smooth as possible (i.e. avoiding
sharp changes in direction).

Example 12
Sketch f(x) = (2 – x)

First of all, the curve will ‘start’ at the top and ‘end’ at the bottom,
since there will be a –2 term (consider what happens when x is
large and negative, and when x is large and positive).

Then there is a repeated root at x = –1. This means that the curve
just touches the x-axis at this point (compare with y = , where the
curve touches the x-axis at x = 0).

By expanding f(x), we can see that the y–intercept is at y = 4.

So a sketch might look as follows:

–1 2 x

Figure 3

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Mathematics ‘A’ level Module PC1: Pure Mathematics 1

Example 13
Sketch f(x) = (x –1) + 2x + 5)

Note first of all that the equation + 2x + 5 = 0 has no roots (since

– 4ac < 0). So the curve only crosses the x-axis at x = 1.

The y–intercept is at y = –5.

Here there is not as much to go on, but a sketch should look

roughly as follows:

Figure 4

Example 14
Sketch f(x) =

Finally, if the equation f(x) = 0 has 3 repeated roots, the curve will
have a similar pattern to that of y = , and a sketch should look
roughly as follows:

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Lesson Five Polynomials

Figure 5

Activity 6 Factorise the following cubic functions and hence sketch their
curves:

(i) 2 –3 – 8x – 3

 (ii) 9 – 21x + 15
(iii) –3 + 4x
–3


 Further practice at sketching cubic functions can be obtained
in Exercise 6C of the textbook.

Suggested Answers to Activities

Activity 1
(i) 2 + + 2x + 3
(ii) + – 3 –2x + 2
(iii) –1

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Mathematics ‘A’ level Module PC1: Pure Mathematics 1

Activity 2
(i) (x – 2)(5 + 12x + 23) + 53
(ii) (x – 4)(2 – 3x + 10) – 21
(iii) (x + 3)( 4 – x + 1)

Activity 3

(i) 1+
(ii) 2+
(iii) – 1 = (x – 1)(x + 1)

Activity 4
(i) (x – 1)(x + 3)(x – 4); x = 1, –3 or 4
(ii) (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 2); x = 1, –2 or 2
(iii) (x – 2)(2x – 1)(x + 7); x = 2, or –7
(iv) (x +1)( – x + 1); x = –1

Activity 5
(i) Yes
(ii) No; remainder = –3
(iii) k = 10
(iv) Yes
(v) k=5

Activity 6
(i) (x + 1)(2x + 1)(x – 3)
y

–1 -½
3 x

–3

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Lesson Five Polynomials

(ii) 3( (3 – x)

1 3 x

(iii) x( – 3x + 4)

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