CSC 206: COMPUTER HARDWARE AND MAINTENANCE

Chapter 1: First look at computer parts/components and tools

Chapter 2: Working inside a computer (Assembling the components inside a desktop
computer system)
Chapter 3: Introducing windows operating system
Chapter 4: All about motherboards
Chapter 5: Supporting processors and upgrading memory
Chapter 6: Hard drives
Chapter 7: Installing windows
Chapter 8: I/O and Storage devices
Chapter 10: Maintaining windows
Chapter 12: Troubleshooting windows and applications
Chapter 13: Troubleshooting Hardware problems

NB: Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 will be practical class.

1. VGA (Video Graphics Array) Port
A VGA (Video Graphics Array) port is a type of connection found on many computers,
monitors, projectors, and other display devices. It's an analog standard for
connecting video devices. The VGA port typically uses a 15-pin connector and is
commonly used to transmit video signals from a computer to a monitor or projector.

Chapter 1: First look of computer components/parts

2. DVI (Digital Visual Inerface) Port
A DVI (Digital Visual Interface) port is another type of connection commonly found
on computers, monitors, and other display devices. DVI can transmit both analog
and digital video signals, depending on the type of DVI connector used. There are
three main types of DVI connectors:
 DVI-I (Digital Visual Interface-Integrated): This connector supports both analog
and digital signals, making it versatile for connecting to various types of displays.
 DVI-D (Digital Visual Interface-Digital): This connector only supports digital
signals, making it ideal for connections between digital devices such as computers
and digital monitors.
 DVI-A (Digital Visual Interface-Analog): This connector only supports analog
signals and is less common in modern devices.

3. HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) Port

An HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) port is a common type of
connection used for transmitting high-definition audio and video signals between
devices. HDMI ports are found on a wide range of devices, including computers, TVs,
gaming consoles, Blu-ray players, and more.
HDMI supports both audio and video signals, allowing for a single cable to transmit
both. It's capable of carrying high-definition video resolutions, including 720p,
1080p, and even 4K, as well as various audio formats, including uncompressed audio
and surround sound formats like Dolby Digital and DTS.
HDMI ports come in different versions, each offering various capabilities and
features. Newer versions of HDMI offer increased bandwidth for higher resolutions,
higher refresh rates, and support for advanced features like HDR (High Dynamic
Range) and HDMI ARC (Audio Return Channel).

4. Thunderbolt port
A Thunderbolt port transmits both video and data on the same port and cable. The
port is shaped the same as the DisplayPort and is compatible with DisplayPort
devices.

5. Ethernet port (RJ-45)

Ethernet port, or an RJ-45 port, is used by a network cable to connect to the wired
network. Fast Ethernet ports run at 100 Mbps (megabits per second), and Gigabit
Ethernet runs at 1,000 Mbps or 1 Gbps (gigabit per second). A megabit is one million
bits and a gigabit is one billion bits. A bit is a binary value of one or zero.
6. RJ-11 port and connector
An RJ11 connector and port are typically used for telephone and modem
connections.

7. Audio Jack ports

Audio jack ports and cables are commonly used for connecting various audio devices
such as headphones, microphones, and speakers. Here are various type of audio
jacks;
 3.5mm Audio Jack (Mini Jack): This is the most common type of audio jack, they
are mainly found on smartphones, laptops, headphones, and portable audio
devices.
 6.35mm Audio Jack (1/4 Inch Jack): This type of audio jack is relatively larger
than the 3.5mm jack, it is commonly used in professional audio equipment such
as amplifiers, mixers, and musical instruments.
 2.5mm Audio Jack: This type of audio jack is relatively smaller than the 3.5mm
jack, less common but used in some mobile phones, two-way radios, and older
cordless phones.

8. USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port

A USB (Universal Serial Bus) port is a multipurpose I/O port used by many different
devices, including printers, mice, keyboards, scanners, external hard drives, and flash
drives. Some USB ports are faster than others. Hi-Speed USB 2.0 is faster than
regular USB, and SuperSpeed USB 3.0 is faster than USB 2.0.
We have various types of USB ports and their various cables;
 USB Type A: USB Type-A is the original and most widely used type of USB
connector. Its design is recognizable due to its flat, rectangular shape. This
connector type is found on a wide range of devices, including computers,
laptops, and many peripherals. The Type-A port and connector are designed to
support a variety of USB standards, from USB 1.0 to USB 3.2 and beyond.
 USB Type B: USB Type-B connectors are commonly used for connecting larger
peripheral devices to computers, such as printers and external hard drives. They
have a distinctive square shape with a beveled top, designed to prevent
incorrect insertion.
 USB Type C: USB Type-C is the latest USB connector standard, designed to
replace both Type-A and Type-B connectors. Its compact and reversible design
makes it highly versatile and user-friendly, suitable for a wide range of devices
from smartphones to laptops.

9. PS/2 (Personal System/2) Port

A PS/2 port, short for "Personal System/2 port," is a type of connector used to
connect peripherals, typically keyboards and mice to a computer. The PS/2 port has
a round connector with six pins and comes in two varieties: one for keyboards
(usually purple) and one for mice (usually green).

Chapter 2: Inside the case of a computer system

Computer Case which is sometimes called “chassis” holds the following components;
Power supply, motherboard, processor, memory modules, expansion cards, hard
drive, optical drive, other drives
These are the basic types of computer cases (Chassis);
 Tower Case: Tower cases are perhaps the most common type of computer
casing. They stand vertically and come in different sizes, including full-tower,
mid-tower, and mini-tower. These cases offer ample space for components and
cooling solutions.
 Desktop Case: Desktop cases are horizontal and sit flat on a surface like a
traditional desktop computer. They are often compact and can save space,
making them suitable for office environments or home setups where space is
limited.
 Laptop Case: Laptop cases are designed to enclose and protect a single laptop.
They are typically slim and compact, with padding to safeguard the laptop from
bumps and scratches during transportation. Laptop cases often feature a
zippered closure and may include additional pockets for storing accessories.

Major components inside a computer case

 Motherboard: Sometimes called system board which is the largest and most
important circuit board
 Processor: which is the central processing unit (CPU) Processes most of the data
and instructions for the entire system CPUs generate heat and require a heat
sink and fan (together called the processor cooler) A heat sink consists of metal
fins that draw heat away from a component
 Expansion cards: Which are also called adapter cards, we have basically 3 types
of adapter card; Graphics card, Network card and Sound card.
 Memory modules: The random access memory (RAM) Temporary storage for
data and instructions as they are being processed by the CPU
 Dual inline memory module (DIMM) slots hold memory modules, we also have
the Single inline memory module (SIMM)
 Hard drives and other drives, Hard drives may also be called hard disk drive
(HDD) and we also have the Solid state Drive (SSD) which is the most recent and
 the upgraded version of the old (HDD). It’s a permanent storage used to hold
data and programs
 Other drives include: optical drive and tape drive

Chapter 3: Introducing Windows Operating System

The Windows Operating System, developed by Microsoft Corporation, has become
one of the most widely used operating systems worldwide. It has evolved
significantly since its inception, offering various versions tailored to different types of
users and computing devices. Here's a comprehensive overview of the Windows OS:
1. History
Windows OS traces its roots back to the 1980s when Microsoft released Windows
1.0 in 1985. It was a graphical extension of MS-DOS, providing a user-friendly
interface.
Over the years, Microsoft released numerous versions, including Windows 95,
Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 8, and the latest, Windows 10.
Each version brought enhancements in terms of user interface, features, security,
and performance.
2. Architecture
Windows OS architecture is based on a layered approach. It consists of:
 Kernel: The core component that manages resources such as memory, CPU, and
I/O.
 Executive Services: Responsible for managing system processes, memory
management, and I/O operations.
 User Mode: Where user applications run, separated from the kernel for security
and stability.

3. Features
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): Windows OS is known for its intuitive GUI, which
includes icons, windows, menus, and buttons, making it easy for users to
interact with the system.
 Multitasking: Users can run multiple programs simultaneously, thanks to
Windows' multitasking capabilities, where the OS efficiently allocates resources
to different processes.
 File Management: Windows Explorer provides a user-friendly interface for
managing files and folders, including copy, paste, delete, and search functions.
 Device Support: Windows supports a wide range of hardware devices, including
printers, scanners, cameras, and various peripherals, through built-in drivers and
plug-and-play functionality.
 Networking: Windows offers extensive networking capabilities, allowing users to
connect to local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and the
internet seamlessly.
 Security: With each iteration, Microsoft has enhanced security features to
protect against viruses, malware, and other threats. This includes Windows
Defender, Firewall, and User Account Control (UAC).
 Compatibility: Windows maintains backward compatibility, ensuring that older
software and hardware can still run on newer versions of the OS.

4. Editions
Microsoft offers various editions of Windows OS, catering to different user needs:
 Windows Home: Designed for home users with basic computing needs.
 Windows Pro: Includes additional features like remote desktop access and
BitLocker encryption, targeting small businesses and power users.
 Windows Enterprise: Tailored for large organizations with advanced security and
management capabilities.
 Windows Education: Similar to Enterprise but focused on academic institutions.
 Windows Server: Designed for server environments, offering features like Active
Directory, DHCP, and DNS.
5. Evolution and Future
 Windows OS continues to evolve with regular updates and new versions,
incorporating the latest technologies and addressing user feedback.
 Microsoft has been increasingly focusing on cloud integration, artificial
intelligence, and cross-platform compatibility, aiming to provide a seamless
experience across devices and services.
 Windows 10 marked a shift towards a "Windows as a Service" model, with
ongoing updates rather than major releases, reflecting Microsoft's commitment
to continuous improvement.

6. Conclusion
The Windows Operating System has played a pivotal role in shaping the modern
computing landscape, offering a versatile platform for individuals, businesses, and
institutions. Its user-friendly interface, extensive features, and broad compatibility
have contributed to its widespread adoption and enduring popularity. As technology
continues to advance, Windows OS is likely to evolve further, adapting to emerging
trends and meeting the evolving needs of users worldwide.

Chapter 5
Processors and Upgrading memory
Types of processors and characteristics
The processor installed on a motherboard is the primary component that determines
the computing power of a system. Basically, we have two major processor
manufacturers which are Intel and AMD.
These are the features that affects performance and compatibility with
motherboard.
 Clock Speed: Clock speed is also known as “Clock Rate”, it measures the
number of cycles a processor executes per second, that is a clock speed
indicates how quickly a processor can complete cycles of operations.
Operations which involve fetching an instruction from the memory, decoding
it and then writing back the result. Clock speed is usually expressed in GHz.
 Socket: Socket is the physical interface on the motherboard that houses the
processor, it provides the mechanical and electrical connections between the
processor and the motherboard. The common types of sockets are Intel (LGA
1200, LGA 1700, etc. and AMD (AM4, AM5, TR4, etc.)
 Chipset: The chipset is a collection of electronic components on the
motherboard that manage the dataflow between the processor, memory and
the peripheral devices. The common types of chipsets are;
Intel: Z-series (e.g., Z590), H-series (e.g., H510), B-series (e.g., B560).
AMD: X-series (e.g., X570), B-series (e.g., B550) and A-series (e.g., A520)
 Processor Architecture: All desktop and laptop processors we have today
from either Intel or AMD are hybrid processors. Hybrid processors in the
sense that they can process both 64 bits or 32 bits at a time, but older
processors handled only 32 bits. A hybrid processor can use a 32-bit
operating system or a 64-bit OS.
 Multiprocessing capabilities: Multiprocessing is the capability of a processor
to handle multiple tasks simultaneously. This multiprocessing capability can
be accomplished by several means;
1. Multiprocessing: Two processing units (called arithmetic logic units or
ALUs) are installed within a single processor called multiprocessing and
first used by Pentium processors). The Pentium was the first processor
that could execute two instructions at the same time.
2. Dual processors: A server motherboard will have two processor sockets,
called dual processors or a multiprocessor platform which enables the
system to utilize two processors at the same time. Turn to page 179 on
your material to see fig 5-2 which shows how the two processor sockets
are present on a motherboard to enable installation of two processors on
the motherboard
3. Multi-core processing: In this case multiple processors can be installed in
the same processor housing called multi-core processing. A processor
package might contain up to eight cores e.g. dual-core, triple-core, quad-
core, and so forth.
 4. Multi-threading: In this case each processor or core processes two
threads at the same time. When Windows hands off a task to the CPU it is
called a thread and might involve several instructions. To handle two
threads, the processor requires extra registers within the processor
housing that uses to switch between threads. In effect, you have two
logical processors for each physical processor or core. Intel calls his
technology Hyper-Threading and AMD calls it HyperTransport.
 Memory cache: Memory cache is a small, high-speed memory located inside
the processor used to store frequently accessed data and instruction. It act as
a buffer between the CPU and the main memory (RAM) significantly reducing
the time it takes for the CPU to access data
Types of Cache
1. L1 Cache (Level 1): Is the smallest and fastest type of memory cache in a
computer processor
 Location: It is integrated directly into the CPU
 Size: It is typically the smallest cache, ranging from 16KB to 128KB
per core`
 Speed: Fastest cache with the lowest latency, operating at the
same speed as the CPU core. What is latency? Latency refers to
the delay or the amount of time it takes for a data to travel from
one point to another in a system.
 Function:
i. Immediate Access: Provides the CPU with the most
frequently accessed instructions and data, ensuring
minimal delay.
ii. Primary Cache: Acts as the first level of memory access for
the CPU, with the highest priority in terms of speed and
proximity.
 Structure: The structure is often divided into two sections;
i. L1 Instruction Cache (L1i): Stores instructions for the CPU.
ii. L1 Data Cache (L1d): Stores data that the CPU needs to
access quickly.
2. L2 Cache (Level 2): cache is an intermediate or secondary level of memory
cache that balances the speed and size between the L1 and L3
 Location: It is integrated into the CPU core or situated close to it,
sometimes shared between multiple cores depending on the CPU
design.
 Size: Larger than L1 cache, typically ranging from 256KB to 1MB
per core.
 Speed: Slower than L1 but still significantly faster than the main
memory (RAM).
 Structure: Unified cache for both instructions and data, although
some designs may also split it as we have it with L1 cache
 Functions:
i. Secondary Cache: Acts as an intermediary cache, storing
data and instructions that are less frequently accessed
than those in L1 but still require rapid access.
ii. Balancing Act: Balances speed and size, providing a larger
storage space without significantly compromising on
access speed.
3. L3 Cache (Level 3): cache is a tertiary level of memory cache, Is the type
of memory used in computer processors to improve performance. It is
typically larger and slower than the L1 and L2 caches but still much faster
than accessing main memory (RAM).
 Location: The L3 cache is usually shared among all the cores of a
multi-core processor, while L1 and L2 caches are typically
dedicated to individual cores.
 Size: L3 caches are generally larger in size compared to L1 and L2
caches, often ranging from a few megabytes to several tens of
megabytes.
 Performance Impact: The presence of an L3 cache can significantly
boost the performance of applications, especially those that
require frequent access to large datasets.
5.2 Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM): Random access memory (RAM) temporarily holds
data and instructions that is needed by the CPU to perform processing operation at a
particular point in time. RAM is volatile memory, meaning it loses its contents when
the computer is turned off.

Components of RAM
 Memory Modules: Physical modules (DIMMs - Dual In-Line Memory Modules)
that plug into slots on the motherboard.
 Integrated Circuits: Made up of capacitors and transistors that store and
manage data.
 Memory Controller: Manages data flow between RAM and the CPU.

Types of RAM
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Static RAM (SRAM)

Characteristics
 Speed: RAM is much faster than storage devices like HDDs and SSDs, with
typical access times in nanoseconds (ns).
 Volatility: Loses its contents when power is turned off or interrupted.
 Capacity: Ranges from a few gigabytes (GB) to several terabytes (TB) in high-
end servers

Usage
 Operating System: Stores currently running programs and data needed by the
CPU.
 Applications: Temporarily stores data and instructions for software
applications to execute.
 Virtual Memory: Acts as an extension of physical RAM using storage devices
when physical RAM is full.
Importance in Performance
 System Performance: More RAM allows for smoother multitasking and faster
execution of applications.
 Gaming: Important for gaming performance, especially for games with high-
resolution graphics and large worlds.
 Productivity: Enhances productivity by reducing loading times and improving
responsiveness.

Upgrading and Expansion

 Upgradeability: Most desktops and laptops allow for RAM upgrades by
adding more modules or replacing existing ones.
 Compatibility: Ensure compatibility with the motherboard’s specifications,
including type (DDR4, DDR5, etc.) and speed.

Maintenance
 Heat Management: Ensure proper ventilation and cooling to prevent
overheating, which can affect RAM performance.
 Testing: Use diagnostic tools to check for RAM issues such as errors or
failures.

Memory Modules
DIMM and SIMM are types of memory modules used in computers to provide
Random Access Memory (RAM) to the system.

SIMM (Single In-Line Memory Module): SIMM is an older type of memory module
that was prevalent in computers during the 1980s and early 1990s.
Characteristics
 Design: SIMMs have a single row of electrical contacts on each side.
 Memory Chips: Contains memory chips on one side of the module.
 Usage: Used in older computers and early workstations.
 Capacity: Limited in capacity compared to modern DIMMs.
  Types: Common variants include 30-pin SIMMs and 72-pin SIMMs, with 72-
pin SIMMs being more prevalent towards the end of their usage.

DIMM (Dual In-Line Memory Module): DIMM is the standard memory module used
in modern computers, replacing SIMMs due to several advantages.

Characteristics
 Design: DIMMs have electrical contacts on both sides of the module.
 Memory Chips: Contains memory chips on both sides, allowing for higher
capacities and speeds.
 Usage: Used in most desktops, laptops, and servers built in the past two
decades.
 Capacity: Offers higher capacities than SIMMs, ranging from a few gigabytes
to several terabytes in high-end servers.
 Types: Includes DDR (Double Data Rate), DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5, each
offering improved speed and efficiency over its predecessor.

Hard Drives
The hard drive is one of the most important storage device in a computer, it allows
for storage of data on a permanent basis. We have two types of drives; Hard disk
drive (HDD) and Solid state drive (SSD)

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Introduction: Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) are traditional storage devices that have been
used in computers for decades. They store data on spinning disks coated with
magnetic material.

Components:
1. Platters: Circular disks coated with magnetic material where data is stored.
2. Spindle: Rotates the platters at high speeds.
3. Read/Write Arm: Moves across the platters to read or write data.
4. Actuator: Controls the movement of the read/write arm.
How it Works:
 Data is written to and read from the platters using the read/write head.
 The platters spin at high speeds (commonly 5400 or 7200 RPM, higher for
enterprise drives).
 The read/write head moves across the platters to access data at specific
locations.

Advantages:
1. Cost-Effective: Generally cheaper per gigabyte compared to SSDs.
2. High Capacity: Can store large amounts of data, with capacities reaching up
to several terabytes (TB).
3. Longevity for Write Cycles: Can handle a large number of write cycles over
time without significant degradation.

Disadvantages:
1. Slower Speed: Mechanical nature leads to slower read/write speeds
compared to SSDs.
2. Fragility: Susceptible to physical damage due to moving parts.
3. Power Consumption: Higher power consumption, leading to shorter battery
life in laptops.
4. Noise: Can generate noise due to spinning platters and moving read/write
arm.

Use Cases:
 Bulk Storage: Suitable for storing large amounts of media files, backups, and
archives.
 Desktops and Servers: Commonly used in desktop computers and servers
where space and power are less constrained.
Solid State Drive (SSD)

Introduction: Solid State Drives (SSDs) are modern storage devices that use flash
memory to store data. They have no moving parts, which allows for faster data
access and better durability.

Components:
1. NAND Flash Memory: The primary storage component, where data is stored.
2. Controller: Manages the data storage and retrieval processes, wear leveling,
and error correction.
3. Interface: Connects the SSD to the computer, commonly SATA or NVMe.

How it Works:
 Data is stored in NAND flash memory cells, which can be accessed
electronically.
 The controller manages the distribution and retrieval of data across these
cells.
 Advanced wear leveling algorithms ensure even distribution of write and
erase cycles to prolong the lifespan of the memory cells.

Advantages:
1. High Speed: Significantly faster read/write speeds compared to HDDs,
leading to quicker boot times and faster application loading.
2. Durability: More resistant to physical shock and damage since there are no
moving parts.
3. Low Power Consumption: Consumes less power, improving battery life in
portable devices.
4. Silent Operation: No moving parts result in silent operation.
Disadvantages:
1. Cost: More expensive per gigabyte compared to HDDs.
2. Capacity: Typically available in smaller capacities than HDDs at the same
price point.
3. Write Cycle Limit: Limited number of write cycles, though this is mitigated by
modern wear leveling techniques.

Use Cases:
 System Drives: Ideal for operating systems, software applications, and games
where fast access speeds improve performance.
 Laptops and Portable Devices: Perfect for use in laptops and other portable
devices due to their durability and lower power consumption.
 High-Performance Tasks: Suitable for tasks requiring high-speed data access,
such as video editing, gaming, and database management.

Comparison between HDD and SSD

Speed:
 HDD: Slower due to mechanical components.
 SSD: Faster due to electronic data access.
Durability:
 HDD: More prone to damage due to moving parts.
 SSD: More durable with no moving parts.
Power Consumption:
 HDD: Higher power consumption.
 SSD: Lower power consumption.
Cost:
 HDD: Cheaper per gigabyte.
 SSD: More expensive per gigabyte.
Capacity:
 HDD: Typically available in larger capacities.
 SSD: Smaller capacities at similar price points.
Noise:
 HDD: Generates noise due to moving parts.
 SSD: Silent operation.

Chapter 7: Installing windows

Installing Windows involves several steps that may vary slightly depending on the
version of Windows and the specific circumstances (such as installing on a new
computer, upgrading from an older version, or reinstalling).

7.1: Window installation process;

A. Preparation
1. Back up data: Back up any important data to an external hard drive, cloud
storage, or another safe location to avoid any loss of data.
2. System Requirement: Ensure your computer meets the minimum system
requirements for the version of Windows you are installing.
3. Obtain a Windows Installation Media:
 Download the Windows ISO file from the official Microsoft website or
obtain a physical installation DVD/USB drive.
 Create a bootable USB drive using tools like the Windows Media
Creation Tool or Rufus if you have the ISO file.
B. BIOS/UEFI Configuration
1. Access BIOS/UEFI: Restart your computer and enter the BIOS/UEFI
setup by pressing a key during the boot process (commonly F2, F10,
DEL, or ESC).
2. Boot Order: Change the boot order to prioritize the installation media
(USB drive or DVD) over the hard drive.
C. Installation Process
1. Boot from Installation Media: Insert the installation media (USB drive
or DVD) and restart the computer. It should boot from the installation
media.
2. Setup Windows Installation:
  Select your language, time, and keyboard preferences.
 Click "Install Now."
D. Installation Type
 Upgrade or Custom: Choose between upgrading an existing
installation or performing a custom installation. Custom installation is
recommended for a clean install.
E. Partitioning
Partitioning during a Windows installation refers to the process of dividing a
computer's hard drive into separate sections, called partitions. Each partition
can be treated as an independent disk and can contain its own file system.
 Select a Partition: Select the partition where you want to install
Windows. You can delete existing partitions and create new ones if
necessary. Be cautious as this will erase all data on those partitions.
 Format partition: Format the selected partition to prepare it for
installation.

ACRONYMS
BIOS: Basic Input/Output System
CMOS: Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
PSU: Power Suply Unit
UPS: Uninterrupted power suply
NIC: Network Interface Card
SATA: Serial Advanced Technology Advancement
HDD: Hard Disc Drive
SSD: Solid State Drive
PATA: Parallel Advance Technology Advancement
DVI: Digital Visual Interface
PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect
IDE: Integrated Drive Electronic
RAID: Redundant Array of Independent Disk
APM: Advance Power Management
VRAM: Video Random Access Memory
SIMM: Single Inline Memory Module
DIMM: Double Inline Memory Module
VGA: Video Graphics Array
FAT: File Allocation Table
NVRAM: Non-Volatile Random Access Memory
SVGA: Super Video Graphics Array
POST: Power-On-Self-Test
SCSI: Small Computer System Interface