CSE6314: Special Topics in

Systems and Networks

Ad-Hok Network

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 Wireless Networks
q Two types
• Infrastructure-Base
• Relies on fixed infrastructure
• Base station or access points are fixed and
centralized.
• Eg. WLAN, Cellular network
• Infrastructure-Less
• No central access point
• E.g. Ad-hoc network
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 Difference between Cellular and Ad hoc
Wireless Networks
Cellular Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Infrastructure Networks Infrastructureless Networks
Fixed, prelocated cell sites, and No base station and rapid
base station deployment
Static backbone network Highly dynamic network
topology topologies with multihop
Relatively caring environment Hostile environment (nosie,
and stable connectivity losses) and irregular connectivity
Detailed planning before base Ad hoc network automatically
station can be installed forms and adapts to changes
High setup costs Cost-effective
Large setup time Less setup time
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 Characteristics of Ad Hoc
Network
§ Infrastructure-less or with minimum infrastructure
support
§ Self-organizing and self-managing
§ Most or some of the nodes are mobile
§ Single and Multi-hop communication
§ Applications
§ Basic Issues: energy constraint

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 Ad-Hoc Networks
(Definition)

q An ad-hoc network is defined as a local

area network that is built spontaneously
as a device connect.

q An ad-hoc networks are autonomously

self-organized networks without any
infrastructure support.

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 Ad-Hoc Networks
(Definition)

q Nodes in ad-hoc networks move randomly

& therefore the network may experience
rapid & unpredictable topology changes.

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 Ad-Hoc Networks
(Definition)

q The ad-hoc network nodes usually have

limited transmission ranges & so some
nodes cannot directly communicate with
each other.
q Ad-hoc network do not depend on any
pre-established infrastructure so they can
be easily deployed in disaster recovery
situation.

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 Ad-Hoc Networks

q Multi-hop network that doesn’t require

any fixed infrastructure.
q Peer nodes take part in relaying
information.
q Self organizing and self configuring

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 Infrastructure-less or with minimum
infrastructure Support
§ A pure ad hoc network does not have, or simply does
not rely on infrastructure support (for routing, network
management )
§ A hybrid ad hoc network consists of both client nodes
and infrastructure nodes, i.e. nodes whose function is
merely transporting traffic for the client nodes.
§ Dynamic network topology
– Nodes are mobile, and at any one time there are nodes
joining in or leaving
– Frequent, temporary, and unannounced loss of network
connectivity is common
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 Self-organizing and self-managing
§ Without a central entity (like a base station),
participants must organize themselves into a
network (Self organization)
§ For example
– Node is both a host and a router
– Medium access control: no base station can
assign transmission resources, must be decided
in a distributed fashion
– Finding a route from one participant to another
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Ad-Hoc Networks

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Single – hop Ad hoc

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Multi – hop Ad - hoc

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 Ad-Hoc Networks
q Situation in which it is useful
• Need a network to set up fast; eg. Times of
emergency, relief operation.
• No access to network infrastructure
• No much planning can be afforded to set up
the network

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 Cont. . .
q Depending on topology and deployment,
ad-hoc networks are classified into:
• Homogenous
• Consists of node having similar characteristics
• Heterogeneous
• Consists of node having different capabilities

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 General Concept
q Ad-hoc networks are a type of distributed
wireless network.
q Neighbor node communicate with one
another using single-hop wireless
technologies, like Bluetooth, ZigBee, &
IEEE802.11.

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 General Concept
q Nodes which are distant from each other
communicate using a sequence of
intermediate nodes which co-operate to
forward the traffic to the destination.

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 Ad – Hoc Networks: Many
applications
q Personal area networking
§ cell phone, laptop
q Military environments
§ soldiers, tanks, planes
q Civilian environments
§ meeting rooms
§ sports stadiums
§ groups of boats, small aircraft (wired really
impractical!!)
§ car network 18
 CONT . . .
q Emergency operations
§ search-and-rescue
§ policing and fire fighting
q Sensor networks
§ Groups of sensors embedded in the environment or
scattered over a target area

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 Classification of Ad-Hoc
Network

Wireless Ad-Hoc Network

Wireless
Mobile Ad- Vehicular Ad-
Sensor
Hoc Network Hoc Network
Network
(MANET) (VANET)
(WSN)

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 Possible Research Area
q QoS
q Routing Protocol
q Interoperation with other wireless
networks
q Resource optimization
§ Bandwidth
§ Power
q Security
q Pricing Scheme
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 MAC

q Medium access problems in wireless

networks
§ signal strength decreases proportional to
the square of the distance
§ sender would apply CS and CD, but the
collisions happen at the receiver

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 Hidden & Exposed Terminals

§ Hidden Terminal Problem

§ Exposed Terminal Problem

A
D
B

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 Hidden & Exposed Terminals

q Hidden terminals
§ A sends to B, C cannot receive A
§ C wants to send to B, C senses a “free”
medium (CS fails)
§ Collision occurred at B
§ A i s “ h i d d e n ” f o r C

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 CONT . . .
q Exposed terminals
§ B sends to A, C wants to send to
another terminal (not A or B)
§ C senses carrier, finds medium in use and
has to wait
§ A is outside the radio range of C,
therefore waiting is not necessary
§ C is “exposed” to B
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 Multiple Access With
Collision Avoidance (MACA)

q MACA uses signaling packets for collision

avoidance
§ RTS (request to send)
• sender request the right to send from a
receiver with a short RTS packet before it
sends a data packet
§ CTS (clear to send)
• receiver grants the right to send as soon as it
is ready to receive
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 CONT . . .

q Signaling packets contain

§ sender address
§ receiver address
§ packet size

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 MACA Solutions
q MACA avoids the
problem of hidden
terminals
§ A and C want to
send to B
§ A sends RTS first
RTS
§ C waits after A B C
CTS CTS
r e c e i v i n g
CTS from B

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 MACA Solutions

q MACA avoids the

problem of exposed
terminals
§ B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
RTS RTS
§ now C does not have A B C
CTS
to wait, as it cannot
receive CTS from A

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 Thoughts !

n 802.11 does not solve HT/ET completely

• Only alleviates the problem through RTS/CTS and recommends
larger CS zone

n Large CS zone aggravates exposed terminals

• Spatial reuse reduces  A tradeoff
• RTS/CTS packets also consume bandwidth
• Moreover, backing off mechanism is also wasteful

n The search for the best MAC protocol is still on. However,
802.11 is being optimized too. Thus, wireless MAC research
still alive

n Read articles on Hidden and exposed terminal problems

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Routing Protocols

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 What is routing? First Issue

§ Routing is the act of moving information

across network from a source to a
destination. (CISCO).
§ No default router available, every node
should be able to forward
§ A node does not have a priori knowledge of
the network topology, it will find its local
topology by broadcasting its presence and
listening to broadcast announcement from its
neighbors.

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 Cont…
§ Host mobility
– link failure/repair due to mobility may have
different characteristics than those due to
other causes
– traditional routing algorithms assume relatively
stable network topology, few router failures
§ Rate of link failure/repair may be high
when nodes move fast
§ New performance criteria may be used
– route stability despite mobility
– energy consumption
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Routing architecture: Flat vs. Hierarchical
q Flat
– Nodes are equal position, each address serves
as an identifier, no requirement for mobility
management
– Routing tables will include routes to
all the destinations
– Limitation in scalability
q Hierarchical
– Nodes are classified into different roles, there is
some kind of structure, such as clustering
– Cluster header will maintains the membership
as well as the routes
– Cost in maintaining the network architecture 34
 Usage of Super Hosts
• In practice, some super nodes will be introduced
to maintain the topology
– Preponderant bandwidth, guaranteed power supply,
high-speed wireless links, …
• Two-level network architecture
– Backbone and subarea
• The backbone will be the prior routing path
• SuperHosts assumed to have lower mobility
• Normal hosts need not make routing decisions
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 QoS routing
• QoS routing selects routes with sufficient
resources for the requested QoS parameters
• Different QoS requirements
– Most reliable path
– Most stable path
– Max total power remained path
– Max available bandwidth path
• QoS routing requires the mechanism to collect or
negotiate the status of network resources

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 Routing approaches
(classification)
§ Proactive approaches (table-driven)
– Each node maintains a route to every other node in the
network at all times.
– Periodic ( each node exchanges route information in set time interval)
and event-triggered (link addition or removal) routing updates are
used for creating and maintaining.
– Advantage: routes are available at moment they are needed.
– Disadvantage: control overhead, amount of routing state maintained
(O(n)).
– types LS and DV do not scale in large networks:
• Link-state routing • periodic or frequent route updates in large
• distance vector networks may consume a significant part of
• the available bandwidth,
To overcome these problems a • increase channel contention, and
n u m b e r o f ro u t i n g p ro to co l s • require each node to frequently recharge its
are proposed power supply. 37
 Routing approaches
§ Reactive or on-demand approaches
– Routes are only discovered when they are actually
needed
– When a source node needs to send data packet to
some destination, it checks its route, if it doesn’t
exist, performs route discovery to find a path to the
destination.
– Route discovery consists of the network-wide flooding
of a request message. To reduce overhead, the search
area may be reduced by a number of optimizations.

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 Routing approaches…
§ Reactive or on-demand approaches (…)
– Advantage: no need of maintaining routes of all nodes
– Disadvantage: route acquisition latency
– types
• Dynamic source routing
• Ad hoc On-demand distance vector routing
§ Hybrid approaches
– Combined both proactive and reactive protocols
(approaches)

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 Routing approaches
(classification)…

§ Structuring and delegating the routing task

– Zone-based routing
– Cluster-based routing
– Core-node-based routing
§ Exploiting network metrics for routing
– Number of hops
– Link stability
– Signal strength
– QoS metrics
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 Routing approaches: Trade-off:
Proactive vs. Reactive

§ Latency of route discovery

– Proactive protocols may have lower latency since routes are
maintained at all times
– Reactive protocols may have higher latency because a route
from X to Y will be found only when X attempts to send to Y
§ Overhead of route discovery/maintenance
– Reactive protocols may have lower overhead since routes are
determined only if needed
– Proactive protocols can (but not necessarily) result in higher
overhead due to continuous route updating
• Which approach achieves a better tradeoff depends on
the traffic and mobility patterns
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 Traditional routing protocols:
flooding
§ A source sends a message to all its neighbors; when a
node other than destination t receives the message the
first time it re-sends it to all its neighbors

S c

a t

Figure: flooding

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 Flooding for data delivery:
advantages
§ Simplicity
§ More efficient than other protocols when the rate of
information transmission is low enough that the overhead
of explicit route discovery/maintenance incurred by other
protocols is relatively higher
– this scenario may occur, for instance, when nodes transmit small
data packets relatively infrequently, and many topology changes
occur between consecutive packet transmissions
§ Potentially higher reliability of data delivery
– Because packets may be delivered to the destination on
multiple paths
§ For high mobility patterns, it may be the only reasonable
choice. 43
 Flooding for data delivery:
disadvantages
§ Potentially, very high overhead
– Data packets may be delivered to too many nodes
that do not need to receive them
§ Potentially, lower reliability of data delivery
– Flooding uses broadcasting – hard to implement
reliable broadcast delivery without significantly
increasing overhead
• Broadcasting in IEEE 802.11 MAC is unreliable
– In our example, nodes a and b may transmit to node t
simultaneously, resulting in loss of the packet
• in this case destination would not receive the packet at all
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 Traditional routing: Flooding for
control packets

§ Many protocols perform (potentially limited) flooding of

control packets, instead of data packets
§ The control packets are used to discover routes
§ Discovered routes are subsequently used to send data
packets without flooding
§ Overhead of control packet flooding is amortized over
data packets transmitted between consecutive control
packet floods

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 Traditional routing protocols:-
Link-State Routing Protocols
§ Link-state routing protocols are a preferred method
(within an autonomous system) in the Internet
§ Periodic notification of all routers about the current state
of all physical links (bidirectional), a router gets a complete
picture of the network
§ Routers then forward a message along (for example)
the shortest path in the graph
– (+) message follows shortest path
– (-) every node needs to store whole graph, even links
that are not on any path
– (-) every node needs to send and receive messages that
describe the whole graph regularly
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 Link-State Routing

S c

a t

Figure: Link State Routing

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Distance Vector Routing (DVR)
§ The predominant method for wired networks
§ each node stores a routing table that has an entry to each
destination (destination, distance, neighbor)
§ If a router notices a change in its neighborhood or receives
an update message from a neighbor, it updates its routing
table accordingly and sends an update to all its neighbors
– (+) message follows shortest path
– (+) only send updates when topology changes
– ( - ) m o st to p o l o g y c h a n ge s a re i r re l e va nt fo r a g i ve n
source/destination pair
– (-) every node needs to store a big table
– (-) count-to-infinity problem
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 DVR …
§ Assumption: each node knows the cost of the link to
each of its directly connected neighbors, a link that
is down is assigned an infinite cost
B N A B C D E F G
1
1
1 A 0 1 1 X 1 1 X
1 C
A D B 1 0 1 X X X X
1
C 1 1 0 1 X X X
1 E
1 D X X 1 0 X X 1

1 E 1 X X X 0 X X
F G
F 1 X X X X 0 1
Figure: Distance Vector Routing G X X X 1 X 1 0
Table: Initial distances stored at each
node(global view).
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 DVR….
§ Each node only knows the information in one row
§ Every node sends a message to its directly connected
neighbors containing its personal list of distance. ( e.g., A
sends its information to its neighbors B,C,E, and F. )
§ if recipients of the information from A find that A is
advertising a path shorter than the one they currently know
about, they update their list to give the new path length and
note that they should send packets for that destination
through A.
– For example, node B learns from A that node E can be
reached at a cost of 1; B also knows it can reach A at a cost of
1, so it adds these to get the cost of reaching E by means of A.
– B records that it can reach E at a cost of 2 by going through A.
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 DVR…
§ Every node has exchanged a few updates with its directly
connected neighbors, all nodes will know the least-cost path
to all the other nodes.
§ In addition to updating their list of distances when they
receive updates, the nodes need to keep track of which node
told them about the path that they used to calculate the cost,
so that they can create their forwarding table.
– ( for example, B knows that it was A who said ” I can reach E in
one hop” and so B puts an entry in its table that says ” To reach
E, use the link to A.)

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 DVR…
Node A B C D E F G
A 0 1 1 2 1 1 2
B 1 0 1 2 2 2 3
C 1 1 0 1 2 2 2
D 2 2 1 0 3 2 1
E 1 2 2 3 0 2 3
F 1 2 2 2 2 0 1
G 2 3 2 1 3 1 0

Table: Final distances stored at each node(global

view).
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 DVR…
• In practice, each node’s forwarding table consists of a set
of triples of the form:
( Destination, Cost, NextHop).
Table: Routing table maintained
at node B.
Destination Cost Next Hop
A 1 A
C 1 C
D 2 C
E 2 A
F 2 A
G 3 A
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 Challenges in the
Environment
q Limitations of the Wireless Network
§ packet loss due to transmission errors
§ variable capacity links
§ frequent disconnections/partitions
§ limited communication bandwidth
§ Broadcast nature of the communications

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 CONT . . .
q Limitations Imposed by Mobility
§ dynamically changing topologies/routes
§ lack of mobility awareness by
system/applications
q Limitations of the Mobile Computer
§ short battery lifetime

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 Effect of mobility on
protocol stack
q Application
§ new applications and adaptations
q Transport
§ congestion and flow control
q Network
§ routing

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 CONT . . .
q Link
§ media access and handoff
q Physical
§ transmission errors and interference

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 Tools and Software’s
q OMNET++: open-architecture simulation
environment used for computer networks,
protocols, & traffic modeling.
q NS-2: Discrete events simulator provide
simulation for TCP, routing, &
multicasting protocols.

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 Tools and Software’s
q NS-3: Focus on wireless/IP simulation
like Wi-Fi, WiMAX, LTE etc.
q QualNet: Works as modeling tool for
wireless & wired networks.

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 THANK YOU!!

Q&A?
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