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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Chemistry CIE 

9. Metals

CONTENTS
9.1 Properties, Uses & Alloys of Metals
9.1.1 Properties of Metals
9.1.2 Uses of Metals
9.1.3 Alloys
9.2 Reactivity Series & Corrosion of Metals
9.2.1 Reactivity Series
9.2.2 Explaining Reactivity
9.2.3 Rusting of Iron
9.2.4 Galvanising & Sacrificial Protection
9.3 Extraction of Metals
9.3.1 Extraction of Metals
9.3.2 Extraction of Iron from Hematite
9.3.3 Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite

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9.1 Properties, Uses & Alloys of Metals YOUR NOTES


9.1.1 Properties of Metals

Physical Properties of Metals & Non-Metals

Metals and non-metals
The Periodic Table contains over 100 different elements
They can be divided into two broad types: metals and non-metals
Most of the elements are metals and a small number of elements display properties of both
types
These elements are called metalloids or semimetals

The metallic character diminishes moving left to right across the Periodic Table
Properties of metals
Conduct heat and electricity
Are malleable (can be hammered and made into different shapes) and ductile (can be
drawn into wires)

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Tend to be lustrous (shiny) YOUR NOTES

Have high density and usually have high melting points 
Form positive ions through electron loss
Form basic oxides
Properties of non-metal elements
Do not conduct heat and electricity
Are brittle when solid and easily break up
Tend to be dull and nonreflective
Have low density and low melting points (many are gases at room temperature)
Form negative ions through electron gain (except for hydrogen)
Form acidic oxides

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Chemical Properties of Metals YOUR NOTES

General chemical properties of metals 
The chemistry of metals is studied by analysing their reactions with water, dilute acid and
oxygen
Based on these reactions, a reactivity series of metals can be produced
Reactivity with water
Some metals react with water, either warm or cold, or with steam
Metals that react with cold water form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas
metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen
For example calcium:
Ca (s) + 2H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Metals that react with steam form metal oxide and hydrogen gas, for example zinc:
Zn (s) + H2O (g) → ZnO (s) + H2 (g)
Reactivity with acids
Most metals react with dilute acids such as HCl
When acids and metals react, the hydrogen atom in the acid is replaced by the metal atom
to produce a salt and hydrogen gas, for example iron:
metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Reactivity with oxygen
Unreactive metals such as gold and platinum do not react with oxygen
Some reactive metals such as the alkali metals react easily with oxygen
Copper and iron can also react with oxygen although much more slowly
When metals react with oxygen a metal oxide is formed, for example copper:
metal + oxygen → metal oxide
2Cu (s) + O2 (g) → 2CuO (s)

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9.1.2 Uses of Metals YOUR NOTES


Uses of Metals
Uses of Aluminium

Uses of Copper

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9.1.3 Alloys YOUR NOTES


Properties & Uses of Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or metal with a non-metal such as carbon
Alloys often have properties that can be very different from the metals they contain, for
example, they can have more strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or extreme
temperatures
These enhanced properties can make alloys more useful than pure metals

The regular arrangement of a metal lattice structure is distorted in alloys

Common alloys and their uses
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and is much stronger than either metal
It is used in musical instruments, ornaments and door knobs
Stainless steel is a mixture of iron and other elements, for example, chromium, nickel and
carbon
It is used in cutlery because of its hardness and resistance to corrosion
Alloys of iron with tungsten are extremely hard and resistant to high temperatures
Alloys of iron mixed with chromium or nickel are resistant to corrosion
Aluminium is mixed with copper, manganese and silicon for aircraft body production as the
alloy is stronger but still has a low density

 Exam Tip
Alloys are mixtures of substances, they are not chemically combined and an alloy is
not a compound.

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Explaining the Properties of Alloys YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the normally regular arrangements
of atoms in metals
This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so alloys are usually much
harder than the pure metal

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9.2 Reactivity Series & Corrosion of Metals YOUR NOTES


9.2.1 Reactivity Series

Reactivity Series
The chemistry of the metals is studied by analysing their reactions with water and acids
Based on these reactions a reactivity series of metals can be produced
The series can be used to place a group of metals in order of reactivity based on the
observations of their reactions with water and acids
The non-metals hydrogen and carbon are also included in the reactivity series as they are
used to extract metals from their oxides
Table of Metal Reactions

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YOUR NOTES


The reactivity series mnemonic

Observations from the table above allow the following reactivity series to be deduced
The order of this reactivity series can be memorised using the following mnemonic
“Please send cats, monkeys and cute zebras into hot countries signed Gordon"

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YOUR NOTES


You can learn the reactivity series with the help of a silly phrase
Reactions of Metals
Reaction with cold water
The more reactive metals will react with cold water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen
gas
Potassium, sodium and calcium all undergo reactions with cold water as they are the most
reactive metals:
metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen
For example, calcium and potassium:
Ca (s) + 2H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
K (s) + H2O (l) → KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Reaction with steam
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Metals just below calcium in the reactivity series do not react with cold water but will react YOUR NOTES
with steam to form a metal oxide and hydrogen gas, for example, magnesium: 
Mg (s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2 (g)
Reaction with dilute acids
Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids
Unreactive metals below hydrogen, such as gold, silver and copper, do not react with acids
The more reactive the metal then the more vigorous the reaction will be
Metals that are placed high on the reactivity series such as potassium and sodium are very
dangerous and react explosively with acids
When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:
The general equation is:
metal + acid ⟶ salt + hydrogen
Some examples of metal-acid reactions and their equations are given below:
Acid-Metal Reactions Table

Reaction with oxygen

Some reactive metals, such as the alkali metals, react easily with oxygen
Silver, copper and iron can also react with oxygen although much more slowly
When metals react with oxygen a metal oxide is formed, for example, copper:
metal + oxygen → metal oxide
2Cu (s) + O2 (g) → 2CuO (s)
Gold does not react with oxygen
Deducing the order of reactivity
The order of reactivity of metals can be deduced by making experimental observations of
reactions between metals and water, acids and oxygen
The more vigorous the reaction of the metal, the higher up the reactivity series the metal is
A combination of reactions may be needed, for example, the order of reactivity of the more
reactive metals can be determined by their reactions with water
The less reactive metals react slowly or not at all with water, so the order of reactivity would
need to be determined by observing their reactions with dilute acid

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Temperature change in a reaction can also be used to determine the order of reactivity YOUR NOTES
The greater the temperature change in a reaction involving a metal, the more reactive the 
metal is

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9.2.2 Explaining Reactivity YOUR NOTES


Explaining Reactivity
EXTENDED
Metal atoms form positive ions by loss of electrons when they react with other substances
The tendency of a metal to lose electrons is a measure of how reactive the metal is
A metal that is high up on the series loses electrons easily and is thus more reactive than
one which is lower down on the series
Displacement reactions between metals and aqueous solutions of metal
salts
Any metal will displace another metal that is below it in the reactivity series from a solution
of one of its salts
This is because more reactive metals lose electrons and form ions more readily than less
reactive metals, making them better reducing agents
The less reactive metal is a better electron acceptor than the more reactive metal, thus the
less reactive metal is reduced. (OIL-RIG: reduction is gain of electrons)l
Example: Magnesium + copper sulfate
Magnesium is a reactive metal and can displace copper from a copper sulfate solution
Magnesium loses its electrons more easily and the ion of the less reactive metal, copper,
will gain these electrons to form elemental copper
This is easily seen as the more reactive metal slowly disappears from the
solution, displacing the less reactive metal
magnesium + copper sulfate → magnesium sulfate + copper
Mg (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
The blue colour of the CuSO4 solution fades as colourless magnesium sulfate solution is
formed
Copper coats the surface of the magnesium and also forms solid metal which falls to the
bottom of the beaker

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YOUR NOTES


Diagram showing the colour change when magnesium displaces copper from copper
sulfate
By combining different metals and metal salts solutions it is possible to come up with a
relative reactivity order
Metal Solutions Displacement Table

From this table we can deduce the order of reactivity:

Magnesium and zinc are both more reactive than iron but magnesium is more reactive
than zinc
Copper and silver are both less reactive than iron but silver is less reactive than copper
The order of reactivity of the metals tested can be therefore be deduced as:
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Mg > Zn > Fe > Cu > Ag YOUR NOTES

Reactivity of aluminium 

Aluminium is high in the reactivity series, but in reality, it does not react with water and the
reaction with dilute acids can be quite slow
This is because it reacts readily with oxygen, forming a protective layer of aluminium oxide
which is very thin
This layer prevents reaction with water and dilute acids, so aluminium can behave as if it is
unreactive

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9.2.3 Rusting of Iron YOUR NOTES


Rusting of Iron
Rust is a chemical reaction between iron, water and oxygen to form the compound
hydrated iron(III) oxide (rust)
Oxygen and water must be present for rust to occur
During rusting, iron is oxidised
iron + water + oxygen → hydrated iron(III) oxide
Investigating rusting
To investigate the conditions required for rusting, prepare three test tubes as shown in the
diagram
The oil in the 2nd tube keeps out air and the water has been boiled so that no air is left in it
The calcium chloride in the 3rd tube is used to remove any moisture in the air
After a few days, the iron nail in the 1st tube will be the only nail to show signs of rust

Diagram showing the requirements of oxygen and water for rust to occur: only the nail on the
left rusts
Rust prevention methods
Barrier methods
Rust can be prevented by coating iron with barriers that prevent the iron from coming into
contact with water and oxygen
However, if the coatings are washed away or scratched, the iron is once again exposed to
water and oxygen and will rust

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Only iron or steel (an alloy made from iron) can rust. If any other metal oxidises in air
causing the metal to break down, you should say that the metal has corroded.

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9.2.4 Galvanising & Sacrificial Protection YOUR NOTES


Galvanising & Sacrificial Protection
EXTENDED
Iron can be prevented from rusting using the reactivity series
Sacrificial Protection
A more reactive metal can be attached to a less reactive metal
The more reactive metal will oxidise and therefore corrode first, protecting the less reactive
metal from corrosion
E.g. using zinc bars on the side of steel ships:

Diagram to show the use of zinc bars on the sides of steel ships as a method of sacrificial
protection
Zinc is more reactive than iron therefore will lose its electrons more easily than iron and is
oxidised more easily:
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
The iron is less reactive therefore will not lose its electrons as easily so it is not oxidised; the
zinc is sacrificed to protect the steel
For continued protection, the zinc bars have to be replaced before they completely corrode
Galvanising
Galvanising is a process where the iron to be protected is coated with a layer of zinc
This can be done by electroplating or dipping it into molten zinc
ZnCO3 is formed when zinc reacts with oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air and protects
the iron by the barrier method
If the coating is damaged or scratched, the iron is still protected from rusting by sacrificial
protection

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 You maybe asked to explain why a metal is/is not suitable as a method of preventing

an iron/steel object from rusting. Remember that if it is higher in the reactivity series
than iron, it will be suitable for sacrificial protection as it will be oxidised instead of
iron. If it is lower in the reactivity series than iron, it would not be suitable as iron
would be oxidised, causing it to rust.

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9.3 Extraction of Metals YOUR NOTES


9.3.1 Extraction of Metals

Extraction of Metals
The Earth’s crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, copper, iron oxide
and aluminium oxide
Useful metals are often chemically combined with other substances forming ores
A metal ore is a rock that contains enough of the metal to make it worthwhile extracting
They have to be extracted from their ores through processes such as electrolysis, using
a blast furnace or by reacting with more reactive material
In many cases the ore is an oxide of the metal, therefore the extraction of these metals is a
reduction process since oxygen is being removed
Common examples of oxide ores are iron and aluminium ores which are
called hematite and bauxite respectively
Unreactive metals do not have to be extracted chemically as they are often found as
the uncombined element
This occurs as they do not easily react with other substances due to
their chemical stability
They are known as native metals and examples include gold and platinum which can both
be mined directly from the Earth’s crust
The position of the metal on the reactivity series influences the method of extraction
Those metals placed higher up on the series (above carbon) have to be extracted using
electrolysis
Metals lower down on the series can be extracted by heating with carbon
The Extraction Method Depends on the Position of a Metal in the Reactivity Series

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YOUR NOTES


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9.3.2 Extraction of Iron from Hematite YOUR NOTES


Extraction of Iron from Hematite
Iron is extracted in a large container called a blast furnace from its ore, hematite
Modern blast furnaces produce approximately 10,000 tonnes of iron per day
The process is demonstrated and explained below:

Diagram showing the carbon extraction of iron

The raw materials: iron ore (hematite), coke (an impure form of carbon), and limestone are
added into the top of the blast furnace
Hot air is blown into the bottom
Zone 1:
Coke burns in the hot air forming carbon dioxide
The reaction is exothermic so it gives off heat, heating the furnace

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carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide YOUR NOTES

Zone 2: 
At the high temperatures in the furnace, more coke reacts with carbon dioxide forming
carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide has been reduced to carbon monoxide
carbon + carbon dioxide → carbon monoxide
Zone 3:
Carbon monoxide reduces the iron(III) oxide in the iron ore to form iron
This will melt and collect at the bottom of the furnace, where it is tapped off:
iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide → iron + carbon dioxide
Limestone (calcium carbonate) is added to the furnace to remove impurities in the ore.
The calcium carbonate in the limestone thermally decomposes to form calcium oxide
calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
The calcium oxide formed reacts with the silicon dioxide, which is an impurity in the iron ore,
to form calcium silicate
This melts and collects as a molten slag floating on top of the molten iron, which is tapped
off separately
calcium oxide + silicon dioxide → calcium silicate

 Exam Tip
For Core students, the symbol equations are not needed for the different reactions
involved in the extraction of iron from hematite.

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Equations for Extraction of Iron from Hematite YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
The symbol equations for the different stages of the extraction of iron from hematite are:

Zone 1: The burning of carbon (coke) to provide heat and produce carbon dioxide:
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
Zone 2: The reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide:
CO2 (g) + C (s) → 2CO (g)
Zone 3: The reduction of iron(III) oxide by carbon monoxide:
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (I) + 3CO2 (g)
The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone) to produce calcium oxide:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
The formation of slag:
CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) → CaSiO3 (l)

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9.3.3 Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite YOUR NOTES


Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite
Aluminium is a reactive metal, above carbon in the reactivity series
Its main ore, is bauxite, which contains aluminium oxide
Aluminium is higher in the reactivity series than carbon, so it cannot be extracted by
reduction using carbon
Instead, aluminium is extracted by electrolysis

Diagram showing the extraction of aluminium by electrolysis

 Exam Tip
If you are a Core student, you do not need to explain the process of extraction of
aluminium by electrolysis.

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The Process of Aluminium Extraction by Electrolysis YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
Bauxite is first purified to produce aluminium oxide, Al2O3
Aluminium oxide is then dissolved in molten cryolite
This is because aluminium oxide has a melting point of over 2000°C which would use
a lot of energy and be very expensive
The resulting mixture has a lower melting point without interfering with the reaction
The mixture is placed in an electrolysis cell, made from steel, lined with graphite
The graphite lining acts as the negative electrode, with several large graphite blocks as the
positive electrodes
At the cathode (negative electrode):
Aluminium ions gain electrons (reduction)
Molten aluminium forms at the bottom of the cell
The molten aluminium is siphoned off from time to time and fresh aluminium oxide is
added to the cell
Al3+ + 3e- → Al
At the anode (positive electrode):
Oxide ions lose electrons (oxidation)
Oxygen is produced at the anode:
2O2- → O2 + 4e-
The overall equation for the reaction is:
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
The carbon in the graphite anodes reacts with the oxygen produced to produce CO2
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
As a result the anode wears away and has to be replaced regularly
A lot of electricity is required for this process of extraction, this is a major expense

 Exam Tip
Use OIL RIG to remember whether oxidation or reduction has occurred at the
electrodes:

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