A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H.

ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

CELL STRUCTURE AND MICROSCOPY

The cell is a basic unit of life. A cell carries out a number of activities including
protein synthesis, cell division and it is where the hereditary material is. Specialized
cells constitute tissues. The study of cells is known as cytology.
The cell theory states that;
• All living organisms are composed of cells.
• All new cells are derived from other cells.
• Cells contain the hereditary material of an organism which is passed on from
parent to daughter cells.
• All metabolic processes take place within cells.

Investigation of the cell structure

Cells are investigated using microscopes. There are 2 main types of microscopes,
i.e., compound light microscope and electron microscope.
1) The compound light microscope:
This is a type of microscope that uses light to investigate
structures. Two lenses are used i.e., objective lens and the
ocular lens (eye piece lens).
Light from an object passes through the first lens
(objective) and produces a magnified image which acts as
the object for the second lens (eye piece lens) which
further magnifies it.
The degree of detail which can be seen with a microscope is called its resolution
(resolving power). This measures its ability to distinguish objects close together
2) The electron microscope:
It works on the same principle as the light microscope but instead of light rays, a
beam of electrons is used.
It magnifies objects over 500,000 times which
compares with the best light microscope that
magnifies only 1500 times.
Whereas the light microscope uses glass
lenses to focus light rays, the electron beam
of the electron microscope is focused using
electron beams.
The image produced cannot be detected by a
naked eye but is directed on a screen from
which black and white photographs called
photoelectron micrographs can be seen.

Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 1 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆
Magnification can be calculated using the formula (magnification =
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆
Advantages and disadvantages of the light and electron microscope
Light microscope Electron microscope
(advantages) (disadvantages)
It is easy and cheap to operate since it It is difficult and expensive to operate
uses little or no electricity. since it requires much electricity to
produce an electron beam.
The natural colour of the specimen can be All images are in black and white.
observed.
It is small and portable. It is very large and operated in special
rooms.
It can view living and dead materials. The high vacuum required kills the living
materials.
Preparation of material is quick. Preparation of material is lengthy and
requires special equipment.
Materials are not changed or distorted by Materials are changed or distorted by
preparation. preparation.
Disadvantages Advantages
It has a low resolving power i.e., 200nm. Has a high resolving power of about 1nm.
It has a low magnifying power i.e., up to Has a high magnifying power i.e. up to
1500 times. 500,000 times.

Metric units of conversion

The units of size are:
One kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (103 m)
One meter (m) = 100 meters (1m)
One centimeter (cm) = 1⁄100 meters (10-2 m)
One millimeter (mm) = 1⁄1000 meters (10-3 m)
One micrometer/micron (µm) = 1⁄1000000 meters (10-6 m)
One nanometer (nm) = 10-9 m
One picometer (pm) = 10-12 m
Trial questions;
1. If the magnification of the microscope is 50,000 times and the size of the image viewed
is five (5) mm. what is the actual size of the object in microns.
2. A specimen observed under a microscope measures 50mm and the actual specimen
measured 5.0 micrometers. What is the magnification of the specimen under the
microscope?

Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 2 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

Cells
All cells are self-contained and self-sufficient units. They are surrounded by a cell
membrane and have a nucleus or nuclear area.
There are two types of cells grouped according to their structure. They include
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Structure of prokaryotic cells

These are cells of bacteria. They are referred to as primitive cells because they are
believed to have occurred in the earliest organisms. Their DNA (Deoxyribose
Nucleic Acid) is not enclosed within a nuclear membrane therefore have no true
nucleus. Such cells also have no membrane bound organelles

Functions of the parts of a prokaryotic cell

70S ribosomes: this is the site of protein
synthesis.
Cell wall: it protects and maintains shape.
Cell membrane: controls entry and exit of substances.
Nucleotide: region of one free strand of DNA.
Food granules: this includes glycogen and lipid granules.
Cytoplasm: center for bio-chemical reactions. The following parts are sometimes present:
Mesosome: site of respiration. It may also be involved in cell division. The mesosome is an in-
folding of the cell membrane.
Flagella: this propels the bacterium along.
Capsule (slimy layer): for protection.
Pili (fimbriae): these are protein filaments that facilitate cell adhesion and conjugation.
Plasmid: this is an independent small circle of DNA. It also offers resistance to drugs.

The structure of eukaryotic cells

These are true cells that developed from prokaryotic cells. This development
involved several stages which include:
• Development of a nuclear membrane around the nuclear material forming a true
nucleus.
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 3 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

• Development of membrane bounded organelles e.g., mitochondria and nucleus

within the cytoplasm of the cell.
There are two main types of eukaryotic cells i.e., the plant cell and animal cell
Structure of a plant cell

Structure of the animal cell

Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 4 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
They lack a true nucleus since the genetic Have a true nucleus with a membrane binding the
material is naked with scattered areas of genetic material.
nucleoplasm with no nuclear membrane.
There are no chromosomes but only circular Chromosomes are present on which DNA is
strands of DNA. located.
No mitosis or meiosis occurs. Mitosis and meiosis occur.
Lack the membrane bounded organelles e.g., Have membrane bounded organelles.
chloroplast, mitochondria.
Flagella if present lack the 9+2 fibril arrangement. Flagella have the 9+2 internal fibril arrangement.
Ribosomes are smaller. Ribosomes are larger.

Differences between plant and animal cells

Plant cells Animal cells
Cell wall present in addition to the cell membrane. Cell wall absent, only cell membrane surrounds the
cell.
Pits and plasmodesmata present. Pits and plasmodesmata absent.
Plastids e.g., chloroplasts and leucoplasts are Plastids absent.
present.
Mature cells have large single central vacuole Vacuoles e.g., contractile vacuoles if present are
filled with cell sap. small and scattered throughout the cell.
Tonoplast is present around the vacuole. Tonoplast absent.
Cytoplasm confined to a thin layer at the edge of Cytoplasm is present throughout the cell.
the cell.
Nucleus at the edge of the cell. Nucleus anywhere in the cell but often central.
Lysosomes absent. Lysosomes present.
Cilia and flagella absent. Cilia and flagella present.
Starch granules used for storage. Glycogen granules used for storage.
Middle lamella present. Middle lamella absent.
Only meristematic cells are capable of division. All cells are capable of division.
Few secretions released. A variety of secretions released.

Structure of cellular parts and their functions

These include all cell organelles, the components within the cytoplasm, cell
membrane and cell wall.
An organelle is a distinct part of the cell which is membrane bound having a
particular function for the cell. The most important organelles are:
Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, mitochondrion, plastids such as chloroplasts,
ribosomes, cell vacuoles and nucleus. Other cellular parts which aren’t organelles
are; microtubules, centrioles, cell wall, cytoplasm, microfilaments, cell membrane
and cytosol (cytosol is the liquid found inside cells).
Note: Whereas cytosol is the fluid contained in the cell cytoplasm, cytoplasm is

Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 5 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

the entire content within the cell membrane.

Protoplasm is the translucent material comprising the living part of plant and animal
cells, including the cytoplasm, nucleus, and other organelles. The main difference
between cytoplasm and protoplasm is that cytoplasm is all the contents inside the
cell membrane excluding the nucleus yet protoplasm includes cytoplasm plus the
nucleus of the cell. Protoplast is the protoplasm of a living plant or bacterial cell
whose cell wall has been removed.
Assignment:
Draw four adjacent cells from each of the images below as seen under a light microscope. Write
titles to your drawings and label the parts seen.
Animal cheek cells Plant cells

Structure of cellular parts and their functions

These include all cell organelles, the components within the cytoplasm, cell
membrane and cell wall.
An organelle is a distinct part of the cell which is membrane bound having a
particular function for the cell. The most important organelles are:
Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, mitochondrion, plastids such as chloroplasts,
ribosomes, cell vacuoles and nucleus. Other cellular parts which aren’t organelles
are; microtubules, centrioles, cell wall, cytoplasm, microfilaments, cell membrane
and cytosol (cytosol is the liquid found inside cells).
Note: Whereas cytosol is the fluid contained in the cell cytoplasm, cytoplasm is the
entire content within the cell membrane.
Protoplasm is the translucent material comprising the living part of plant and animal
cells, including the cytoplasm, nucleus, and other organelles. The main difference
between cytoplasm and protoplasm is that cytoplasm is all the contents inside the
cell membrane excluding the nucleus yet protoplasm includes cytoplasm plus the
nucleus of the cell. Protoplast is the protoplasm of a living plant or bacterial cell
whose cell wall has been removed.
All cell organelles are contained within the cytoplasmic cell known as cytoplasm.
It also contains storage materials like oil droplets, starch granules and glucose
granules. It is a site for many bio-chemical processes like glycolysis. It is not static
but capable of mass flow which is known as cytoplasmic streaming.
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 6 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

Cell membrane
This is also referred to as the plasma membrane which covers cells to separate
them from external environment.
In eukaryotic cells however, there are two types of membranes i.e., plasma
membrane which binds the cell and intracellular membranes which bind other
organelles within the cell. All membranes of the cell have the same basic structure.
Some substances can pass freely in and out of the membrane yet others can be
excluded at one moment only to pass freely across at another occasion. Due to this,
the membrane is said to be partially permeable or semi permeable.

Structure of the plasma membrane

It is believed that the cell membrane is made up of mainly two chemical groups i.e.,
proteins and phospholipids as explained by the fluid mosaic theory of the structure
of the plasma membrane. According to Singer and Nicholson (1972), the structure
of the plasma membrane is a fluid-mosaic model.
It is described as fluid because the individual phospholipids and protein molecules
can move laterally, giving the membrane a flexible structure that is constantly
changing in shape.
It is mosaic because the proteins that are embedded in the phospholipids bi-layer
vary in size, shape and pattern of arrangement.
The components of the cell membrane are: Proteins, Phospholipids, Carbohydrates
and Cholesterol.

Description of the structure of cell membrane:

It is made up of two layers of phospholipids (phospholipid bi-layer) whose lipids face
inwards of the membrane while phosphate heads face outwards;
The phosphate heads are polar, hydrophilic and form hydrogen bonds with water;
The lipid tails are non-polar, hydrophobic and are attracted to each other by
hydrophobic interactions;

Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 7 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

Extrinsic proteins are found at the inner and outer surface. Some intrinsic proteins
are partly embedded in anyone of the phospholipid layer while others span across
the two-phospholipid bi-layer (transmembrane protein);
Some transmembrane proteins are porous. Some phospholipids conjugate with
short branched carbohydrates to form glycoproteins;
Some phospholipids conjugate with short branched carbohydrates to form
glycolipids;
In animal cells, the cholesterol squeeze through phospholipid molecules;

Revision questions:
1. Describe six roles of the cell membrane proteins.
2. How is the cell membrane suited to its functions?
3. What are the main ideas of the cell theory?
4. Describe the structure of the plasma membrane.

Functions of the cell membrane

The phospholipid bi-layer provides the basic structure of membranes. It also
restricts entry and exit of polar molecules and ions. The other components have a
variety of functions which include:
Proteins:
• Glycoproteins work as antigens in immunity.
• Channel proteins allow diffusion of polar ions and molecules across the
membrane.
• Transport proteins move ions or solutes by active transport e.g., sodium ions or
by facilitated diffusion e.g., glucose, amino acids across the membrane.
• Membrane proteins provide sites for cytoskeleton filaments to anchor to support
and maintain cell shape.
• Membrane proteins join cells together forming tissues which perform specific
functions.
• Glycoproteins are involved in cell-to-cell recognition by cells of complimentary
sites.
• Glycoproteins have very specific shapes. This makes them ideal as receptor
molecules for chemical signaling between the cells e.g., hormones are chemical
messages which circulate in blood but only bind to specific target cells which have
the correct receptor sites.
• Cell surface receptor proteins are involved in signal-transduction by converting
an extracellular signal to an intracellular one.
• Some membrane proteins have enzymatic properties e.g., ATP synthase for ATP
synthesis.
• Some membrane proteins work as electron carriers in electron transport chains.
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 8 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

Glycolipids: Are involved in cell-to-cell recognition.

Cholesterol:
• Stabilizes membrane structure by preventing phospholipids from closely packing
together.
• Act like a plug, reducing even further the escape or entry of polar molecules
through the membrane.
The lipid bilayer: Being semi-permeable, it controls movement of substances in
and out of the cell.
Microvilli:
These are tiny finger-like projections about 0.6 micro meters in length on the
membranes of certain cells e.g., those lining the intestines and kidney tubules.
The microvilli are massed together and appear similar to bristles of a brush hence
the term brush border given to the age of cells having microvilli.
An animal cell with microvilli Each microvillus contains bundles of actin
and myosin filaments hence allowing them
to contract which along with their large
surface area facilitate absorption of
materials.
Cell wall
It is found in plant cells and made up of
cellulose micro fibrils embedded in an
amorphous polysaccharide matrix. The
matrix has polysaccharides e.g., pectin or
lignin.

Structure of a cell wall

Functions of a cell wall

• It provides support in herbaceous plants. As water enters the cell osmotically, the
cell wall resists expansion and internal pressure is created which provides
turgidity of the cell and the plant as a whole.

Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 9 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

• It gives direct support to the cell and the plant by providing mechanical strength.
The strength may be increased by presence of lignin in the matrix between the
cellulose fibres.
• It allows movement of water through and along it hence contributing to movement
of water in the plant as a whole especially in the cortex of the root.
• It stops loss of materials from the cell to the outside since it is less permeable
than the cell membrane.
• The arrangement of the cellulose fibrils in the cell wall gives the overall shape of
the cell.
Membrane-bound organelles
1. Nucleus:
This is the most prominent feature of the cell. Its shape, size, position and its
chemical composition of the cell vary from cell to cell but its functions are always
the same, mainly to control the cell’s activities and to retain the organism’s
hereditary materials (chromosomes).

Description of the structure:

Cell nucleus is enclosed by a double-layered nuclear membrane (nuclear
envelope); The outer membrane is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum;
A fluid-filled space (perinuclear space) exists between the two layers of a nuclear
membrane; The nuclear membrane is perforated by tiny nuclear pores;
Enclosed within the inner membrane are the nucleoplasm, nucleolus and
chromosomes (chromatin); Nucleolus is a dense, spherical-shaped structure;
Chromosomes (chromatin) are thread-like.

Functions of the nucleus

• Controls the heredity features of an organism.
• Controls protein synthesis, cell division, growth and differentiation.
• Stores DNA, the heredity material.
• Stores proteins and RNA in the nucleolus.
• Site for transcription in which messenger RNA are produced for protein synthesis.
• Nucleolus produces ribosomes, which are the protein factories.
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 10 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

Adaptations of the nucleus

• DNA is long to store many genes.
• Nuclear membrane has pores for exchange of DNA and RNA between the
nucleus and cytoplasm.
• Presence of nucleolus enables production of ribosomes which are protein
factories.
• Nuclear envelope isolate nucleus from interference by processes in cytoplasm.
• Nuclear pores are narrow to regulate entry and exit of substances.

2. Chloroplasts:
The chloroplast has an inner and outer membrane with an empty intermediate
space in between. Inside the chloroplast are stacks of thylakoids, called grana, as
well as stroma, the dense fluid inside of the chloroplast. The stroma is semi gel like
fluid with chloroplast DNA, 70S ribosomes, starch granules, lipid globules and
thylakoid membrane system. These thylakoids contain the chlorophyll that is
necessary for the plant to go through photosynthesis. They belong to the large
group of organelles known as plastids. They are pigmented with a green pigment
called chlorophyll.
The structure of the chloroplast

The main function of chloroplast is being a site for manufacture of food during
photosynthesis.
Adaptations of chloroplast for photosynthesis
• Outer membrane is semi-permeable to regulate entry and exit of substances for
maintaining internal chloroplast environment.
• Abundant light trapping pigments for photosynthesis.
• Abundant enzymes catalyze photosynthetic reactions in the stroma.
• Extensive network of thylakoid membranes increases surface area for
photosynthesis.
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 11 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

• Narrow intermembrane space enables H+ ion concentration gradient to be rapidly

established for chemiosmosis to occur.
• Inner membrane contains molecules for electron transport pathway.
• DNA is present to act as genetic material for synthesis of some protein.
• Many ribosomes for protein synthesis to reduce on importing proteins from
cytoplasm.

3. Mitochondria:
Mitochondria have an inner and outer membrane, with an intermembrane space
between them. The outer membrane contains proteins known as porins, which allow
movement of ions into and out of the mitochondrion. The inner one is folded inwards
to give rise to extensions called cristae and contains a variety of enzymes. The
surfaces of the cristae have stalked granules along their length. Mitochondrial
matrix is fluid filled, with several enzymes, small sized ribosomes and circular DNA.
Transverse section of the mitochondria

Stalked particles/granules contain ATPase enzyme which increases surface area

over which respiration occurs.
Adaptations of the mitochondrion for respiration
• Double membranes isolate the mitochondrion from interference by processes in
the cytoplasm.
• Small size gives large surface area to volume ratio for rapid uptake/release of
materials.
• Matrix contains enzymes of Krebs cycle.
• Inner membrane forms cristae to increase the surface area for electron transport
chain.
• Inner membrane contains stalked particles that make ATP.
• Narrow intermembrane space enables H+ ion concentration gradient to be rapidly
established for chemiosmosis to occur.
• Inner membrane contains molecules for electron transport pathway.
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 12 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

• DNA is present to act as genetic material for synthesis of some proteins.

• Many ribosomes for protein synthesis to reduce on importing proteins from
cytoplasm.

4. Endoplasmic reticulum (E. R):

The ER is the system of membranes found out on the nucleus forming a cytoplasmic
skeleton. The ER is an extension of the outer nuclear membrane with which it is
continuous. The membranes form a series of sheets which enclose flattened sacks
called cisternae.
Where the membranes are lined with ribosomes; they are called rough endoplasmic
reticulum (R.E.R). The RER is concerned with protein synthesis and it is most
abundant in those cells which are rapidly growing or secrete enzymes.
In the same way, damage to a cell often results into increased formation in order to
produce the proteins necessary for the cell repair.
Where the membranes lack ribosomes, they are known as smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (S.E.R). The SER is concerned with lipid synthesis and is consequently
in those cells producing lipid related secretions e.g., the sebaceous glands of the
mammalian skin.
Structure of the endoplasmic reticulum

Functions of the ER
• Providing a large surface for chemical reactions.
• Providing a pathway for the transport of the materials in the cell.
• Producing proteins especially enzymes (RER).
• Producing lipids and steroids (SER).
• Collecting and storing synthesized materials.
• Providing a structural skeleton to maintain cellular shape. E.g., the SER of the
rod cell of the eye retina.
• Synthesis and repair of membranes by producing cholesterol and phospholipids,
(SER).
Adaptations of endoplasmic reticulum
• The interconnected network provides the cell with skeletal framework.
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 13 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

• Forming an extensive network increases the surface area for metabolic reactions
e.g., protein synthesis at RER.
• The endoplasmic reticulum membrane compartmentalizes the cytoplasm
(isolates lumen from cytosol), which enables transporting soluble and well
packaged substances to their specific destinations.
• The endoplasmic reticulum membrane compartmentalization also prevents
interference of different metabolic processes taking place in the cell at the same
time.
• Contains a variety of enzymes for performing divergent roles in cell metabolism.
• The SER is modified into sarcoplasmic reticulum for storage and release of
calcium ions during muscle contraction and relaxation.
• The membrane has a variety of proteins that offer unique properties including
signal reception.
• The RER membrane has sites for attachment of many ribosomes for protein
synthesis.

5. Golgi body:
Golgi body is made up of piles (stacks) of flattened sacs called cisternae (singular:
cisterna) with vesicles budding (pinching) off at edges of sacs.
One cisterna is a flattened sac, with a lumen enclosed by a single membrane.
Between 4-8 cisternae pile up to form a stack which bends to form a semi-circle.
A cell may have 40 to 100 stacks. An individual stack of the cisternae is sometimes
referred as dictyosome.
The cisternae carry structural proteins important for their maintenance as flattened
membranes which stack upon each other.
The Golgi apparatus is more developed in secretory cells and neurons and is small
in muscle cells. This suggests that the Golgi apparatus plays some role in the
production of secretory materials.

Functions of the Golgi apparatus

• To modify, sort and package proteins that are made at the rough endoplasmic
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 14 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

reticulum for secretion (export) or for use within the cell.

• Transport of lipid molecules around the cell.
• Formation of lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes.
• Formation of peroxisomes.
• In plant cells, Golgi produces vesicles that join to form cell plates during cell
division.
• Secretory vesicles produced by Golgi apparatus contain a variety of important
substances e.g., neurotransmitters, hormones, mucin, zymogen e.g.,
pepsinogen, etc.
• Fusion of Golgi vesicles with cell membrane maintains the membrane which is
used to form phagocytic vacuoles and Pinocytic vesicles.
Note: Golgi complex is the cell’s “post office” or “shipping department” where
molecules are packaged, labelled and sent to different parts of the cell.

Adaptations of the Golgi apparatus

• Cisternae are enclosed by selectively permeable membranes, which isolate the
inside cavity from cytosol for efficient functioning.
• Tubular structure enables transportation of soluble protein and lipids from the
endoplasmic reticulum for modification.
• Variety of enzyme systems for modifying proteins by adding carbohydrates and
phosphate by the process of glycosylation and phosphorylation respectively.
• Many cisternae increase the surface area for modifying synthesized
macromolecules.

6. Lysosome
This is a simple spherical sac bounded by a single membrane and
containing digestive enzymes (hydrolytic enzymes). It has no
internal structures which are visible. The word lysosome comes
from two words ‘lysis’ meaning splitting, ‘soma’ meaning body.
Therefore, lysosomes are connected with the destruction of cells and their
structures.
Lysosomes are bound by a single membrane and contain digestive hydrolytic
enzymes like hydrolases in acid solutions. They isolate these enzymes from the
remainder of the cell and in so doing they prevent them from acting upon other
chemicals and organelles within the cell.

Functions of lysosomes
• They digest materials which the cell consumes from the environment. In case of
white blood cells, the material may be bacteria. In protozoa it is the food which

Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 15 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

has been consumed by phagocytosis.

• They digest parts of the cell e.g., worn out organelles in a process called
autophagy. A lysosome fuses with worn-out cellular components like
mitochondrion to form autophagic vacuole in which digestion occurs by lysosomal
enzymes into end products which leave by diffusion or with the aid of specialized
transporters into cytoplasm while undigested material (residual body) is released
outside by exocytosis.
• After death of the cell, they are responsible for its complete breakdown a process
called autolysis. Primary lysosome releases hydrolytic enzymes within a dead
cell to digest the whole cell.
• They release enzymes outside the cell (exocytosis) in order to break down other
cells e.g., in the re absorption of tad pole tails during frog metamorphosis.
Functioning of lysosomes

7. Microbodies (peroxisomes)
These are small roughly spherical organelles bounded by single membrane. They
contain metabolic enzymes mainly catalase enzyme which catalyzes the
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide which is a toxic bi-product of many chemical
reactions within organisms.
Peroxides containing catalase are therefore more in metabolic reactions-intense
regions like those in the liver.

8. Vacuoles
These are fluid filled sacs bounded by a single
membrane. Within mature plant cells, there is
usually one large central vacuole with a single
membrane called a tonoplast.
The vacuole contains a solution of mineral salts,
sugars, amino acids, wastes e.g., tannins and
pigments like anthocyanin.

Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 16 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

Functions of vacuoles
• Sugars and amino acids which act as temporary food stores are stored within the
vacuole.
• It stores anthocyanin which is of many colors and therefore may colour the petals
to attract pollinating insects or fruits to attract animals for dispersal.
• They are temporary stores of organic wastes e.g., tannins. They accumulate in
vacuoles of cells and are removed during leaf fall.
• They contain hydrolytic enzymes therefore perform functions similar to those of
lysosomes.
• They support herbaceous plants and woody plants by providing the osmotic
system which creates turgidity.
• In animal cells, vacuoles are small, temporary and occur in large numbers.
Common types include; food vacuoles, phagocytic vacuoles and contractile
vacuoles which are important in osmoregulation in protozoa.

Non-membranous organelles
1) Ribosomes:
These are small, non-membranous
particles/granules made up of a large (protein) and
small subunit (rRNA), present in large numbers in
all living cells. They are sites of protein
synthesis.

Ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum form proteins for export out of the cell
e.g., hormones and enzymes.
Ribosomes that occur freely in the cytoplasm make proteins that remain within the
cytoplasm e.g., dissolve in solution or form structural cytoplasmic elements.
Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes (small subunit of 30S and large subunit of 50S)
while Eukaryotes have mainly 80S ribosomes which are larger and more complex,
each consisting of small (40S) and large (60S) subunit. (S stands for the Svedberg
unit for sedimentation velocity).
The ribosomes share a core structure which is similar to all ribosomes despite
differences in its size.

2) Micro tubules:
These are slender unbranched tubes occurring throughout living cells. Their
functions are:
• They provide an internal skeleton to the cells thereby determining their shape.
• They aid in transporting materials within cells by providing routes.
• They form a frame work along which cellulose cell wall in plants is laid.
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 17 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

• They are major components of the cilia and flagella where they contribute to their
movement.
• They are found in spindle fibres during cell division and within centrioles from
which spindles are formed.

3) Centrioles:
These are small hollow cylinders about 0.3-0.5 µm long
and about 0.2 µm in diameter. They occur in pairs in
most animal cells. Each contains nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a ring in a 9+0 pattern.
They arise from a distinct region of the cytoplasm called
centrosome. Each centrosome has two centrioles. As
cell division proceeds, the centrioles migrate to opposite
poles of the cell where they synthesize the microtubules
of the spindle.

4) Microfilaments:
These are very thin strands about 6 nm in diameter. They are made up of a protein
called actin and a smaller proportion of myosin. These are the two proteins involved
in muscle contraction. It means that microfilaments play a role in movement within
cells and of the cell as a whole.

Other cell structures

Storage granules:
Every cell contains a limited store of energy. The store may be in form of soluble
material e.g. the sugar found in the vacuoles of plant cells. It may also occur in
colloidal form as grains within the cell.
Starch grains occur within chloroplast and in the cytoplasm of plant cells. Starch
may also be stored in specialized leucoplasts called amyloplasts.
Food energy is stored as glycogen in glycogen granules in the cytoplasm of animal
cells. Oil/lipid droplets are also found within the cytoplasm of both plant and animal
cells.

Cilia and flagella:

These are almost identical except that cilium are shorter and more numerous than
flagella. They are out-growth from cells and can beat either in one direction or both
(cilia).
Their function is to move the whole organism e.g., cilia in paramecium or to move
materials within an organism e.g. cilia lining the respiratory tract move mucus
towards the throat. Cross sections of a cilium shows that it contains a bundle of
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 18 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

micro tubules which run longitudinally along its length arranged in a way that there
are two in the center surrounded by a ring of 9 paired ones called doublets. This
arrangement is described as the 9+2 pattern
Longitudinal and transverse sections of the cilia/flagella

Practice questions
1. Describe the functioning of Golgi apparatus in animal cells.
2. Explain the role of lysosomes in animal cells.
3. By stating differences in structure and function, distinguish between
a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
b) Cell wall and cell membrane
c) Cilia and flagella
4. Give an account of fluid mosaic model of cell membrane structure.
5. Outline the different functions of the membranes of cells. How do these functions relate to the
structure of the membrane?
6. Describe the structure of the plant cell wall.
7. Compare the structures of plant cell wall and plasma membrane.
8. How is the plant cell wall suited to its functions?
9. Describe the structure and function of two eukaryotic membrane-bound organelles other than
the nucleus.
10. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have some non-membrane bound components in common.
Describe the function of the following and discuss how each differs in prokaryotes and
eukaryotes:
a) DNA
b) Cell wall
c) Ribosomes.
11. Membrane are important structural features of cells. Describe how membrane structure is
adapted to transport of materials across a membrane.
12. Compare the structure of chloroplast and mitochondrion in relation to function.
Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 19 of 20
 A-LEVEL BIOLOGY: CYTOLOGY BY KUGONZA H. ARTHUR ~ FEB 2024

13. Eukaryotic cells have intracellular and extracellular components. State the functions of one
named extracellular component.
14. Explain the role of cell membranes in cells.
“Life’s battles don’t always go to the strongest, but soon or later the man who wins is the one
who thinks he can”.

Kugonza H. Arthur@0701366474||Page 20 of 20