INTERNAL ASSIGNMENT

NAME NAGARJUN S
ROLL NUMBER 2114501172
PROGRAM BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS BCA
SEMESTER 03
COURSE CODE DCA2104
SUBJECT Basics of Data Communication
ASSIGNMENT INTERNAL ASSIGNMENT SET-1 & 2

SET-I

Q. No. 1. Explain the seven layers of the OSI model.

Ans :
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to descr
ibe the functions ofia networking system. The OSI model characterizes computing functions int
o a universal set ofirules and requirements in order to support interoperability between different
products and software.

Seven layers ofiOSIimodel are :

● Physical
● Data Link
● Network
● Transport
● Session
● Presentation
● Application.

1. Physical Layer :
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network
nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the device
s, and is responsible foritransmission ofithe raw data, which is simply a series ofi0s and 1s, whil
e taking care ofibit rate control.

2. Data Link Layer :

The data link layeriestablishes and terminates a connection between two physically-
connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source
to destination. This layer is composed ofitwo parts—
Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols, performs error checking and s
ynchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses

3. Network Layer :
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets, a
nd reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering th
e best path across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Inter
net Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.

4. Transport Layer :
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into “segments” on t
he transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turnin
g it back into data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow con
trol, sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed ofithe receiving device, and error c
ontrol, checking ifidata was received incorrectly and ifinot, requesting it again.

5. Session Layer :
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is respon
sible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being transfer
red, and closing them when communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints dur
ing a data transfer—
ifithe session is interrupted, devices can resume data transferifrom the last checkpoint.

6. Presentation Layer :
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should
encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentatio
n layeritakes any data transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over t
he session layer.

7. Application Layer :
The application layer is used by end-
user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides protocols that allow software
t o send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples
ofiapplica tion layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and
Domain Name System (DNS).

Q. No. 2. Explain the structure oficircuit switches.

Ans :

Circuit Switching :
● Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between send
and receiver.
● In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicate
d path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
● Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
● A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
● In case oficircuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, vide
o, a request signal is sent to the receiverithen the receiverisends back the acknowledgme
nt to ensure the availability ofithe dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment,
d edicated path transfers the data.
 ● Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
● Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases :
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use eitheriofithe two technologies :

● Space Division Switches :
o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single tran
smission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set oficr
oss points.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar s
witch is a metallic cross point orisemiconductor gate that can be enabled or disab
led by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx cr
ossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switch
es.
o Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways :
▪ Crossbar Switch
▪ Multistage Switch

● Time Division Switches :

o Time-Division Switch is also known as Time-Slot Interchanger (TSI).
o It permits a single common metallic path to be used by many calls separated one
from the otheriin the time domain.
o With Time-
Division Switching, the speech to be switched is digital in nature (PCM).

Advantages OfiCircuit Switching :

● In the case ofiCircuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
● It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages OfiCircuit Switching.

● Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed ofidata transmi
ssion.
● It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data ca
n be transmitted.
● It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for e
ach connection.
● It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, the
n the capacity ofithe path is wasted.
Q. No. 3. Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission.
Ans :

Definition ofiGuided Media :

● Guided transmission media are more commonly known as the wired communication or b
ounded transmission media. The electromagnetic signals travel between the communicati
ng devices through a physical medium/conductor. As the medium for transmission is a p
hysical conductor, it also provides direction to the signal. But there are physical limitatio
ns ofithe conductor in the guided media. Like the length ofithe conductor, its installation
cost, its maintenance, etc.
● The guided media is categorized further into three categories that are twisted-
pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber-
optic cable. The twisted pair cable has two conductor’s wires wounded around each
othe r and each surrounded by an insulating material. The twisted pair cable is flexible
and ea sy to install. But it has low bandwidth and provide less protection from
interference. Twi sted pairicable are also ofitwo types shielded and unshielded twisted
pair cable.
● The coaxial cable has a central core conductor (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating
sheath, which is further encased in an outer metallic braid, it serves as both protection a
gainst noise and as a second conductor which completes the circuit. Now, the outerimeta
llic covering is also covered by an insulating sheath. The coaxial cable carries signals ofi
higher frequency than the twisted pair cable.
● The third category is the optical fibre which is made ofiglass or plastic, and it transmits s
ignals in the form ofilight. The optical fibre is noise resistance, has less signal attenuatio
n and has a higher bandwidth in comparison to twisted pair cable and coaxial cable. But
it also has some drawbacks like; it is very expensive; it requires a lot ofiinstallation and
maintenance charge as any defect in the cable can diffuse light and alter the signals. As
t he optical fibre is made ofiglass, it is very fragile.

Definition ofiUnguided Media :

● The unguided media is also called wireless communication. It does not require any
physi cal medium to transmit electromagnetic signals. In unguided media, the
electromagnetic signals are broadcasted through air to everyone. These signals are
available to one who h as the device capable ofireceiving those signals.
 ● The unguided media is also called unbounded media as it does not have any borderilimit
ation. The unguided media allows the user to connect all the time, as the communication
is wireless the user can connect himselfifrom anywhere to the network.
● The unguided media is categorized into radio waves, microwaves and infrared waves. Th
e radio waves are generated easily; they are low-
frequency signals and can travel a long distance. The radio waves can penetrate through
the buildings.
● The microwaves are transmitted in a straight line and hence require the line-of-
sight transmission. The distance covered by the microwave signal depend on the height
ofithe two antennae. More the taller are antennas longer is the distance covered by the
si gnal. The microwave has a frequency higher than the radio waves. Microwave are
used f or telephone communication mobile phones, television distribution, etc.

Difference Between Guided and Unguided Media :

● The computeriand other communicating devices represent data in the form ofisignals.
Th e signals transmit between communicating devices in the form ofielectromagnetic
energy
, and hence the signals are called electromagnetic signals. Electromagnetic signals are
th e combination ofielectric and magnetic fields that vibrates in relation to each other.
The electromagnetic signals can travel through various transmission media. The
transmission media is broadly classified into two categories that are guided and
unguided media.
● The basic difference between guided and unguided media is that in the guided media, th
e signal travels through a physical medium whereas, in unguided media, the signal travel
through the air. There are some more differences between guided and unguided media
which I have discussed with the help oficomparison chart shown below.

Comparison Chart :

BASIS FOR C GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA

OMPARISON
Basic The signal requires a physic The signal is broadcasted thr
al path foritransmission. ough air or sometimes water.
Alternative name It is called wired communic It is called wireless communi
ation or bounded transmissi cation or unbounded transmi
on media. ssion media.
Direction It provides direction to sign It does not provide any direc
al foritravelling. tion.
Types Twisted pair cable, coaxial Radio wave, microwave and
cable and fibre optic cable. infrared.
 SET-II

Q. No. 4. Describe frequency division multiplexing.

Ans :

● In frequency-
division multiplexing (FDM), multiple signals are combined for transmission on a single
communications line or channel, with each signal assigned to a different frequency (sub
channel) within the main channel.
● To accommodate the successful transmission ofimultiple signals overia single line, FDM
separates assigned bands by strips ofiunused frequencies called guard bands. This preve
nts overlapping between signal frequencies over a shared medium.
● A signal is generated and modulated by a sending device and is carried over the separate
d bands. The modulated signals are combined using a multiplexer (mux) and transmitted
over the communication channel. At the receiving end, the combined signal goes throug
h a demultiplexer (demux) to extract the individual signals.
● What are multiplexers and demultiplexers in frequency-division multiplexing?
○ In FDM, a two-
way communications circuit requires a mux/demux at either end. Multiplexing is
used when frequencies (signals) ofilower bandwidth are transmitted through a ch
annel with a higheribandwidth.
○ Consider a long-
distance cable with a bandwidth ofi3 megahertz. In theory, it should be possible
t o place and transmit 1,000 signals, each 3 kilohertz (kHz) wide, in the channel.
T he circuit that does this is the multiplexer. It accepts inputs from each
individual user and generates a signal on a different frequency forieach input.
This results in a single, high-bandwidth, complex signal containing data from all
users.
○ At the other end, the demultiplexer separates individual signals. It then routes
the se signals to the respective end users.
● Example ofifrequency-division multiplexing :
Consider four frequency bands, each with a known finite bandwidth ofi150 kHz and sep
arated by three guard bands ofi10 kHz each.
To accommodate all the bands, the communication channel should have a capacity ofi(1
50 x 4) + (10 x 3) = 630 KHz.
● FDM multiplexes the four frequency bands and sends them via the communication chan
nel. Each message modulates a different carrier, so the modulated signals are in different
frequency bands that don't interfere with each other. It can use any amplitude modulatio
n (AM) or frequency modulation (FM) technique.
● Frequency-division multiplexing advantages and disadvantages :
○ When FDM is used in a communications network, each input signal is sent and r
eceived at maximum speed at all times. This is its chiefiasset. However, ifimany
signals are sent along a single long-
distance line, larger bandwidth is required, as is careful engineering, to ensure pr
oper system performance.
 ○ FDM has two disadvantages :
■ First, since the various frequency bands must be separated by guard bands
, there can be bandwidth wastage.
■ Second, ifithere are significant nonlinearities in the transmission link, ther
e could be crosstalk among the different signals, resulting in communicati
on errors. This is a common problem in FDM because it uses analog sign
als, which are more prone to noise disruptions than digital signals.

Q. No. 5. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of CDMA.

Ans :

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA -An advanced remote innovation that utilizes spread-
range strategies. CDMA doesn’t allot a particular recurrence to every client. All things
consider ed, each channel utilizes the full accessible range. Singular discussions are encoded
with a pseu do-
arbitrary computerized arrangement. CDMA reliably gives better ability to voice and informatio
n correspondences than other business portable innovations, permitting more endorsers ofian int
erface at some random time, and it is the basic stage on which 3G advances are assembled.

The term CDMA represents Code Division Multiple Access. It is cell innovation in which there
are two fundamental frameworks viz. Base Station (BS) and portable endorsers or clients. The
e xceptional codes are relegated to the clients for correspondence with BS or NodeB. CDMA
per mits numerous transmitters to communicate data over a single channel all the while. This
makes it conceivable to share the same data transmission by different clients n CDMA whole
transferi speed is being utilized by clients constantly and each has theirispecial codes (for
example PN co des) to recuperate the information. The framework works dependent on a
spread range idea.

Advantages ofiCDMA :
● CDMA channel isn’t effectively decodable thus it offers increment cell correspondence
protections.
● Call quality is better with more predictable sound when contrasted with GSM.
● Less impedance because ofihand offihighlights diminishes call dropping.
● Gives better inclusion and requirements few reception apparatus destinations and further
more burns-
through less force Increment client limit due to a larger number oficlients per MHz ofida
ta transmission than some otheriframework so it has 4 to multiple times limit than GSM.
● It has Better multipath execution.
● The recurrence reuse plan is simpler to oversee.
● It has more modest telephones.
● CDMA has the most noteworthy range effectiveness.
● It has Low force prerequisite.
● CDMA has increased proficiency as it can serve more clients.
● It has High voice quality just as sign quality.
 ● It has an adaptable designation ofiassets.
● It Works at an extremely low force level.
● CDMA doesn’t need any synchronization.
● It has numerous clients that can partake in a similar data transmission.
● Proficient reasonable usage ofifixed recurrence range.
● No feeling ofihandoffiwhile changing cells.
● Simple to add numerous quantities oficlients.
● It helps in Increment client assets.
● Inconceivable for programmers to unravel the code sent.

Disadvantages ofiCDMA :
● In CDMA, time synchronization is required.
● It can’t offer worldwide meandering, a huge GSM advantage.
● The CDMA framework execution debases with an expansion in the quantity oficlients.
● An organization ofiCDMA isn’t adult since it is moderately new with GSM.
● While we are utilizing CDMA, code length can be painstakingly chosen, since it can pro
mpt postponement.
● At the point when the quantity oficlients expands, the general nature ofiadministration di
minishes.
● Self-sticking issue.
● The close fariissue emerges when we are utilizing CDMA strategies.
● Greater expense because ofithe more noteworthy gear.
● Lessen limit since slow exchange expands the utilization ofiradio assets.

Q. No. 6. Describe IEEE standards.

Ans :

IEEE stands for Institute ofiElectrical and Electronics Engineers. It is the largest technical profe
ssional association dedicated to advancing innovation and technological excellence forithe benef
it ofihumanity. It is designed to build industry standards, serve professionals involved in every
a spect ofielectrical, electronic and computing fields. It also organizes conferences and provides
a platform for publications. IEEE has around 1,000 employees to support its activities. The
Mana gement council comprises the Executive Director and senior executives. It manages the
IEEE st affioperations.

IEEE focuses in following areas :

● Electrical Engineering
● Electronics & Communication Engineering
● Computer Engineering
● Information Technology

IEEE Standards
● 802 - LAN/MAN
 ● 802. 1 - Media access control (MAC)
● 802. 2 - Logical Link Control (LLC)
● 802. 3 - Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
● 802. 11 - Wireless Networking "WiFi"

Various IEEE standards in computerinetworks and their usage (or

function) : IEEE standards in computer networks Description

IEEE 802 It is used for the overview and architecture ofiLAN/MAN.
IEEE 802. 1 It is used foribridging and management ofiLAN/MAN.
IEEE 802. 1s It is used in multiple spanning trees.
IEEE 802. 1 w It is used for rapid reconfiguration ofispanning
trees. IEEE 802. 1x It is used for network access control ofiports.
IEEE 802. 2 It is used in Logical Link Control (LLC).
IEEE 802. 3 It is used in Ethernet (CSMA/CD access method).
IEEE 802. 3ae It is used fori10 Gigabit Ethernet.
IEEE 802. 4
It is used for token passing bus access methods and the physical layer specifications.
IEEE 802. 5 It is used for token ring access methods and the physical layer specifications.
IEEE 802. 6
It is used in distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) access method and for the physical lay
er specifications (MAN).
IEEE 802. 7 It is used in broadband LAN.
IEEE 802. 8 It is used in fiber optics.
IEEE 802. 9 It is used in isochronous LANs.
IEEE 802. 10 It is used in interoperable LAN/MAN security.
IEEE 802. 11 It is used in wireless LAN, MAC, and Physical layer specifications.
IEEE 802. 12 It is used in the demand-
priority access method, in the physical layer, and in repeater specifications.
IEEE 802. 13 It is not used.
IEEE 802. 14 It is used in cable modems (not used now).
IEEE 802. 15 It is used in WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network).
IEEE 802. 16 It is used in Wireless MAN (Wireless Metropolitan Area Network).
IEEE 802. 17 It is used in RPR access (Resilient Packet Ring).

Key points :
● IEEE is pronounced as Eye Triple E.
● It is a non-profit professional association.
● It works for the benefit ofiHumanity.
● It is best known for developing standards forithe computer and electronic industry.