Life processes :-

Life processes are the basic processes in living organisms which are necessary for
maintaining their life. The basic life processes are – nutrition, respiration,
transportation, and excretion.
i) Nutrition :– is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilization by
the body for life processes.
ii) Respiration :– is the process by which food is burnt in the cells of the body
with the help of oxygen to release energy.
iii) Transportation :– is the process by which food, oxygen, water, waste
products are carried from one part of the body to the other,
iv) Excretion :- is the process by which waste products are removed from the
body.

Nutrition :-
Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilisation by the
body to build the body, for growth, to repair the damaged parts of the body and
for energy. Life on earth depends on carbon based molecules and most of the food
are also carbon based molecules. The outside raw materials used by living
organisms are food, water and air.
a) Modes of nutrition :- There are two main modes of nutrition. They are
autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition.
i) Autotrophic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms prepare their own
food from simple inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and water in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Eg :- all green plants and some bacteria.
ii) Heterotrophic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms get their food
directly or indirectly from plants. Eg :- all animals fungi and some bacteria.
b) Types of heterotrophic nutrition :- There are three main types of
heterotrophic nutrition. They are saprophytic, parasitic and holozoic nutritions.
i) Saprohytic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms get their food from
dead and decaying organisms. They break down the food material outside
their body and then absorbs it. Eg :- mushroom, bread mould, yeast, some
bacteria etc.
ii) Parasitic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms get their food from
living organisms (host) without killing them. Eg :- cuscuta, orchids, ticks,
lice, leeches, round worm, tape worm, plasmodium etc.
iii) Holozoic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms take food directly and
then digests and absorbs it. Eg :- amoeba, paramaecium, birds, fishes,
humans etc.

Nutrition in plants :-
Photosynthesis :-
is the process by which plants prepare food by using carbon dioxide and water in
the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. The food prepared is carbohydrate which
is stored in the form of starch. Oxygen is released in this process.
Equation of photosynthesis :-

Process of photosynthesis :- Photosynthesis takes place in three main steps.

They are :-
i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting up of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to form carbohydrates.
Chlorophyll :- are the green pigments present in the leaves. If we observe a cross
section of a leaf under a microscope, we can see cells containing green dot like
structures called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll.
Stomata :- are tiny pores present in the leaves through which exchange of gases
takes place. Each stoma has a pair of guard cells which controls the opening and
closing of the stomatal pore. When water enters the guard cells, it swells and the
pore opens and when the guard cells lose water, it shrinks and the pore closes.

NOTE : No need to write only try to understand what in this activity.

Activity to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis :-
Take a potted plant having variegated leaves (croton plant). Keep it in a dark room
for three days so that all the starch is used up. Then keep it in sunlight for 6 hours.
Then take a leaf from the plant and mark the green areas of the leaf on a sheet of
paper. Then dip the leaf in boiling water to make it soft. Then dip the leaf in alcohol
and heat it in a water bath to decolourise it and remove the chlorophyll. Then wash
the leaf in water and dip it in dilute iodine solution. It will be seen that only the
green parts of the leaf turns blue black. This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for
photosynthesis.
Activity to show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis :-
Take two potted plants of the same size and keep them in a dark room for three
days so that all the starch is used up. Then keep the plants on separate glass plates.
Keep a watch glass containing some potassium hydroxide near one plant to absorb
carbon dioxide. Cover both the plants with bell jars and seal the bottom of the jars
with vaseline to make it air tight. Keep the plants in sunlight for three hours. Then
take a leaf from each plant and test for starch. The leaf of the plant kept in the jar
containing potassium hydroxide does not show the presence of starch. This shows
that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.jar containing potassium
hydroxide does not show the presence of starch. This shows that carbon dioxide is
necessary for photosynthesis.
Nutrition in animals :-
a) Nutrition in amoeba :- Amoeba is a unicellular animal living in water. It
takes in food by forming finger like projections called pseudopodia and forms
a food vacuole. Inside the food vacuole the food is digested and absorbed.
The undigested food is then sent out through the surface of the cell.

b) Nutrition in Human beings :-

Nutrition in human beings takes place in the digestive system. It consists of the
alimentary canal and glands which produce enzymes which breaks down food
into smaller molecules. The main organs of the digestive system are mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The main
glands are salivary glands, gastric glands, liver, pancreas and intestinal
glands.Buccal cavity or mouth
I. Pharynx
II. Oesophagus
III. Stomach
IV. Small intestine
V. Large intestine
Mouth
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts before
you even take a bite. Your salivary glands get active as you see and smell that
pasta dish or warm bread. After you start eating, you chew your food into
pieces that are more
re easily digested. Your saliva mixes with the food to begin to
break it down into a form your body can absorb and use. When you swallow,
your tongue passes the food into your throat and into your esophagus.
Esophagus
Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives
food from your mouth when you swallow. The epiglottis is a small flap that folds
over your windpipe as you swallow to prevent you from choking (when food
goes into your windpipe). A series of muscular contractions within the
esophagus called peristalsis delivers food to your stomach.

Stomach
It serves as a muscular bag which is situated towards the left side of the
abdominal cavity, beneath the diaphragm. This vital organ acts as a storage
for the food and provides enough time to digest meals. The stomach also
produces digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid that maintains the
process of digestion.

 Mucous: It is an aqueous secretion produced by the mucous

membranes. It functions by protecting the stomach lining and gastric
pits from the acid, which is produced by the glands to destroy the
bacteria that entered along with the food particles.

 Digestive enzymes: They are the group of enzymes which functions by

breaking down polymeric macromolecules like biopolymers into their
smaller and simpler substances.

 Hydrochloric acid: It is the digestive fluid formed by the stomach during

the process of digestion. It functions by destroying harmful
microorganisms present in the food particles
Small intestine
Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum — the small
intestine is a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes
released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also works in this
organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive juices from the
pancreas and liver.
The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It’s largely responsible
for the continuous breaking-down process. The jejunum and ileum lower in the
intestine are mainly responsible for the absorption of nutrients into the
bloodstream.
Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a liquid form
after passing through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes and mucus contribute to
the change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the
leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then
moves on to the large intestine (colon).
Liver
The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to
process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver
secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat and
some vitamins.
Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it
into the duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.
Large Intestine
This is a thick, long tube measuring around 5 feet in length. It is present just
beneath the stomach and wraps over the superior and lateral edges of the small
intestine. It absorbs water and consists of bacteria (symbiotic) that support the
breakdown of wastes to fetch small nutrients.
Rectum
Waste products are passed into the end of the large intestine called the rectum
and eliminated out of the body as a solid matter called stool. It is stored in the
rectum as semi-solid faeces which later exits from the body through the anal
canal through the process of defecation.

c). Respiration :-
 Respiration is the process by which food is burnt in the cells of the body with
the help of oxygen to release energy. It takes place in the mitochondria of the
cells.
Types of respiration :-
There are two main types of respiration. They are aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
i) Aerobic respiration :-
takes place in the presence of oxygen. It produces more energy. The end
products are carbon dioxide, water and energy. It takes place in most
organisms. In aerobic respiration glucose is converted into pyruvate in the
cytoplasm in the presence of oxygen and then in the presence of oxygen,
pyruvate is converted into carbon dioxide, water and energy in the
mitochondria.
presence of oxygen presence of oxygen
Glucose Pyruvate CO2 + H2O + Energy
in cytoplasm in mitochondria

ii) Anaerobic respiration :-

takes place in the absence of oxygen. It produces less energy. The end
products are lactic acid or ethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy. It takes
place in muscle cells and yeast.
 In anaerobic respiration in muscle cells, glucose is converted into
pyruvate and in the absence of oxygen pyruvate is converted into lactic
acid and energy.
presence of oxygen absence of oxygen
Glucose Pyruvate Lactic acid + Energy
in cytoplasm in muscle cells
 In anaerobic respiration in yeast, glucose is converted into pyruvate
and in the absence of oxygen pyruvate is converted into ethanol,
carbondioxide and energy. This process is called fermentation.
presence of oxygen absence of oxygen
Glucose Pyruvate Ethanol + CO2 + Energy
in cytoplasm in yeast
Breakdown of glucose by various pathways ::-

Respiration in Humans

Human respiration refers to the process of breathing, which involves the exchange
of gases between the body and the external environment. It includes both external
respiration, which occurs in the lungs, and internal respiration, which involves gas
exchange between the bloodstream and body tissues.

**External Respiration:**

**Inhalation (Inspiration)**: During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and

moves downward,rd, while the intercostal muscles between the ribs contract,
expanding the chest cavity. This expansion lowers the pressure inside the lungs,
causing air to rush in from the external environment, down the airways, and into
the alveoli of the lungs.

**Gas Exchange in the Alveoli**: In the alveoli, oxygen from the inhaled air
diffuses across the thin alveolar membranes into the surrounding capillaries,
where it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells for transport to body tissues. At
the same time, carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular metabolism, diffuses
from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled.

**Exhalation (Expiration)**: Exhalation is a passive process that occurs when the

diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, allowing the chest cavity to decrease in
size. This increase in pressure within the lungs causes air to be forced out of the
alveoli and expelled from the body through the airways and out of the nose or
mouth.

**Internal Respiration:**
Internal respiration refers to the process of gas exchange that occurs at the
cellular level within tissues throughout the body. It involves the exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the bloodstream and the body's cells, where
oxygen is used for cellular respiration, and carbon dioxide is produced as a waste
product.
**Delivery of Oxygen**: Oxygen is transported in the bloodstream from the lungs
to the body tissues. Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells, binds to oxygen in
the lungs and releases it when the blood reaches the tissues.

**Gas Exchange in Tissues**: At the capillaries surrounding body tissues, oxygen

diffuses out of the bloodstream and into the interstitial fluid (the fluid surrounding
cells). From there, it diffuses into the cells where it is used in cellular respiration to
produce energy (in the form of ATP) through oxidative phosphorylation.

**Removal of Carbon Dioxide**: As cells carry out cellular respiration, carbon

dioxide is produced as a byproduct. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the
interstitial fluid and then into the capillaries. Most of the carbon dioxide is
transported in the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions, while a smaller amount is
carried dissolved in plasma and bound to hemoglobin.
**Transport of Carbon Dioxide**: The bloodstream carries carbon dioxide back to
the lungs, where it is removed from the body during exhalation.

Regulation of respiration:

1. **Chemical Regulation**:
- Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Levels: Elevated levels of CO2 in the blood stimulate
chemoreceptors, prompting an increase in breathing rate and depth to expel
excess CO2.
- pH Levels (Acid-Base Balance): Changes in blood pH, such as acidosis or
alkalosis, influence respiration to restore normal pH levels.

2. **Neural Regulation**:
- Central Respiratory Centers: Located in the brainstem, these centers, including
the medullary and pontine respiratory centers, coordinate breathing patterns
based on input from peripheral chemoreceptors and other neural signals.
- Peripheral Chemoreceptors: Chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies and aortic
bodies sense changes in blood oxygen, CO2, and pH levels, sending signals to
adjust breathing accordingly.
- Central Chemoreceptors: These receptors in the brainstem monitor CO2 levels
and pH in the cerebrospinal fluid, influencing respiratory rate.

3. **Mechanical Regulation**:
- Stretch Receptors: Pulmonary stretch receptors in the lungs and airways detect
lung inflation, signaling the respiratory centers to inhibit further inhalation,
preventing overinflation.
- Hering-Breuer Reflex: Activated by pulmonary stretch receptors, this reflex
inhibits inspiration and promotes expiration to prevent excessive lung inflation.

4. **Voluntary Control**:
- While respiration is primarily under involuntary control, conscious efforts can
influence breathing patterns, such as holding one's breath or altering breathing
rate and depth voluntarily.

These regulatory mechanisms ensure that respiration is finely tuned to maintain

optimal gas exchange, acid-base balance, and overall homeostasis in the body.