Grade X LIFe PrOCeSSeS

INTrOdUCTION

The study of living things is called biology.

If something is alive, it will show these seven characteristics:
1. Nutrition: All living thing consume food in order to get raw materials to make energy, build and
protect their body.
2. Respiration: All living things respire to produce energy.
3. Excretion: All living things eject waste materials from their body which will otherwise be poisonous
and harmful.
4. Growth: All living things divide their cells to grow in size and mature in order to work more
efficiently and reproduce.
5. Reproduction: All living things reproduce to ensure the survival of their species.
6. Movement: All living things show movement either in response to a stimulus or in order to attain the
raw materials or defend from danger.
7. Sensitivity: All living things, responds to stimulus which means they are aware of changes in their
surroundings. Heat, light, sound, touch, and chemicals with taste and smell are all stimuli that
animals respond to swiftly.

LIFe PrOCeSSeS

Life processes are the basic processes in living organisms which are necessary for maintaining their life.
The basic life processes are:
1. Nutrition: It is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilization by the body for life
processes.
2. Respiration: It is the process by which food is burnt in the cells of the body with the help of oxygen
to release energy.
3. Transportation: It is the process by which food, oxygen, water, waste products are carried from one
part of the body to the other.
4. Excretion: It is the process by which waste products are removed from the body.

NUTrITION
Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilization by the body to build the body, for
growth, to repair the damaged parts of the body and for energy.
Life on earth depends on carbon-based molecules and most of the food are also carbon-based molecules.
The outside raw materials used by living organisms are food, water and air.

MODES OF NUTRITION:
1. Autotrophic nutrition: The nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food from simple
inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
Ex: All green plants and some bacteria.
2. Heterotrophic nutrition: The nutrition in which organisms get their food directly or indirectly from
plants. Ex: All animals fungi and some bacteria.

Autotrophic Nutrition:
❖ Autotrophs: The organisms that can make their own food. Ex: Green Plants.
❖ Photosynthesis: The process in which
green plants make their own food
(carbohydrates) using carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll. They release oxygen as a by-product.
 ❖ Events in photosynthesis:
o Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
o Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and
splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
o Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
❖ Raw materials for photosynthesis:
o CO2 (absorbed by the stomata).
o Water (absorbed by the roots from the soil).
o Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Iron, Magnesium, etc. (absorbed by the roots from the soil).
❖ Cross Section of a leaf

❖ Chlorophyll: The green pigment responsible absorbing sunlight. They are present in the green
colored plastids called chloroplasts.
❖ Stomata: These are the tiny pores present on the
leaf surface helping in the exchange of gases. The
guard cells protect the stomatal pore and controls
the entry and exit gases.
❖ Stomatal opening and closure:
Stomatal Closure: During photosynthesis, when
the plant produces enough glucose, it is also stored
in the guard cells. This causes the cells to lose
water (due to osmosis) and shrink. This result in the
closing of the stomata.
Stomatal Opening: Since the stomata is closed no
more CO2 is absorbed and thus no production of food. So, the plant uses the stored glucose in the
guard cells. This leads to a low concentration of glucose which allows the water to enter the guard
cells due to osmosis. This results in the swelling of the guard cells and the stomata opens.
❖ Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate which is acted upon by the
energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day.
❖ Significance of Photosynthesis:
o Photosynthesis is the main way through which solar energy is made available for different
living beings.
o Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem. All other organisms directly or
indirectly depend on green plants for food.
o The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide and
oxygen in the air.

Heterotrophic Nutrition:
❖ Heterotrophs: The organisms which on autotrophs or other animals for food. Ex: Animals.
❖ Types of heterotrophic nutrition:
1) Holozoic: The nutrition in which organisms engulf the food as a whole and break it down
inside their bodies and absorb the nutrients. Ex: Amoeba, Humans, Fishes, Birds, etc.
 2) Saprophytic: The nutrition in which organisms breakdown the food outside the body and
then absorb it. They usually rely on dead and decaying matter. Ex: Bread mould, yeast,
mushrooms, etc.
3) Parasitic: The nutrition in which organisms live inside (internal-parasites) or on the surface
(external-parasites) of the body of another organism and derive the nutrients from them
without killing but harming them in the process. Ex: Cuscuta (Amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches
and tape-worms.
❖ Steps of Holozoic Nutrition:
1) Ingestion: The process of taking in the food.
2) Digestion: The process of breaking complex food substances into simple molecules.
3) Absorption: The process of absorption of digested food.
4) Assimilation: The process of utilization of digested food, for energy and for growth and
repair.
5) Egestion: The process of removing undigested food from the body.

Nutrition in Amoeba: When an Amoeba senses food, its

cell surface extends temporary finger-like projections
called pseudopodia (false-feet) to capture the food as a
whole, engulfing it by forming a food vacuole. Inside the
food vacuole complex substances are broken down into
simpler substances which then diffuse into the cytoplasm.
The remaining undigested materials is moved to the
surface of the cell and thrown out. This process in which
amoeba consumes food and digests it is also called
phagocytosis.

Nutrition in Paramecium: In Paramoecium, the cell has a definite shape and

food is taken in at a specific spot. Food is moved to this spot by the movement of
cilia which cover the entire surface of the cell.

Nutrition in Humans:
• The digestive tract of humans is called alimentary canal.
• This is a long tube extending from the mouth till anus, around 6 to 9
meters in length.
• Parts of the alimentary canal include:
o Mouth (teeth, tongue and salivary glands).
o Esophagus.
o Stomach.
o Small intestine.
o Large intestine.
o Rectum.
o Anus.
• Glands involved:
o Salivary glands.
o Liver.
o Pancreas.
• Other organs of importance:
o Epiglottis.
o Gall bladder.
o Hepatopancreatic duct.
o Appendix.
o Pyloric and anal sphincter.

➢ Teeth help in cutting, tearing, grinding and crushing the food.

➢ Tongue help in moving the food in mouth for proper mixing with saliva and grinding.
 ➢ Saliva helps in moistening the food. It contains salivary amylase enzymes which helps in the
breakdown of starch in simpler sugar molecules.
➢ Enzymes are biological catalysts which breaks down complex food particles into simpler substances.
➢ The long tube which connects mouth to the stomach is called the esophagus. The chewed food has to
be moved in a regulated manner for proper processing. The muscular lining of esophagus contracts
rhythmically in order to push the food forward. This regulated movement of food esophagus and
intestines are called peristaltic movement.
➢ Epiglottis is a muscular organ which covers the glottis (larynx) preventing the entry of food into the
respiratory tract.
➢ Stomach is a J-shaped muscular organ designed to contract and relax rapidly in order to churn and
mix the food with digestive juices. Functions:
o Churns the food and mixes it with digestive juices, which is then called chime.
o Digestion starts in the stomach.
o Gastric glands on the walls of the stomach releases:
▪ HCl – to kill germs, to soften the food and to maintain the acidic pH for pepsin
enzyme to act.
▪ Mucous – to protect stomach walls from the actions of HCl, pepsin enzyme and other
germs/parasites.
▪ Pepsin – an enzyme which starts the breaking down of proteins in stomach.
➢ Acidity is caused by over production of acids in stomach due to untimely or over consumption of
food. It’s effects can be neutralized by taking mild basic compounds like magnesium carbonate also
called ‘Milk of Magnesia’.
➢ Pyloric sphincter muscle controls the movement of food from stomach to small intestine. It sends
smalls balls of chime to intestine for digestion called bolus.
➢ Small intestine:
o Longest part in the alimentary canal. (appx. 5.5 meters/ 18 feet). Length depends on an
animal’s food habit. Herbivores have longer small intestine to digest cellulose while
carnivores have shorter intestine since meat is easy to digest.
o Digestion is completed here. Hepatopancreatic and intestinal juices accomplish the process.
o Absorption of nutrients is also competed here. The inner walls of the second part contain
small finger-like projections called villi, richly supplied with blood capillaries to absorb
digested food.
o Takes secretions of two glands – Liver and Pancreas – through a common duct called
hepatopancreatic duct.
▪ Liver produces bile juice which is temporarily stored in bag like organ called gall
bladder. Bile juice mainly has two functions:
• Emulsification of fat globules (breaking down of larger globules into smaller
globules) for easy digestion by the lipase enzyme.
• Turn the pH basic for enzyme trypsin to act.
▪ Pancreas produces enzymes along with other substances.
• Amylase – digests carbohydrates completely into sugars (glucose)
• Protease (Trypsin) – digests proteins completely into amino acids.
• Lipase – digests fats completely into fatty acids and glycerol.
➢ Large intestine: The undigested food is moved here, where the water and certain salts are reabsorbed
and turns the feces solid.
➢ Rectum: Part of the large intestine where the solid fecal matter is stored temporarily before egestion.
➢ Anal sphincter: The muscle which controls the egestion of fecal matter through anus.
➢ Anus: The fecal matter is exited through the anus.

reSPIraTION
Respiration is defined as a metabolic process where the living cells of an organism obtains energy (in the
form of ATP) by taking in oxygen and liberating carbon dioxide from the oxidation of complex organic
substances.
Respiration is of two types:
1. Internal respiration: Respiration in which glucose is broken down in cells to produce energy in the
form of ATP molecules.
2. External respiration: Respiration in which exchange of gases take place. It is done with the help of
respiratory system.

INTERNAL REPSIRATION
➢ Respiration in which glucose is broken down in cells to produce energy in the form of ATP
molecules.
➢ Two types:
o Aerobic respiration: Production of energy in the presence of oxygen. Ex: human beings,
dogs, birds, etc.
o Anaerobic respiration: Production of energy in the absence of oxygen. Ex: yeast, some
bacteria, etc.
➢ Process:
o The carbohydrates (also known as energy giving food) are broken down into glucose
molecules which is absorbed by the blood and transported to the cells.
o These 6-carbon (glucose) molecules are broken down into 3-carbon molecules called
pyruvate. This process takes place in the cytoplasm. This step is common for both the types of
internal respiration.
o In case of aerobic respiration, the pyruvate (3-carbon molecule) is broken down in the
mitochondria using oxygen into CO2 (single-carbon molecule) and water with a release of
huge amounts of energy. Since, mitochondria help in releasing the stored energy, it is called
the ‘powerhouse of the cell’.
In case of anaerobic respiration, the pyruvate (3-carbon molecule) is converted into ethanol
(2-carbon molecule) and CO2 (single-carbon molecule) with the release of a small amount of
energy. This process takes place in yeast during fermentation.
In some cases, when there is a lack of oxygen, anerobic respiration takes in our muscle
cells. Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid which is also a three-carbon molecule.
This build-up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps. Hot water
bath and massage can increase the blood flow bringing more oxygen thus helping in the break
down of lactic acid and reducing cramps.

o This released energy in the cellular respiration is used to make an ATP (Adenosine tri-
phosphate) molecule from ADP (Adenosine di-phosphate) and inorganic phosphate.

Endothermic processes in the cells use this ATP to drive the reactions. When the terminal
phosphate linkage in ATP is broken using water, the energy equivalent to 30.5 kJ/mol is
released. So, basically ATP is like a reusable or rechargeable battery for cellular processes.
Thus, we call it ‘the energy currency of the cell’.

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
Respiration in which exchange of gases take place. It is done with the help of respiratory system.
Since the aerobic respiration pathway depends on oxygen, aerobic organisms need to ensure that there is
sufficient intake of oxygen. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by diffusion.

In plants, gases are exchanged through stomata. The direction of diffusion depends upon the environmental
conditions and requirements of the plant.
• During daytime, released CO2 is absorbed for photosynthesis while oxygen is released.
• During night, since there is no photosynthesis, CO2 is released while oxygen is absorbed.

Aquatic animals take in dissolved oxygen from water, using specialized organs such as gills in fishes.
Fishes gulp in water and is forced past the gills. Gills are supplied with rich amounts of blood vessels to
extract oxygen out of water. They have to breathe faster compared it terrestrial organisms since dissolved
oxygen is less compared to the atmospheric oxygen.
Amphibians have lungs to breathe on land and moist skin to absorb dissolved oxygen from water while
submerged.
Terrestrial animals have specialized organs to absorb atmospheric oxygen. All these organs have a highly
folded structures to increase the surface area for maximum absorption. Since these organs are very delicate
in order to facilitate easy absorption, they are kept inside the body for protection, while the air moves in
through tubular passages.

External respiration in humans:

This is done with the help of respiratory system
Parts of respiratory system and its function:
➢ Nose:
o The external visible part of the respiratory
system.
o It has two nostrils. It has tiny hairs in it to block
large dust particles and germs. Only one nostril
work at a time.
➢ Nasal cavity:
o The nasal cavity lies above the bone that forms
the roof of the mouth and curves down at the
back to join the throat.
o This passage has mucous which traps tiny dust
particles and germs and is later removed.
o It helps in making the brain cooler and the air warmer and moist before it goes to the lungs.
➢ Throat (Pharynx and Larynx):
o Pharynx: Ring like muscular tube that acts as the common passage way to air, food and
liquids.
o Larynx: This is the first part of the wind pipe protected by C-shaped cartilaginous rings
where the vocal cords are located. Hence, it is also called voice box. In boys, the larynx
grows large during adolescence and protrudes out called Adam’s apple.
o A small muscle flap just above the larynx called epiglottis prevents the food and liquids from
entering the wind pipe and guides it to the food pipe.
➢ Trachea:
o Also called wind pipe.
o Protected by C-shaped cartilaginous rings to prevent collapse while breathing in.
➢ Bronchi:
o The trachea splits into two smaller tubes called bronchi and enters into each lung. The bronchi
further branches into smaller tubes called bronchioles.
o The inner lining of bronchioles contains tiny hair like projection called cilia to push out the
mucous produced in the lungs in order to remove trapped dust and germs.
➢ Alveoli:
o The bronchioles end up into a small balloon like elastic part called alveoli which can expand
and contract as we breathe in and out. It’s walls have a rich supply of blood vessels to absorb
the oxygen by diffusion.
Breathing mechanism in humans:
Two muscles are mainly involved in helping us breathe:
➢ Diaphragm: A dome shaped muscular sheet separating the thoracic and abdominal cavity. The bottom
of the lungs is attached to it.
➢ Intercostal muscles: The muscles between ribs. When it contracts it pulls ribs closer thus causing it to
rise.
When we breath in, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contracts pulling the lungs downwards and to the
front increasing the volume inside it. A temporary partial vacuum/low pressure is created sucking in air from
the outside. When we breathe out, the muscles relax pushing the lungs from both sides expelling the air out.

Since at higher altitudes air pressure is low, we need oxygen cylinders to push the air in as the natural
mechanism won’t be effective.

TraNSPOrTaTION
Transportation involves the movement of essential substances such as oxygen and other gases, nutrients,
hormones and waste products throughout the body. It ensures that all parts of the body receive the necessary
materials for survival and that waste products are eliminated efficiently. Without Transportation, the body
would not be able to carry out its functions and sustain life.

TWO MAJOR TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM IN MAMMALS, ESPECIALLY HUMANS:

i. The Blood Vascular/The Cardiovascular System.
ii. The Lymphatic System.

THE BLOOD VASCULAR/THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Responsible for circulation of essential substances throughout the body, maintaining pH and body
temperature.

Parts:
❖ Blood
❖ Blood vessels
❖ Heart

THE BLOOD

➢ It is a fluid connective tissue.

➢ Carries gases, nutrients, hormones, antibodies, waste products, etc. throughout the body.
➢ Regulates body temperature.
➢ Provides immunity.
➢ Red in color.
➢ Average adult human has 5-6 L of blood.
➢ It is comprised of plasma and blood cells.
➢ Plasma:
o It is the liquid part of the blood which is a pale-yellow matrix.
o Blood cells are suspended in it.
o It is about 55% of the total blood concentration.
o It is 90% water and the rest is occupied by various gases, nutrients, electrolytes, wastes,
hormones, salts, acids, etc.
➢ Blood cells:
o It is the solid part of the blood.
o It constitutes about 45% of the total blood concentration.
o It includes RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets.
o They are produced in the bone marrow.
 o RBC (Red Blood Cells/Corpuscles)
▪ Also called Erythrocytes.
▪ Carries O2 to all parts of the body and CO2 to the lungs.
▪ Gives red color to the blood.
▪ Contains the red respiratory pigment called hemoglobin.
▪ Hemoglobin is a metalloprotein whose metal part is iron, which has more affinity
towards oxygen, and also giving the characteristic red color. In some animals like
horse shoe crabs and octopuses, the metal part is that of copper, giving its blood a blue
color.
▪ Average life span is 120 days.
▪ Disk shaped and biconcave in structure.
▪ Lacks nucleus and mitochondria.
o WBC (White Blood Cells/Corpuscles)
▪ Also called Leucocytes.
▪ Provides immunity. It searches, recognizes and kills germs by engulfing them and then
destroying them. This process is called phagocytosis.
▪ Amoeboid in shape
▪ Colorless
▪ Largest among the other blood cells.
o Platelets:
▪ Also called Thrombocytes.
▪ Helps in blood clotting by clubbing together at the site of injury to form a plug.
▪ Smallest blood cell.
▪ Colorless.

THE BLOOD VESSELS

➢ These are the network of tubes which carry blood throughout the body.
➢ There are three types: Arteries, Veins and Capillaries.
➢ Arteries:
o They carry blood away from the heart.
o They usually carry oxygenated blood but the pulmonary arteries deoxygenated blood from
heart to lungs.
o They have thick walls to withstand the pressure produced by the heart.
o They lack valves.
o Largest artery, which comes out of the heart is called Aorta.
o They divide into smaller tubules called arterioles which will again branch to form the
capillaries.
➢ Veins:
o They carry blood to the heart.
o They usually deoxygenated blood but the pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from
lungs to the heart.
o They have thin walls as they do not receive the direct force of the heart.
o They have valves to prevent the reverse flow of the blood.
o Largest vein which enters the heart is called Vena Cava. The vena cava which brings blood
from the upper portion of the body is called superior vena cava and those which blood from
the lower body is called the inferior vena cava.
o The capillaries always fuse to form smaller tubules called venules which again fuses to form
veins and then into the vena cava.
➢ Capillaries:
o They help in exchange of gases and other substances across the cell surface and the blood.
o They have single-cell thick walls which help in these exchanges.
o They have intercellular spaces through which substances can ooze out and/or be absorbed.
o They are formed due to the continuous branching of arteries. They fuse back to form veins.
THE HEART

➢ It is a fist sized muscular pumping organ.

➢ It is composed of special muscle cells called cardiac
muscles.
➢ The cells of these muscle are able to contract and
relax rhythmically and tirelessly to ensure smooth
pumping of blood.
➢ The rhythmic contraction and relaxation are
controlled by the Sino-atrial node, which initiates
electrical impulses to make the heart to beat.
➢ Birds and mammals have four chambered hearts –
the two upper Atria and the two lower ventricles.
Some reptiles and amphibians have three chambered
hearts, while fishes have two chambered hearts.
➢ Atrium (pl. Atria):
o They always receive blood – Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood while left atrium
receives oxygenated blood.
o The veins are connected to the atria – superior and inferior vena cava enter the right atrium
while the pulmonary veins enter the left atrium.
o They are smaller compared to the ventricles.
➢ Ventricles:
o They pump the blood out of the heart – right ventricle pump blood to the lungs for
oxygenation while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to all parts of the body.
o The arteries are connected to the ventricles – the pulmonary artery exits the right ventricle
while the aorta exits the left ventricle.
o They are larger chambers compared to the atria, with left ventricle being the largest among
them as it has to pump blood to all parts of the body.
➢ The heart cells also need to be nourished with the blood, so it has a set of blood vessels for itself
called the coronary blood vessels – coronary arteries and coronary veins
➢ The right side of the heart always carry deoxygenated blood while the left side always carries
oxygenated blood.
➢ The right and left side is separated by a wall called septum, in order to prevent mixing of blood. This
allows highly efficient supply of blood. This is necessary for warm blooded animals such as birds
and mammals, as they need more energy to maintain the body temperature.
In cold blooded animals such as reptiles, amphibians and fishes, since they depend on the
environment to maintain their body temperature, they do not depend on energy for this purpose.
Hence, mixing of blood can be tolerated. Thus, they have three or two chambered hearts.

Double Circulation in Humans

❖ Circulation Ⅰ
✓ The oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left
atrium through the pulmonary veins.
✓ Left atrium pumps it to the left ventricle.
✓ The left ventricle pumps it to the largest artery called
aorta.
✓ The aorta branches into arterioles and then into
capillaries reaching all the tissues for gaseous
exchange.
✓ The deoxygenated blood is collected by the
capillaries and fuse to form venules and then veins,
which will enter the right atrium through the superior
and inferior vena cava (the largest veins).
 Circulation Ⅱ
✓ The deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through the vena cava
✓ The right atrium pumps it to the right ventricle.
✓ The right ventricle pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation through the pulmonary arteries.
✓ The pulmonary vein brings the oxygenated blood back to the left atrium of the heart in order
to be pumped to all parts of the body (circulation I)
❖ Both the circulations are occurring simultaneously in warm blooded animals. It means, blood is
going through the heart twice at a time. Hence, it is called a double circulation.
❖ In cold blooded animals such as fishes, double circulation is not observed since they lack four
chambers.

Blood Pressure

➢ The pressure of the blood pushing against the walls of the arteries.
➢ Blood pressure is measured using two numbers:
o The first number, called systolic blood pressure, measures the pressure in your arteries when
your heart beats.
o The second number, called diastolic blood pressure, measures the pressure in your arteries
when your heart rests between beats.
➢ If the measurement reads 120 systolic and 80 diastolic, you would say, “120 over 80,” or write,
“120/80 mmHg.” This is the normal blood pressure.
➢ It is measured using an instrument called the sphygmomanometer.
➢ Hypertension:
o When the BP is above normal.
o Caused due to constriction of arteries, diabetes, kidney problems, hyperthyroidism, obesity,
genetics, etc. It happens mainly due to constriction of arteries due to fat accumulation or
cholesterol in blood vessels.
o It can lead to heart attack or stroke in worst case scenarios.
o Can be prevented by low intake of salts, alcohol and more calories, more intake of fruits and
vegetables, regulated cardiac exercises, reduction of mental stress, etc.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

➢ A vast network of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymphatic or lymphoid organs, and lymphoid
tissues make up the lymphatic system.
➢ Components:
o Lymph:
▪ Also called tissue fluid.
▪ Through the pores in the walls of capillaries some amount of plasma, proteins and
white blood cells escape into the intercellular spaces in the tissues to form the lymph.
▪ Devoid of platelets and red blood cells, hence, colorless.
▪ Contains less proteins.
o Lymphatic vessels:
▪ The lymph drains into a network of tubes called the lymphatic vessels.
▪ Have thin walls and valves are present.
o Lymph nodes:
▪ Small bean shaped organs located along the lymphatic vessels.
▪ They filter lymph and remove bacteria, viruses and other foreign substances.
o Lymphoid organs:
▪ Organs that produce and store lymphocytes (a type of WBC). The primary lymphoid
organs include bone marrow and thymus. Secondary lymphoid organs include
spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, etc.
➢ Functions:
 o They maintain fluid balance by collecting excess lymph fluid from human tissues and
returning it to the bloodstream.
o They help in immune defense. Lymph nodes filter bacteria, viruses and other foreign
substances. The lymphocytes produced help in producing antibodies against germs and in
remembering it for the future.

TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS

➢ Plants need raw materials to prepare food which is readily available in the soil.
➢ The prepared also have to transported to all parts of the plant.
➢ For small plants such algae and mosses, the diffusion process is enough but for higher plants such as
shrubs and trees, they need a special mechanism which includes conductive tissues, called vascular
bundles, for this purpose.
➢ This is usually a slow process as a large proportion of the plant cells are dead and they do not move
and require very less energy.
➢ Vascular bundles are complex permanent tissues which comprise of Xylem and Phloem. It is a set
of tubes made of different type of tissues working together to perform one function.

XYLEM PHLOEM
• Conducts water and minerals along • Conducts prepared food from leaves to
with it. all parts of the plant.
• Conduction is unidirectional, meaning, • Conduction is multidirectional,
the movement of water is only from root meaning, food is conducted back and
to leaves. forth throughout the plant body. This
process is called translocation.
• It is a passive transport, meaning, they • It is an active transport, meaning, they
do not use energy to conduct water and use energy to conduct food to different
minerals. They depend upon four major parts of the plant.
physical forces for the upward
movement of water – transpiration
pull, root pressure, capillary action
and cohesion and adhesion properties
of water molecules.
• Made of four types of tissues – • Made of four types of tissues –
Tracheids (dead cells; conduction of • Sieve tubes (living cells; transports food
water) to different parts of the plant)
Vessels (dead cells; conduction of water) • Companion cells (living cells; helps in
Xylem parenchyma (living cells; conduction of food and provides energy
storage) for transport)
Xylem fibres (dead cells; provides • Phloem parenchyma (living cells;
mechanical support) storage)
• Phloem fibres (dead cells; provides
mechanical support)
➢ Movement of water and minerals in xylem:
The xylem cells are connected and fused to form a long tube connecting the roots, stem, branches and
leaves. There is always a steady column of water filled in this tube. Plants use four major forces to
make this water flowing upwards against gravity:
o Root pressure: The root cells actively absorb ions from the soil causing a differential,
resulting in the constant absorption of water from the soil. This induces a pressure on the
walls of root cells. Hence, water is pushed into the xylem.
o Transpirational pull: Transpiration is the process in which water escapes through stomata in
the form of water vapour. There is a suction/pulling force due to the temporary partial
vacuum created due to the removal water through the leaves. This pulls the water upwards.
 These push and pull acting in the xylem, forces water to move upwards against gravity. The other
two forces are:
o Capillary action: This is a property of liquids to climb up through capillaries or tubes of
micro diameters. Since, xylem is a very small in diameter, water uses this property to climb
up
o Cohesion: This is the ability of molecules of same substance to stick together. Water use this
property to hold on to neighboring water molecules.
Adhesion: This is the ability of molecules of different substances to stick together. Water uses
this property to adhere to the walls of the xylem tubes.
➢ Movement of food through phloem:
o The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation.
o Other substances such as amino acids, phosphates are also transferred.
o Energy in the form of ATP is used for this purpose.
o Sugars such as sucrose is transferred into the phloem tissues using energy, which created a
differential, thus increasing osmotic pressure of the tissue causing water to move into it. This
pressure moves materials in phloem to tissues having less pressure.

eXCreTION
❖ Certain waste products are produced by the cells as they carry out their normal functions.
❖ If these waste products were allowed to accumulate in the body, they would reach toxic levels and
eventually kill the organism.
❖ Excretion is the process of removal of metabolic waste material and other non-useful substances.
❖ Organisms like animals have an advanced and specialized system for excretion.
❖ But plants lack a well-developed excretory system like that in animals. They do not have special
organs for excretion, and thus excretion in plants is not so complex.

Excretion in unicellular organisms:

➢ In bacteria, the waste product is removed by simple diffusion through the general body surface.
➢ Amoeba have a contractile vacuole, a sac-like organ that collects excess water and some dissolved
wastes. When the vacuole fills up, it contracts and pushes the waste out of the cell through the cell
membrane.
➢ Paramecium also has a contractile vacuole which works similar to that of a amoeba. It also has the
food vacuole which digests food and ejects the undigested food.

Excretion in humans:
➢ The humans produce urea as the major excretory product and
excreted in the form of urine.
➢ The excretory system helps in filtering out urea and other wastes
from the blood.
➢ The parts of excretory system are:
o A pair of kidneys.
o A pair of ureters.
o A urinary bladder.
o Urethra.
Kidney:
➢ The main excretory organ.
➢ They are basically the filtration units of the body. Each kidney is
made up of tiny filtration units called nephrons. Nephrons are the basic unit of kidney.
➢ They are bean shaped.
➢ They are located in the abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.
➢ Functions:
 o Filtering waste materials, medications, and toxic substances from the blood.
o Reabsorbing useful substances back into the blood.
o Regulation of osmolarity, (the fluid balance of the body), ion concentration in the body and
pH of the body.
o Secreting hormones that help produce red blood cells promotes bone health and regulates
blood pressure.
Nephrons:
➢ They are the basic functional unit of kidney.
➢ Around one million nephrons are present in each kidney.
➢ Average length: 30 – 55 mm.
➢ Each nephron has two parts: the renal corpuscle (or the
Malpighian body) and the renal tubule.
➢ Renal corpuscle:
o Made up of cup like structure called Bowman’s
capsule enclosing a bunch of capillaries called
glomerulus.
➢ Renal tubule:
o Long tube with specific regions for absorption of
specific substances. The specific regions are named,
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), Loop of
Henle and the Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT).
➢ The renal tubules from many nephrons finally reaches a common duct called the collecting duct,
which later fuses with others to form the ureter.
➢ They together filter and reabsorb substances.

NB: The notes provided in the box are not aimed for the exam, rather, it is solely for better and deeper
understanding of the working of the system. This knowledge may come in handy in your higher grades.

Parts of nephron – brief note:

The Renal Corpuscle or the Malpighian body:
 Glomerulus:
• A network of tiny capillaries that acts as a sieve, filtering blood plasma.
• Water, salts, and small molecules pass through the glomerular filtration barrier into Bowman's capsule,
while blood cells and large proteins stay behind in the bloodstream.
 Bowman's capsule:
• A cup-shaped sac that surrounds the glomerulus.
• It collects the filtrate produced by the glomerulus, which is a mixture of water, salts, and waste products.
The Renal Tubule:
 Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT):
• The first part of the renal tubule.
• It reabsorbs essential nutrients and water from the filtrate back into the bloodstream.
• It also plays a role in regulating blood pH by secreting hydrogen ions.
 Loop of Henle:
• A U-shaped tube with a descending limb and an ascending limb.
• The descending limb is permeable to water but not salts, allowing water to leave the filtrate and enter the
surrounding tissue.
• This creates a concentration gradient that helps drive the reabsorption of water in the ascending limb.
• The ascending limb is impermeable to water but actively transports salts out of the filtrate, further
concentrating the remaining solutes.
 Distal convoluted tubule (DCT):
• Concentrates the urine by reabsorbing or secreting water and electrolytes based on the body's needs.
• It also plays a role in regulating blood pressure by producing renin, an enzyme involved in the renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system.

The Collecting duct:

Collects urine from multiple nephrons and delivers it to the renal pelvis.
The collecting duct also plays a role in regulating urine concentration by reabsorbing water under the influence of the
hormone vasopressin (ADH).
 ➢ Ureters:
o All the collecting ducts merge to form the ureter which comes out of each of the kidney and
enter the urinary bladder.
➢ Urinary bladder:
o It is a muscular sac-like structure, which temporarily stores urine.
o The urinary bladder is emptied by the process of micturition, i.e. the act of urination.
➢ Urethra:
o This tube arises from the urinary bladder and helps to expel urine out of the body.
o In males, it acts as the common route for sperms and urine.
o Its opening is guarded by sphincter muscles.

How urine is formed?

The urine is formed in the nephrons and involves the following steps:
❖ Glomerular Filtration
❖ Tubular Reabsorption
❖ Secretion
Steps:
1. Glomerular Filtration:
(i) The renal artery brings impure (but oxygenated) blood to the kidney.
(ii) The renal artery branches into renal arterioles inside the kidney.
(iii) The renal arteriole which enters into the renal corpuscle or the Malpighian body is called afferent
arteriole.
(iv) It forms a network of capillaries inside the Bowman’s capsule called glomerulus.
(v) Here, the excess fluid and waste products from the blood are filtered out into the renal tubules.
(vi) The renal arteriole which exits the renal corpuscle/ Malpighian body is called efferent arteriole.
2. Tubular Reabsorption:
(vii) The filtrate moves into the PCT, where it absorbs essential nutrients and water back into the blood
stream. The capillaries absorb the substances and fuses to form the renal venules which takes the
blood for further circulation.
(viii) Descending loop of Henle is permeable to water but impermeable to salts/electrolytes. Thus, it
helps in concentrating the urine.
(ix) Ascending loop of Henle is impermeable to water but permeable to salts/electrolytes. Thus, more
essential salts are absorbed.
(x) DCT reabsorbs water again making the urine more concentrated along with some ions such as
sodium.
(xi) The Collecting Duct collects this mixture from several nephrons and concentrates it even further by
reabsorbing more water under the influence of vasopressin/ADH (Anti-diuretic Hormone),
produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary gland.
3. Secretion:
(vii) Certain waste products and excess molecules are secreted from the bloodstream into the filtrate by
the cells lining the renal tubules. These include:
• Hydrogen ions: to regulate blood pH.
Potassium ions: to maintain electrolyte balance.
• Creatinine: a waste product from muscle metabolism.
• Ammonia: which combines with carbon dioxide to form ammonium, another waste product.
• Uric acid: a waste product from the breakdown of purines.

Several collecting duct fuse to form the ureter which comes out of the kidney and connects to the urinary
bladder, where it is temporarily stored and later released through urethra by the process called micturition.

Other organs which play a role in excretion are:

 Lungs: Releases the cellular waste – CO2
 Skin: Excretes water, electrolytes and urea through sweat. It also helps in regulating body
temperature.
 Large intestine: Excretes undigested food as stool/excreta.
  Liver: Helps in breaking down harmful substances into less harmful soluble substances so that it can
be excreted through urine or stool.

Haemodialysis:
Under certain circumstances such as poor blood flow to the kidneys, infections, injuries, etc. the kidneys fail
to perform their functions. In such situations, artificial kidneys are used for blood filtration and this process
is called dialysis/haemodialysis.

How haemodialysis works?

Replacing Kidney Function:
• Healthy kidneys act as a natural filter for your blood, removing waste products, excess fluid, and
balancing electrolytes.
• In kidney failure, these functions are impaired. Haemodialysis steps in to mimic healthy kidneys.
The Artificial Kidney:
• A machine with a special filter called a dialyzer acts as the artificial kidney.
• To access your bloodstream, a surgical procedure creates an access point, usually in your arm.
The Filtration Process:
1. Blood Removal: Your blood is removed through a needle in your access point and sent to the
dialyzer.
2. Filtering the Blood: The dialyzer contains a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining,
suspended in a tank filled with dialysing fluid/dialysate. This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as
blood, except that it is devoid of nitrogenous wastes. Your blood flows through these fibres, while the
cleansing fluid, dialysate, flows in the opposite direction on the outside.
3. Waste Removal: Waste products and excess fluid from your blood move across a thin membrane in
the filter into the dialysate, due to concentration differences (diffusion).
4. Clean Blood Returns: The filtered blood, free of waste products and extra fluid, exits the dialyzer
and returns to your body through another needle in your access point.
Additional Functions:
• The dialysis machine monitors your blood pressure and adjusts blood flow rates during the
procedure.
Treatment Schedule:
• Haemodialysis is typically performed three times a week in a dialysis centre, with each session
lasting 3-4 hours.
• In some cases, home haemodialysis is possible, offering more flexibility in scheduling and treatment
duration.
Overall, haemodialysis is a life-saving treatment for people with kidney failure, artificially filtering their
blood and keeping their body chemistry balanced.

Excretion In Plants
Plants don't have dedicated excretory organs like animals do, but they do have ways of eliminating waste
products. Here's a breakdown of excretion in plants:
Waste Products
• Gases:
o Oxygen: Produced during photosynthesis, released through tiny pores on the leaves called
stomata.
o Carbon Dioxide: Produced during respiration, released through stomata. Interestingly,
plants also use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis!
o Water vapor: Released through stomata during transpiration, a process where excess water
is evaporated from the plant.
o Lenticels are pores on woody stems that function similarly to stomata. Plants also use these
for the excretion of gases.
• Liquids: Excess water is also eliminated through guttation, where droplets of water form at the tips
of leaves. This process is more common in humid conditions.
• Solids:
o Some waste products are stored in non-living tissues like bark and leaves. These are
eventually shed.
o Other waste products are rendered harmless and stored inside the plant. Examples include
resins, gums, and tannins.

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