What is a Computer?

Computer is derived from the word compute which means to calculate.

Functionality of computers

The main functionality of a computer is to solve complex arithmetic and scientific

problems at very high speeds.

A computer is an electronic device that:

 accepts data and instructions as an input

 stores data and instructions in the memory
 process the data based on instructions
 controls all activities of a computer
 returns output either on computer or on other output devices

Computer Applications

Computing devices have become an essential part of all human lives.

Computers have many applications in:

 engineering
 banking
 medical
 household
 marketing
 day-to-day lives.

Computer is an electronic machine designed to perform mathematical and logical

operations.
Used to perform activities like:

 creating, editing & managing documents

 sending documents through internet
 browse the internet and search for information
 running software applications
 Developing software applications
 Education
 Analyze data
 Computer and internet games
 Entertainment such as watch videos, listen to music and songs
 Draw pictures and create animation
 Read News
 Take pictures, make voice calls and videos calls
 Conduct Virtual online meetings
 Virtual reality to test products in simulated environments

The list of activities you can do with a computer is endless....

Characteristics of Computers

Let us discuss the characteristics of computers.

 Speed - computers are faster than humans

 Accuracy - computers are always accurate
 Versatility - computers peform variety of jobs
 Storage capacity - Storage space only limited by the amount of storage you
buy
 Diligence - Computers dont get tired
 Reliability - Computers are highly reliable machines and have long failure
free lives
 Automation - Run an process repetitively automatically

Speed

Computer is capable of processing data at high speeds in seconds which humans

take hours to complete.

 Today's powerful computers processes millions of instructions per second.

 Speed of a computer is measured in terms of microseconds, nanoseconds
and even picoseconds.
Accuracy

Computers are very accurate. If error occurs, it is only due to humans.

Degree of accuracy of a computer depends upon its hardware and software design.

Versatility

A computer is a versatile device.

Computers are not only handling complex arithmetic, but can also do several kind
of jobs.

 Computers can be programmed to perform any task that can be organized as

a series of logical steps.
 For example, computers and computing devices are used in every possible
scenario such as
o railway or airline reservations
o banking
o publishing examination results
o ecommerce
o searching
o finding information
o hotels
o hospitals
o office administration
o launching satellites
o monitoring patients
o analyzing large volume of data
o and so on.

Storage capacity

A single computer's storage can store millions of documents or images,

audio or videos or any other type of data.

o Such data can be retrieved as and when required.

o Computers have primary memory and secondary memory.
 o User of the computer can store and recall exactly the same
information temporarily, in primary memory
o User can also use secondary storage device (hard disk, SSD, compact
disk, external hard drives, tapes) to store large amount of data
permanently.

Diligence

Computer is not like a human being.

o Human beings get tired at some point of their working hours and may
lose their focus.

Computers can continuously work without getting being tired or

boredom and can generate error free results.

o If we want to execute 10 million instructions, computers will perform

the last one with exactly same speed and accuracy as the first one.

Reliability

A computer is a relatively highly reliable machine.

Computers have long failure free lives.

o Maintenance of computers is relatively easier.

o If any part of a computer fails, it will be replaced or repaired at
minimum cost.

Automation

o With Automation, You can produce a million products once the

right input is provided.
o Examples: Factory run by robotic computers, Computer driven cars

Computers helps in automation of repetitive work.

o Once you provide a queue of tasks to computer, it can continue to

proceed until it has finished all the tasks.
 o Humans need to give instructions to computers to carry out the task.
By using these instructions, the processing of task can be controlled
without human interaction.
o In the recent years, computer software applications are trained to
find problems automatically using a concept called Machine
learning.

First Generation of Computer

Year 1946-1959
Technology Vacuum tube
Language Machine language (0 and 1)
Input Device Punched cards
Output Device Punched cards and paper tape
Size Very bulky, large in size
Storage Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums for external storage
 Difficult to handle.
 Emitted large amount of heat and hence maintained in air
Important conditioning.
Features  Limited commercial use.
 Operating system was not known.

Second Generation of Computer

Year 1959-1965
Technology Transistor
 Assembly language
Language  Emergence of high level programming language

Input Device Punched cards

Output Device Line printer
Size Smaller in size
Storage Magnetic cores, Magnetic tape and Magnetic disk
Important  Consumed less power.
Features  Smaller, efficient and more reliable than first generation
computers.
  Used the concepts of stored programs.
 Costlier than first generation.

Third Generation of Computer

Year 1965-1971
Technology Integrated Chip
Language High level language (FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL, PL/1)
Input Device Keyboard
Output Device Monitor
Size Compact in size
Storage Magnetic tape, magnetic drums and magnetic cores
 Weight and power consumption decreased.
 Increased speed of the computer.
 Executed million of instructions per second.
 Used commercially.
Important Features  Cost effective.
 Concepts of multiprogramming was introduced.
 Designed more Operating systems.
 Important given to the software development.

Fourth Generation of Computer

Year 1971-1980
Technology Very large scale integrated chip, Microprocessor
Language High level language (like C, C++, Java, PHP, Visual Basic etc.)
Input Device Keyboard and Mouse
Output Device Monitor and printer
Size Smaller and portable
Storage Semiconductor memory
Important  Used object-oriented programming.
Features  More reliable and portable.
 Very small in size.
 Air Conditioning not needed.
 Vast development in the field of computer network.
  Time sharing, Real-time and Distributed operating systems
were used.
 Cost of the computer is very cheap.
 Concept of internet was introduced.
 First personal computer was developed.
 Used by home user.

Fifth Generation of Computer

Year 1980-now
ULSI(Ultra large scale integrated), contains million of electronics
Technology
components in a single microprocessor chip
All High level language (like C, C++, Java, PHP, Visual
Language
Basic, .Net)
Input Device Keyboard and Mouse
Output Device Monitor and printer
Size Very small and portable, palm size and handheld device
RAM (Random Access Memory) for primary storage and Hard
Storage
drive for Secondary storage
 Works with Artificial Intelligence.
 Based on parallel processing.
 Able to recognize natural language as input.
 Use nanotechnology and quantum technology.
 Capable to solve complex problem.
Important
 Today's desktop, laptop and mobiles are in fifth generation
Features
devices.
 Very fast, more powerful and cheaper than all previous
generations.
 Always getting improved.

3 Types of Computer Classification

Computers of different kinds are available for our use today. Computers are
classified according to the following factors:

 2 classfication based on purpose - General vs Special Purpose

 3 classification based on operation or functionality - Analog vs Digital vs
Hybrid
 5 classification based on size - Super vs Mainframe vs Mini vs Micro vs
Workstation

2 Computer Classification Based on Purpose

 General purpose
 Special purpose

General Purpose Computer

A General purpose computer is a computer anyone can use to perform general

purpose common tasks.

 In a General purpose computer, software applications can be installed and

used.
 Capable of storing and executing applications
 Can be easily handled by anyone.
 Computers have the capability to do various functions and operations
including writing and reading a document, editing with help of some
software, maintaining database, doing mathematics calculation, security
monitoring, and so on

ENIAC was the first general purpose computer in the year 1945. Today, we use
personal computers, including laptop, desktop computer, smartphones, tablets and
so on. All these devices are general purpose devices.

Special Purpose Computer

Special purpose computer is designed only for performing specific task and not for
common use. Special purpose type of computers perform same operation again and
again.

Special purpose computer are very useful in

  traffic control system
 video games
 weather forecasting
 mathematical calculator
 and so on.

 Special purpose computers don't need to store the program in memory.

 Special purpose computers are designed with built-in instructions to do a
particular operation efficiently and at fast processing speed.
 Main drawback of this computer is that they lack versatility.
 The ABC (Atanasoff-Berry computer) computer was the first special
purpose computer built during the year 1939-42.

3 Computer classification based on operation or functionality

Computers accept data, perform some operation on that data and finally returns
results to the user. Based on the operation and functionality, the computers are
classified into following types.

 Analog Computer
 Digital Computer
 Hybrid Computer

Analog Computer

Analog computer is one of the earliest computers which process only the analog
signals / analog data.

 Analog data is nothing but a continuous form of physical signals that

continuously vary in nature.
 Example of physical quantities are pressure, voltage, current, temperature
and so on.
 These analog values are always measured with respect to time.

Handing of analog computers are very complex for a common man's needs. Hence,
it has been replaced by Digital computer for general use. However, it is being used
in some scientific and industrial applications for measuring pressure, voltage,
frequency, current and so on.
Example of some applications are:

 flight aircraft simulators

 control systems
 speedometer
 thermometer
 refrigerator

Computers are in use for some specific applications, some examples of these
computers are:

 Slide rule
 Operational amplifiers
 Differential analyzers
 Electronic Analog Computers

Digital Computer

Digital computer is a computer that process the digital data (sometimes, we can say
digital signal) as binary digits like 0 and 1.

 Digital computer performs numerical calculations.

 Digital computer uses the discrete values that gives standard and accurate
results and does not vary continuously.
 Digital computers are general purpose computers.
 A Digital computer consist of 4 major components - input devices, output
devices, central processing unit and memory.
 Example of these computers: desktop, laptop, smartphones.

Hybrid computer

Hybrid computer is a computer that can process both analog and digital data.

 Hybrid Computer can use both continuous analog signal and discrete values
for solving a problem.
 Most of the computers in today's world are the hybrid computer.
 Hybrid Computers can accept analog signal and converts them into digital
form before processing.
 Hybrid computers provide very high speed performance.
 For example, they are used in different applications like hospitals, airlines,
industries, scientific, real-time applications and so on.
Examples: Electrocardiogram used in:

 hospitals
 ATM machines
 Computing embedded in Petrol bunks
 Ultrasound scans
 Fingerprint scanners with digital features

Computer classification based on Size

 Supercomputer
 Mainframe computer
 Mini computers
 Micro computer
 Workstation

Supercomputer

Supercomputer is a very powerful, high performance and super fast computer

designed for a specific task.

 Supercomputer is an architectural and operational model based on grid and

parallel processing.
 Supercomputer is embedded with thousand of processors that able to execute
billions or trillions of instructions per second.
 Supercomputer is mainly used for a large organization that requires high
computing power.
 Supercomputer's performance is measured in the form of FLOPS (Floating-
point operations per second).

There are many applications where the supercomputer is used such as:

 weather forecasting
 scientific research areas
 data mining
 military and defence
 automobile
  airline industry

These computers are very expensive compared to others. The first supercomputer
was developed in 1960 by Seymour Cray in a Control Data Corporation(CDC).

Mainframe Computer

A mainframe computer is a very large, faster, and more expensive computer that
has huge storage space so that it can handle the massive amount of data. A
mainframe computer is also known as big iron.

 Mainframe computer performance is measured in MIPS (millions of

instructions per second).
 Mainframe computer is mainly used for large organizations, research, bank
transactions, census data processing, maintaining patient records in large
hospitals, online transaction, airline tickets reservation, etc.
 Mainframe computer can enable multiple users to access the machine at the
same time.
 Mainframe computers are often used as servers.
 Some manufacturers of mainframe computers are IBM, Hitachi, Bull, DEC,
Fujitsu, etc. The UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer I) was the
first mainframe computer developed in 1951 by J. Presper Eckert and
John Mauchly.

Minicomputer

Minicomputer is a smaller computer, its size lies between the mainframes and
microcomputers, which was developed in the mid-1960s.

Minicomputers support multi-processing which means that multiple users

can access the system at the same time.

 Minicomputers are also called midrange computers.

 The PDP-8 (programmed Data Processor) was the first 12-bits
minicomputer which was developed by Digital Equipment Corporation in
1965.
  Minicomputer is mainly used to handle complex tasks, and provide a better
user interface.
 Minicomputer is used for manufacturing control, data management,
scientific and engineering computation, small or mid-range business
environment, business transaction processing, file handling, database
management, and scientific applications.

Microcomputer

Microcomputer is a very small computer compared to minicomputer and others.

 Microcomputer uses the microprocessor as a CPU (Central Processing

Units).
 Microcomputer is the smallest memory, highly portable, and less power
consumption.
 Microcomputers are generally referred to as personal computers (PCs) that
are used in our day-to-day life applications.
 Microcomputer is often used at home and in the office.
 Microcomputer can process the request from one person at a time.
 Examples of these computers are Desktop, Laptop, and handheld devices.
 The Micral was the first microcomputer in 1973 by the French company
Réalisation d'Études Électroniques (R2E).
A computer is an electronic device consisting of various electronic components. A
computer is functionally divided into:

 Input Unit
 Central Processing Unit
 Output Device

Input Unit

Input Unit is an electronic component that is used to enter the data and instructions
to the computer. In general, the computer system can accept the special data format
so that all input devices can have the capability to convert the data into some
format which is accepted only by the computer. Input devices provide
communication between the user and the computer. There are different types of
input devices available in the market such as:

 Keyboard
  Mouse
 Scanner
 Joystick
 Light pen
 Microphone
 Webcam
 Punched card
 Punched tape

The handling of these devices is different but the operation of all input devices is
the same. Input devices provide the way for the the user to easily interact with the
computer.

The main functionality of the Input devices

 Get the data or instructions from the user

 Convert it into the computer acceptable format
 Give them to the computer's processor for further processing.

Central Processing Unit

CPU acts as the brain of the computer. All mathematical calculations and logical
operations are done only in the CPU. It stores data, programs, and intermediate
results. CPU is responsible for all activities that happen inside the computer. It
controls all parts of the computer. It consists of three main units:

 Arithmetic and logical unit

 Control unit
 Memory unit

The main functionality of the CPU

 Stores program and data

 Processes or executes the instructions
 Controls all activities of the computer
 Sends the results to the output devices

Output Unit
Output Unit is an electronic part of the computer used to display or give the output
to the user. It provides communication between computer and user. It gets the
results from CPU and converts it into a form that humans can understand.

Examples of output devices are:

 monitor
 printer
 plotter
 speaker
 video card
 projector

The main functionality of the output Unit

 Get results from Processor

 Convert it into the user-readable format
 Display or give it to the user
Computer Memory and its Function

Compter Memory is a component used to store data or information on the

computer.

 Computer Memory is made up of semiconductor material, typically MOS

(Metal Oxide Semiconductor) organized as a cell.
 Each memory cell can store one bit (0 or 1 ) of information.
 Also, each cell has a unique address that varies from 0 to memory size minus
one.
 For example, if the memory size is 1k, then it varies from 0 to 1023 ( i.e., 1 x
1024= 1024 memory size ).

Two Kinds or Two Types of Memory

 Primary Memory - Volatile temporary memory RAM and Non-Volatile

permanent ROM
 Secondary Memory - Non-volatile Memory

Primary Memory - RAM and ROM

RAM and Cache memory are popular examples of Primary Memory. RAM is
Volatile and ROM is non-volatile.

Volatile memory is computer memory that stores and keeps the information only
when the system has electric power. If the system power turns off, then all the data
and instruction within the volatile memory are erased automatically. Primary
memory or volatile memory RAM is a fast accessible memory compared to Non-
volatile memory. Primary memory can hold only smaller amount of data relative to
secondary non-volatile memory for the same cost. RAM is Random Access
Memory.

Primary Memory - Volatile

RAM Processor Cache Registers

Popular
1GB to 16GB 32KB or 64KB 32 or 64 bit
Sizes

Popular 1333MHz, 2,4,6 or 8KiB L1 2 to 3 times faster than

Speeds 3200MHz Fast cache Faster Cache

Less costlier for its Costliest compared to

Cost Costlier than RAM
size RAM and Cache

Non-volatile Memory

Secondary Non-volatile memory is a type of computer memory that stores and

keeps the information even when the system has lost its power. Secondary Memory
can hold a large volume of data. ROM (Read Only Memory), PROM, EPROM, etc
are examples of the non-volatile memory.

How to Measure Computer Memory? - Computer Memory Size

Data is stored in computer memory. Amount of data stored stored in memory is

dependent on its size.

The following terms define the memory units:

Bit

 Bit is a binary digit used to represent the data in the computer.

 A bit refers to one of the two possible values either 0's or 1's.
 Bit is the smallest measurement unit of a computer.

Nibble

A nibble is defined as a group of 4 bits.

Byte

A byte is a group of 8 bits referred to as the smallest unit of the computer memory.

Table of computer memory - Computer Memory Size Chart - All Computer

Memory Sizes

Word

A word is defined as a group of the fixed size of bits.

 Computer memory stores the data in the form of a word.

 The number of bits in a word is called word length or word size.
 Word length can vary from computer to computer.
 Common word length used in computers are 1, 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits.
 Modern computers use the word length of 32 bits or 64 bits.
Kilo Byte

A kilo byte consists of 1024 bytes. e.g 1 KB = 1024 Bytes.

Mega Byte

A mega byte consists of 1024 kilo bytes. e.g 1 MB = 1024 KB.

Giga Byte

A giga byte consists of 1024 mega bytes. e.g 1 GB = 1024 MB.

Tera Byte

A tera byte consists of 1024 giga bytes. e.g 1 TB = 1024 GB.

Types of Memory

Memory chip can be located in different places within the computer. Based on this
location and size, computer memory categorized into two major types of memory
that are

 Primary memory
o Register memory
o Cache memory
o Main memory or RAM
  Secondary Storage

Primary Memory

Register Memory

Registers are the very fast memory which is part of the computer processor or
CPU.

 Register is used to store the data or instruction during the execution of the
program.
 Size of these registers is small when compared to other memory that can
hold 8-bits, 32-bits, or 64-bits.
 Register memory is costlier than cache, RAM and all kinds of memory.
 In computers, most arithmetic operations are manipulated by getting data
from the registers, and the intermediate results are stored in the register.
 The most commonly used registers are Accumulator, general-purpose
registers (R0 to R9), and special purpose registers

Special purpose registers

 IR - Instruction register
 MDR - Memory Data Register
 MAR - Memory Address Register
 PC - program counter

Cache Memory

Cache memory is the fastest memory than the main memory.

 CPU processor processes the data at highest speed in memory registers but
accessing of data for the next instruction from RAM memory is slow. In
order to make accessing next
 Cache memory acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU. Cache stores
frequently used data and instruction available for CPU to access faster.

Cache memory is used to reduce the access time of data than the main
memory. Whenever CPU wants to execute the instruction, first it checks the
cache memory whether the instruction is available or not. If it finds the
instruction in the cache, it accesses that instruction without referring the
main memory. Suppose if it is not in the cache, then that instruction will be
accessed from the main memory location and also keeps the copy of that
information in the cache for further use. The capacity of cache memory is
smaller and costlier than the main memory.

Main Memory

Main memory or RAM is also referred to as internal memory or system

memmory of the computer. Whenever the computer turns on, this memory
can store the data and information that is required for the proper working of
the computer. Also, the CPU can directly perform read or write operations
on this memory. Main memory can be either volatile or non-volatile
memory. The main memory is broadly divided into two types that are

o RAM(Random Access Memory) - Volatile

o ROM(Read-Only Memory) - Non-volatile

In general, this memory module is connected to the memory slot on the

motherboard of the computer.

RAM - Random Access Memory - Computer Memory RAM

Computer Memory RAM is the fastest memory that gives workspace for our
program to run.

o Computer Memory RAM can provide temporary storage for

information and data.
o The information stored in RAM is lost when the system is shut down.
Hence, RAM is called a volatile memory.
o RAM is necessary for the proper functioning of the computer.
o Without RAM, the computer is useless.
o RAM is expensive than secondary memory but cheaper than the cache
memory.

RAM has two types

o SRAM (Static RAM)

o DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

ROM - Read Only Memory - Computer Memory ROM

Computer Memory ROM stands for Read Only Memory.

 o ROM is an Integrated Chip(IC) made up of semiconductor material.
o ROM memory stores the information and data provided by the
computer systems manufacturers.
o In Simple terms, it keeps firmware information. Firmware is a
software program that is necessary for the hardware devices to
communicate with one another.
o ROM contains instructions for basic input/output devices, hard drives,
BIOS information, video card, etc.) that can be erased and rewritten.
o ROM keeps the information and data even when the system has no
power supply or shut down.
o ROM is called non-volatile memory. Therefore, the program and data
stored in the ROM memory is permanent.
o Data in ROM can be read-only by the CPU and not by the user.
o Different kinds of ROMs available that are PROM, EPROM, and
EEPROM.

Secondary Memory or Storage

Secondary Memory is a storage device that can provide permanent storage

for data and programs. We can simply call it as storage.

o Secondary Memory is very slow, inexpensive, and long lasting

storage medium.
o Secondary Memory can provide a large amount of storage space.
o Examples of these storage devices are Hard Disk, Solid State Disk
(SSD), floppy disk, hard disk, optical disk likes CD, DVD, Blue-ray
disk. We also have External Hard Disks and USB storage drives
o Secondary Storage is sometimes called as auxiliary storage.
o Internal Hard disk, Solid State Disk SSD, External Hard drive, USB
flash drive are more popular nowadays and CD and DVD slowly
reducing in use and popularity.

Memory - Summary
RAM - Random Access Memory

RAM is like the brain of the computer that loses its storage on power OFF
and starts storing fresh once again on computer power ON. All that
computer has to process, has to be placed in memory. Without RAM,
computer cannot work.

Cache Memory

Processor Cache is also volatile memory and faster and costlier than RAM.

Processor Memory Register

Registers are located within the processor and is the fastest and costliest
memory compared to Cache and RAM

A computer usually has 32 or 64 bit register memory, 32KB or 64KB Cache

memory, 1GB to 16GB RAM.

Secondary Storage

Nowadays, 500GB, 1TB or even 2TB internal hard disk or 500GB SSD are
becoming more popular. External hard drives of 1TB is more used for data
backup. 8GB to 64GB USB flash drive is used to carry Data much easier
Hardware includes the physical components of the computer. A computer has
some internal and some external hardware components.

 Case
 Motherboard
 Micoprocessor
 Central processing unit (CPU)
 RAM
 Hard disk
 Graphics card
 Power supply
 Connecting cables
 Battery
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Other Input and Output devices
 USB ports, network ports, HDMI ports
  SD card readers
 Network card
 Graphics card
 Power adaptor
 CD drive
 Headphone ports
 Cam
 Microphone
 External hard drive

Case

Computer case encompasses most requiring parts of the computer such as

motherboard, hard drive, power supply, few cables, RAM, All ports and drives.

 Computer case is usually made of steel, plastic, or aluminium.

 The size of the case is dependent on the form factor of the motherboard.
 Most of the computer cases are designed for ATX, the most popular form
factor for a desktop computer.
 ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended) is the configuration specification
design board that includes both motherboard and power supply.
 Different shapes of the cases are available such as vertical case, flat desktop
case, and tower case.
 Tower case is further classified into a mini-tower, mid-tower, midi tower,
and full tower.
 Computer Case protects the internal components from outside environments
such as animals, air pollution, liquids, etc.
 Computer Case can be used for keeping the area cool, cool down the internal
components of the computer, provides the way for proper airflow over the
internal components of the hardware, and reduce the noise of the noisy
components.
 Computer Case also hides the underlying hardware components of the
computer from the people whenever they use the computer.

Motherboard

Motherboard is the main board that provides backbone connectivity between all the
components.

 Motherboard is a printed circuit board (PCB) through which all components

can communicate with each other.
  Motherboard can hold most of the important components that include CPU,
power supply, RAM, hard disk, graphics card, and sound card.
 Furthermore, it may contain a series of sockets and connectors that allows
various peripheral devices and other circuit boards are directly connected
with the motherboard.

Central processing system (CPU)

CPU is the brain of the computer.

 CPU can perform all arithmetic calculations and logical operations and
controls all activities.
 As a whole, CPU is responsible for all the activity that happens inside the
computer.

RAM

RAM is a physical storage device that stores data that is currently being used.

 It is a semiconductor IC chip that offers temporary storage space.

 RAM IS A volatile memory.

Hard Disk

Hard disk is the storage device that provides permanent storage for the data on the
computer.

 It gives a large volume of storage space for data or information.

 Hard disk is non-volatile memory.

Graphics card

All the Computers need a graphics card to display the output.

 The computers use a GPU(Graphics Processing Unit) that produces output in

terms of an image to your display.
 The GPU contains an additional processor that takes data from the CPU and
converts it into image information then that will be displayed on the
computer screen.
 Sometimes The GPU is called a graphics card.
 In modern PCs, the GPU has integrated with the CPU itself.
Power supply

Power supply unit (PSU) provides power supply to the computer.

 The PSU converts alternating current to low voltage direct current.

 The motherboard allocates those low voltage direct current into other
hardware components of the computer.

Input devices and output devices

Input devices and output devices are the external hardware components directly
connected to the computer via cables or Bluetooth.

 Input devices are used to enter the data into the computer, and the output
devices are displayed on the computer screen.
 Examples of input devices are keyboard or mouse, and output devices are
monitors or printers.
 The external hardware components are usually called peripheral devices.
 Examples of common external devices are I/O devices, hard drives, USB
devices, speakers, cameras, scanners, microphones, headphones, etc.
Software is a collection of computer programs and documents that direct the
computer to do the tasks. The program defines a sequence of instructions or set of
instructions that store in the storage medium. Examples of storage media are hard
drive, CD, DVD, pen drives, and USB on which the software can store. If you
want to use a program, first transfer the program into the computer's memory from
storage media.

There are two main categories of computer software.

 System Software
 Application Software

Computer uses the system software for proper functioning of the computer. The
user can use the Application software for doing specific tasks. System software act
as an intermediate between hardware and application software. The application
software act as a mediator between system software and user.

System Software

System Software is necessary for proper working of the computer. It provides basic
operation and functionality to the computer, so that the computer can work itself.
Whenever the user uses the computer, they don't need to be aware of underlying
software, and they can simply use it. For example if you want to print the
document, you simply use the printer. You don't need to know the device driver,
because when request any device to use, the corresponding device driver software
interrelates with appropriate hardware device to perform the specific task.

Main functions of system software Provide basic functionality.

 Acts as an interface between hardware components and application software.

 Control all hardware components of the computer.
 The user can simply use the computer without knowing the underlying
software.

System software is further divided into two categories.

1. System software for computer management

o Operating system
o Device drivers
 o System utilities
2. System software for developing software
o Programming languages
o Translator software
o Linker
o Loader

Let us discuss the system software one by one in detailed.

System software for computer management

Operating system

It is a first and most required software that is required for the computer to operate.

The main features of the Operating System

 It provides the environment on which the user and application software can
do their work.
 It acts intermediate between hardware and user. Not only that, but it also
controls and coordinates the use of hardware components among the user
and application software.
 The OS manages the all resources and allocates them to the user and other
program whenever that is needed.

Examples of operating systems are Windows 7,Window XP, Windows 8, Windows

10, MacOS, Linux, Unix, and Android OS.

Device Drivers

Device Driver is the translator or intermediate between hardware and software.

Device driver is a system software which is needed for proper functioning of
hardware devices like keyboard, mouse, speaker, webcam, printer, monitor, hard
disk, scanner, and so on. For each device, the corresponding device driver software
must be installed on the computer then only that device can work properly. For
example, when we want to print a text, a printing command is sent to the printer
driver which converts the command into certain forms that should be understood
by the printer. The device driver software for all commonly used hardware devices
are given by respective device manufacturers.
Today, most of the operating system comes with preinstalled device drivers like
keyboard, mouse, and monitor.

System Utilities

It is the system software that helps the user maintaining the computer. Utility
programs are available to the user for easy handling of the computer. It is required
to enhance the functionality of the computer. The necessary utility software is
usually included with the operating system for the basic functioning of the
computer.

Some examples of utility software programs are given below:

 Anti-virus utilities:-used to scan the computer system.

 Debugger utilities:-used to test and debug the other program and also to
solve programming errors.
 System monitors:-used to monitor the resources and performance of the
computer.
 Cryptography utilities:- used to encrypt and decrypt the data streams and
files.
 Data compression utilities:-used to compress the content of the files.
 Disk compression utilities:- used to compress/ uncompressed the contents
on the disk.
 Disk partitioning utilities:-used to divide the disk into multiple logical
driver volumes that can treat as an individual drive. Each drive follows its
file system.
 Network utilities:-used to configure, check and maintain the connection of
the computer network.
 Backup utilities:- used to make a copy of all information of hard disk that
can be restored in the case of disk failure or file corruption.
 File managers utilities:- used to manage the file system on the computer.
They provide the basic tools to handle the file system. Also, it allows us to
edit text documents that editing includes to write, delete, rename, save it to
disk, insert pictures, and so on.

If you want to see the system utilities on your computer, you can view it by going
through the start menu, all programs, accessories, system tools on Windows OS.

System software for developing software

Programming language

The programming language is the computer language that consists of a sequence of

instructions to perform a specific task. The programming language is being used to
write a program that directs and controls the computer to produce the output. Each
programming language has its own set of keywords and syntax for writing
instruction. For writing a program, many programming languages have developed.
Still, more are being developed. These programming languages are grouped into
three different categories that are:

 Machine language
 Assembly language
 High-level language

Machine language

It is the lowest level programming language that uses the numeric form to write an
instruction. These programs could be executed directly by the hardware of the
computer. The machine language program consists of binary digits or bits like 0s
and 1s.

The main features of machine language

 The computer can understand the instruction written in machine language

since it is the lowest level programming language.
 It uses the string of 0s and 1s to write an instruction.
 The instruction could make the hardware of the computer or the CPUs of the
computer perform a specific task.
 Each CPU has its own unique set of machine language.
 This is a machine-dependent language since it depends upon the processor of
the computer. That means the machine-level program written on one
computer may not run on another computer with a different processor.
 The program written in machine language is hard to read and modify
because it has written in binary code. For example:10000101110.
 The machine language program is called machine code or object code.
 It can be very difficult for us to write a program by using machine language.
Assembly language

It is the low-level language that lies between high-level and low-level language. It
was very easier to write a program than machine language.

The main features of assembly language

 It uses the symbolic representation that is given by the CPU manufacturers,

for writing a program.
 It is the small English-like representation of machine language, that is, it
allows the programmer to use mnemonics for writings a program in
assembly language.
 It is machine-dependent. Each assembly language is designed for a specific
computer or even a particular operating system.
 Program written in assembly language is converted into machine code or
object code then only it will be executed by a processor of the computer.
 For conversion, use the translator software such as assembler Which
converts it into the object or machine code.

High-level programming language

 It is an English-like language.
 It uses specific notation to write an instruction that is syntax and semantics.
 It is very easy for the programmer to understand.
 A program written in a high-level language is known as source code that has
to be converted into object code by using a compiler or interpreter.
 Programs written in a high-level language are easily portable across other
computers.
 The user can execute the program written in the high-level language without
knowing the underlying CPUs operations.
 For examples C,C++, java, Fortran, python, C#, .net, etc.

Translator

Program written in either high level or assembly language has to convert into
machine language code because the computer can understand only binary digits.
The conversion has to be done by the translator software. The output of these
translators is known as object code. There are three different types of translators
that are
  Assembler
 Compiler
 Interpreter

Assembler

This software has used to convert a program written in assembly language into
machine code or object code. The conversion follows a 1:1 ratio, which means one
assembly language instruction will be converted into a machine language
instruction.

Compiler

This software has to be used to convert a program written in a high-level language

into machine language. The high-level program refers to source code, and the
converted program refers to object code. The object code is also known as
executable code. Most of the high-level programming language has its own
compiler. For example C++, Java, Cobol, and FORTRAN. The compiler also uses
to find an error in the program.

The compilation would be done in two steps.

 Break the source code into semantic representation and form the
corresponding intermediate code.
 The intermediate code has to convert into an object or executable code.

Interpreter

It is similar to a compiler. It is a software in which the high-level program has to

convert into a machine language program. The interpreter reads the source
program line by line, converts it into machine code, executes the line and, then
only moves to the next line. The example: python and basic programming
languages use interpreter software for conversion.
Linker

The linker is software that is used to combine executable code with required other
modules. It is also used to include the other libraries.

Loader

The loader is software used to load and relocates the executable codes in the
memory storage. At the runtime, the loader has to allocate space in memory and
then load the executable file for execution.

Application Software

Application software is software that allows the user for developing an application
and performing a specific task. This application software is a single program or a
set of the program in a single package. It provides the interface between the user
and the monitor. The application software is usually written in a high-level
language. The application software can use in different purpose and different
environments such as document creation, graphics, media players, accounting,
banking, telecommunications, etc.

Some example of application software are given below:

 Word Processor-used to write and read text documents. Example: MS-

Word
 Presentation Software-used to prepare and present a slid shower a large
audience. Eg. MS-power point presentation.
 Spreadsheet Software- used for calculating budgets and creating a table,
and chart, etc. Eg. MS-Excel.
 CAD/CAM Software -used to help in the field of architectural design.
 Image Processing software-used to draw images and manipulating
graphics. Example: Adobe Photoshop.
 Accounting Software -used to help in maintaining accounts, salary, tax
return. Example: Tally software
 Web Browser Software-allow us to access the internet as world wide web
for searching data, download images, and videos, playing music, uploading
information, etc. Eg. Internet Explorer, Mochila Firefox, Chrome, and
Netscape Communicator.
  Software Suit- a collection of software grouped into one package such as
Word processor, presentation software, Spreadsheet software, etc. Eg. MS-
Office, Libra Office, Google Docs, Apple iWork.

A keyboard, a mouse and a document reader are examples of Input devices.

Scanner, Joystick, Keyboard are also input devices. Scanner scans a printed
document
Mouse, keyboard and joystick are input devices which work because of humans
moving the devices.
Data entered into computer through keyboard and mouse is an example of input.
Data displayed on Desktop or Laptop or Smartphone or printed on paper or plotter
is an example of output.
Input devices are physical devices used to input data or information into the
computer.
All input devices get the user input, convert it into a certain form understood by the
computer, and sends it to the processor for further processing.
Different types of input devices are available for use.

 Keyboard
  Mouse
 Joystick
 Microphone
 Scanner
 Touchscreen
 Webcam
 Barcode Reader

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most commonly used input device.

Keys available on the keyboard are 0-9 numbers, A-Z letters, F1-F12 function
keys, shift, Ctrl, Alt, Tab, Cap lock, Enter, Backspace, and so on.
Keyboard is directly connected to the computer through a USB cable.

Keyboard can also be connected to the computer by using a Bluetooth, Radio

Frequency, or Infrared adapter. Bluetooth enables wireless communication
between keyboard and PC. While Alphabets and Digits keys are usually typed by
single keys. Simultaneous use of 2 or 3 keys help to perform basic operations like
save(Ctrl+s), copy(Ctrl+c), paste(Ctrl+v), type upper case letter (shift key +
alphabet), bold(Ctrl key + b), print (Crtl key + p). Laptops come with an inbuilt
keyboard.

Mouse
Is Mouse Input or Output device? Mouse is an input device.

 The mouse is the handheld input device which consists of two buttons, one
on the left and the second on the right, and a scroll wheel in the middle
which also works as a button.
 Mouse is also called a pointing device.
 Mouse works because of two dimensional motion.
 This motion is converted into a pointer or cursor movement on the screen.

We use the mouse on a flat surface by using our fingers to easily move the pointer
or cursor across the computer screen.

In the early days, the mouse has used a ball roller for moving the cursor on the
computer screen.
In modern computers, mice are designed with an optical sensor that controls the
cursor movement on the computer screen.
Like the keyboard, the mouse is connected to the computer through USB cables or
by using a Bluetooth device.
Laptop computers have an inbuilt touchpad that works similarly to a mouse.
By using a mouse button, we can perform some operations like select items from
the menu, drag and drop the document, select single or more document lines, etc.
Mouse is not used for entering text or data on the computer.
The most common types of computer mice are

 Mechanical mouse
  Optical mouse
 Trackball mouse
 Wireless mouse

Joystick

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Joystick is one of the pointing devices to control the cursor or pointer movement
on the computer.

 Joystick consists of a stick in the center that controls the direction of the
cursor movement.
 Joystick moves in all 4 directions, such as forward, backward, left, and right,
but not in lateral /diagonal movement.
 Joystick is mainly used for gaming applications like video games and
computer-aided designing.
 Different types of joysticks are available for use such as finger-operated
joystick, displacement joystick, isometric joystick, hand-operated joystick,
etc.

Microphone
Microphone is one type of input device used to accept the sound as an input.

 Microphone receives sound waves and converts them into audio signals.
 Audio signals can be again converted into digital data that is stored in your
computer.
 Digitally stored audio is used to add sound to the presentation on video
conference, voice recognition, a game application, music mixing, voice
recording, VoIP- Voice over Internet Protocol, chatting, etc.

Scanner
A scanner is an input device that scans the image, text in the document, regardless
of a printed text or handwritten text, and objects, and then converts it into a digital
image or file on the screen.

 Scanner input device is mainly used in big organizations like offices,

schools, colleges, shopping malls, and printing presses.
 Scanners of different types are available in the market - flatbed scanner,
sheeted scanner, photo scanner, and handheld scanners.
 The scanner is connected to the computer via USB cable.

Touchscreen

Touchscreen is a computer input device as well as computer output device. Touch

provides input. Screen provides the output. Touchscreen is a display screen that
can be activated by touch using your fingers to interact with the devices.

 Touchscreen is mainly used in portable electronic devices like smartphones,

tablets, and laptops on which Touchscreen acts as a graphical user interface
between devices and the user.
 Touchscreen can provide some common functions like swiping, touch, drag,
tap, and a lot of actions are done by simply touching the screen.
 Touchscreen can also be used for other devices as such ATM, car GPS, sheet
checking in the theater, medicals, cameras, etc.
Webcam

Webcam is a computer input device. Webcam is a camera which is connected to

the computer by using a USB or inbuilt with the computer (laptops).

 Webcam is an input device to capture the image or motion video.

 This webcam image or video can be stored on the computer or transferred as
a video stream over the internet.
 Main purpose of webcam is making a video call, video conference, taking
still pictures or video.
 If you want to share the picture or video taken by webcam with another
person, You can send through the internet.

Barcode Reader
Barcode reader is an input device used to read the Bar code information that can be
printed as image on product covers, plastic wrappers and cardboard boxes.

 Barcode consists of some set of black, dark lines and thin lines that defines
the information corresponding to the goods being sold in Retail shops or the
internet.
 Bar code data contains more information that includes characters and
numbers.
 Barcode reader contains a scanner and a decoder.
 Scanner uses the light beam to scan across the barcode, then it detects the
reflected light beam and converts them into electrical form.
 Decoder converts those electrical forms into data that is easily read by the
computer.
 Different types of barcode readers available such as image scanners, laser
scanners, pen wands, slot scanners, and Charge-Couple Devices (CCD).
Most popular output devices of a computer are the Monitor and printer.

Output devices of a computer are the hardware components that receive output
from a computer and convert them into human readable form.
The human-readable form may be a

 visual document
 text
 printed document
 audio
 video

Different kinds of output devices are available.

The most common output devices are

 Monitor
 Printer
 Speaker
 Projector
 Plotter

Monitor

 Computer device which is used to display output on screen is Monitor.

Monitor is an output device that is used to display any data - video, image,
text, streaming data.
  Monitor consists of a display screen, circuitry, button to change screen
setting, power supply, and casing that bears all of these components.
 Monitor is commonly used as an output device that receives the data from
the computer and displays it on the screen.
 Monitor screen is organized in the form of pixels arranged as 2-dimensional
matrix. Pixels are arranged in the form of rows and columns.
 Monitors are available in different sizes. There are 2 types of monitors
available for our use.
o Cathode Ray Tube(CRT)
o Flat Panel display or Liquid Crystal Display(LCD)

 Early computers used the monitors based on CRT technology.

 Modern computers use the LCD in which liquid crystals use the backlight to
produce images.

Printer

Printer is an output device that can print data or information on paper.

This printed document is often called as a hard copy.
Printer is connected to the computer either through a USB cable or over Wi-Fi.

Printers are divided into two categories

  Impact printer
 Non impact printer

Impact printer

Impact printer works with a ribbon that is stroked against the paper in order to print
the character. Different types of impact printers are available.

 Character Printer
 Line printer

Non-impact Printer

Non-impact type of printer prints the character, but it doesn't require to strike the
ribbon against the paper.
Non-impact printers can print a whole page at a time. These are further divided
into two types

 Inkjet Printer
 Laser Printer

To know more about Printers, Learn here:

Printer, Types, and Features

Plotter
Plotter is a special type of output device.

 Plotter uses a pen, pencil, or marker to draw continuous lines for creating an
image on the paper.
 Plotter is the graphic printer for printing vector graphics.
 Usually, the plotter works with the computer's graphics software to produce
an image on paper.
 Plotter can produce the image in high quality and high-resolution output on
large sheets.
 Size of the plotters is large and more expensive than traditional printers.
 Most popular types of plotter are flatbed plotter, drum plotter, and inkjet
plotter.
 Plotters are suitable for printing architectural blueprints, CAD drawings,
maps, engineering designs, and diagrams.

Speaker
Speaker is an output device that is attached to the computer.

 Main use of this device is to output the sound.

 Computer requires a sound card for the speaker to work.
 Speakers contain an internal amplifier and need a power supply which is
given either by an AC adapter or batteries.
 Speaker is mainly used for playing audios e.g for the MP3 player.
 Speaker can be connected with a computer via USB cable or use wireless
Bluetooth speakers (does not need a cable. For connection, it can use Aux
jack).
 Some speakers can have advanced features like bass and treble control
which is used for sound equalization.
 For a desktop computer, the speaker is an external component.
 For a laptop, a small speaker is integrated within the laptop.

Projector
Projector is an output device that can take image or text data from the computer
and projects them on the whiteboard screen, wall, or flat surface.

 Projector displays images or text on a large screen so that everyone in the

room or hall can view the display screen.
 Projector use the transparent lens through which images can be created in
the form of light on the large screen.
 Today, projectors use laser light to create the image on the screen.

Projectors have one or two ports such as VGA ports for old devices and HDMI
ports for new devices.

 Some projectors can support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connections.

 Usually, the projector can be placed on the table or fixed on the ceiling so
that everyone can see the screen.

The projector is often used in different applications

 Presenting PowerPoint presentations in classrooms, conferences, office

meetings, and business meetings.

 Used for video conferences and seminars in colleges, universities, and large
organizations.

 Presenting slide show and demonstrate the products for the customer in the
Education, IT and Non-IT sectors.
 Digital projectors are mostly used in theaters to project high-quality videos or
movies on the screen.

 Projecting a movie or video at the Home theater.

Types Years

 Slide Projectors
During the 1940s -1960s
 Overhead Projectors

 Digital Light Processing (DLP) Projectors

 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projectors During the 1970s-1990s
 LCoS(Liquid Crystal on Silicon Projector)

 4K AND UHD Projectors

 PICO Projectors
During the 2000s and beyond
 Laser Projectors
 Smart Projectors

Mouse scanner is a device which works like a normal mouse plus it has the
functionality of a scanner. Mouse scanner looks like a mouse but when you turn it
upside down, you can notice a slight difference in bottom surface which can scan
when moved over a paper or an object. You can just press scan button on the
mouse over a document and see the document on the screen. Individual properties
of a mouse and scanner are shown below:

Mouse part of the mouse scanner

Is Mouse scanner Input or Output device? Mouse Scanner is an input device.
Mouse scanner is both a mouse and a scanner

 The mouse is the handheld input device which consists of two buttons, one
on the left and the second on the right, and a scroll wheel in the middle
which also works as a button.
 Mouse is also called a pointing device.
 Mouse works because of two dimensional motion.
 This motion is converted into a pointer or cursor movement on the screen.

We use the mouse on a flat surface by using our fingers to easily move the pointer
or cursor across the computer screen.

In the early days, the mouse has used a ball roller for moving the cursor on the
computer screen.
In modern computers, mice are designed with an optical sensor that controls the
cursor movement on the computer screen.
Like the keyboard, the mouse is connected to the computer through USB cables or
by using a Bluetooth device.
Laptop computers have an inbuilt touchpad that works similarly to a mouse.
By using a mouse button, we can perform some operations like select items from
the menu, drag and drop the document, select single or more document lines, etc.
Mouse is not used for entering text or data on the computer.
The most common types of computer mice are
  Mechanical mouse
 Optical mouse
 Trackball mouse
 Wireless mouse

Scanner part of the mouse scanner

A scanner is an input device that scans the image, text in the document, regardless
of a printed text or handwritten text, and objects, then converts it into a digital
image or file on the screen. This input device is mainly used in big organizations
like offices, schools, colleges, shopping malls, and printing presses. There are
different types of scanners available in the market that are the flatbed scanner,
sheeted scanner, photo scanner, and handheld scanners. The scanner is connected
to the computer via USB cable.