Language, Culture and Society

Language, Culture, and Society Learning

LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology
Overview of the Module
This module includes the discussion and activities on the course Language, Culture, and Society. This will
make you think, reason out, and relate your experiences on the selected topics this course has. Originally, this
course requires almost 25 lessons, however, given the situation, I chose essential topics that will give you the core of
this course.
This module also includes some activities that will make you assess yourself, your schema, and
experiences that are building blocks to understanding your language, your culture, and your society, and how these
three affects and influence you as in individual, a citizen, and a future and a future educator.
This module will give you a full panoramic view of how the three essential components hone you upon
conception up to this time. This will help you prepare for the WONDERFUL WORLD OF TEACHING where cultural,
language, and societal diversity are highly regarded.
Module Outcomes
This module will be focused on the introduction to this course; thus, outcomes will be measured based on
your answers in all activities you will accomplish. No other paper work for will accomplish. No other paper work for
this module except the given except the given activities embedded in each lesson, so make sure that you will give
your best in accomplishing them.

Lesson 1: Defining and relating LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY

Language, Culture and Society

Language is the vehicle to transmit culture, transform and develop a society. It is also believed that through
language and communication, we can build bridges for the betterment of the world, hence, as global teachers, we
have to prepare ourselves for our vital roles, that is, to use language and communication as building blocks towards
development and better world. To do so, deeper understanding of the roles of language, culture, and society is at of
culture, and society is at of paramount.
Language, Culture, and Society is a major course of BSE-ELE students where you have to understand how
language affects culture, how culture affects language, how language affects society, how society affects language,
how culture affects society, and how society affects cu affects culture. This lesson will give you a good background
on the interrelatedness and interconnectedness of the three big concepts. he three big concepts.
In this lesson, you will encounter two readings that will help you understand the concepts. In the midst of
pandemic, global teachers like you must be prepared for a more diverse and diverse and problem-so problem-
solving-centered virtual classrooms. living-centered virtual classrooms.
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. define the define the interrelatedness of the three core the three core concepts of this course, Language, concepts
of this course, Language, Culture, and Society;
2. relate your personal experiences with the topic; and
3. use your gained knowledge in preparing yourself as a future global ELT.

SELF-ASSESSMENT
Write everything you know about the following terms lowing terms. Do not consult dictionary or any resources. Your
answers can be in bullet form. Please answer in complete statements.
LANGUAGE
CULTURE
SOCIETY

From your answers above, how do you think these three concepts relate to each concepts relate to each other?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Discussion:
Language and culture are intertwined. A specific language normally brings up to a particular gathering of
individuals. At the point when you associate with another dialect, it implies that you are additionally communicating
Language, Culture and Society

with the way of life that communicates in the language. You can't comprehend one's way of life without getting to its
language straightforwardly.
At the point when you get familiar with another dialect, it not just includes learning its letters in order, the
word plan and the guidelines of language, yet in addition finding out about the particular society's traditions and
conduct. When learning or showing a ct. When learning or showing a language, language, it is significant that the
way of life where the language has a place be referred to, on the grounds that language is a lot of imbued in the way
of life.
Utilizing Paralanguage
Complex is one term that you can use to portray human correspondence since paralanguage is utilized to
send messages. Paralanguage is explicit to a culture, thusly the correspondence with other ethnic gatherings can
other ethnic gatherings can prompt misconceptions.
At the point when you experience childhood in a particular society, it is inescapable to become familiar with
the looks, signals and little changes in voice or tone and other specialized devices to accentuate or adjust what you
need to do or say. These particular correspondence procedures of one culture are found out generally by
impersonating and watching individuals, at first from guardians and close family members and later from companions
and individuals outside the companions and individuals outside the nearby family circle
Non-verbal communication, which is otherwise called kinesics, is the most evident kind \of paralanguage.
These are the stances, articulations and signals utilized as non-verbal language. In any case, it is similarly
conceivable to adjust the importance of different words by changing the character or tone of the voice.
Homologous relationship of culture and language
The expression, language is culture and culture is language is regularly referenced when language and
culture are examined. This is on the grounds that the two have a homologous albeit complex relationship. Language
and culture grew together and d culture grew together and affected each other as they advanced. Utilizing this unique
situation, Alfred L. Krober, a social anthropologist from the US said that the US said that culture began when
discourse was a culture began when discourse was accessible, and from that start, the enhancement of possibly one
drove the other to grow further.
In the event that culture is a result of t event that culture is a result of the associations he associations of
people, the demonstrations of people, the demonstrations of correspondence are their social signs inside a particular
network. Ferruccio Rossi-Landi, a savant from Italy whose work zeroed in on reasoning, semiotics and etymology
said that a discourse network is comprised of the apparent multitude of messages that with each other utilizing a
given language, which is perceived by the whole society. Rossi-Landi further included that little youngster take in
their language and culture from the general public they were conceived in. During the time spent learning, they build
up their psychological capacities also.
Influencing the way people think
On the off-chance that you know about the rule of etymologic etymological relativity, it says that the manner
in which people think about the world is impacted straightforwardly by the language that the people use to look at it.
Anthropologist-etymologist Edward Sapir of the United States said that the United States said that the language
propensities for explicit gatherings of people assemble assembled this present reality. He further included that no two
dialects are comparable so that they would speak to one society. The world for every public is unique. In
investigation, this implies in communicating in a language implies that the person is accepting a culture. Knowing
culture. Knowing another culture, in another culture, in view of this rule, is his rule, is knowing its specific knowing its
specific language. Correspondence is expected to live the translations and portrayals of that world.
Transmission of culture and language
Language is learned, which means it can be Language is learned, which means it can be cultural culturally
transmitted. Pre-school children take on their first language from their exposure to random words they encounter in
and out of their homes. When they reach school age, they are taught either their first language or another language.
If it is the first language, the children are taught writing and reading, the correct ways to construct sentences and how
to use formal grammar. However, the initial knowledge of the child about the essential structure and vocabulary of
the first language was learned before the child went to was learned before the child went to school.
Conversely, culture is transmitted in a large part, by language, through teaching. Language is the reason
why humans have histories that animals do not have. In the study of animal behavior through the course of history,
alterations to their behavior were the result of the intervention of humans through domestication and other types of d
other types of interference. interference.
The culture of humans on the other hand is as different as the world ‘s languages. They are likely to change
over time. In industrialized countries, the changes in the language are more rapid. Culture is not learned by imitation
but by oral instruction. There could be some imitation, if the learner is still young. With language, methods of social
control, products, techniques and skills are explained. Spoken language offers a vast quantity of usable information
for the community. This helps to quicken new skill acquisition and the techniques to adapt to new to adapt to new
environments or altered environments or altered circumstances.
Language, Culture and Society

The advent of writing increased the process of culture dissemination. The permanent state of writing made it
easier for information to be diffused. The process is further hastened by the increase in literacy and the by the
increase in literacy and the invention of pr invention of printing.
Modern techniques for fast communication transmission across the globe through broadcasting and the
presence of translation services around the world help make usable knowledge to be accessible to people anywhere
in the world. Thus, the world benefits from the fast transference, availability and exchange of social, political,
technological and scientific knowledge.
Language, Society, and Culture
Society and culture influence the words that we speak, and the words that we speak influence society and
culture. Such a cyclical relationship can be difficult to understand, but many of the examples throughout this chapter
and examples from our own lives help illustrate this point. One of the best ways to learn about society, culture, and
language is to seek out opportunities to go beyond our typical comfort zones. Studying abroad, for example, brings
many challenges that can turn into turn into valuable lessons.
Although English used to employ formal (thou, thee) and informal pronouns (you), today you can be used
when speaking to a professor, a parent, or a casual acquaintance. Other languages still have social norms and rules
about who is to be referred to informally and formally. My friend, as was typical in the German language, referred to
his professor with the formal pronoun “Sie” but used the informal pronoun “Du” with his fellow students since they
were peers. When the professor invited some of the American exchange students to dinner, they didn’t ‘t know they
were about to participate in a cultural ritual that would change the way they spoke to their professor from that night
on. Their professor informed them that they were going to “dozen”, which meant they were going to now be able to
refer to her with the informal pronoun — an honor and sign of closeness for the American students. As they went
around the table, each student introduced himself or herself to the professor using the formal pronoun, locked arms
with her and drank (similar to the champagne toast ritual at some wedding ceremonies), and reintroduced himself or
herself using the informal pronoun. For the rest of the semester, the American students still respectfully referred to
the professor with her t the professor with her title, which translated to ―Mrs. le, which translated to “Mrs. Doctor”,
but used informal pronouns, even in class, while the other students not included in the ceremony had to continue
using the formal. Given that we do not use formal and informal pronouns in English anymore, there is no equivalent
ritual to the German “dozen”, but as we will learn next, there are many rituals in English that may be just as foreign to
someone else.
Language and Social Context
We arrive at meaning through conversational interaction, which follows many social norms and rules. As
we‘ve already learned, rules are explicitly stated conventions (“Look at me when I’m talking to you.”) and norms are
implicit (saying you’ve got to leave before you actually do to politely initiate the end to a conversation). To help
conversation’s function meaningfully, we have learned social norms and meaningfully, we have learned social norms
and internalized them to such an extent that we do not often consciously enact them. Instead, we rely on routines
and roles (as determined by social forces) to help us to help us proceed with verbal interaction, which a proceed with
verbal interaction, which also helps determine how a conversation will unfold. Our various social roles influence
meaning and how we speak. For influence meaning and how we speak. For example, a person may say, ―As a
longtime member of this community… or ―As a first-generation college student… Such statements cue others into
the personal and social context from which we are speaking, which helps them better interpret our meaning.
One social norm that structures our communication is turn taking. People need to feel like they are
contributing something to an interaction, so turn taking is a central part of how conversations play out. Although we
sometimes talk at the same time as others or interrupt them, there are numerous verbal and nonverbal cues, almost
like a dance, that are exchanged between speakers that let people know when their turn will begin or end.
Conversations do not always neatly progress from beginning to end with shared understanding along the way. There
is a back and forth that is often verbally managed through rephrasing (“Let me try that again,”) and clarification
(“Does that make sense?”)David Crystal, How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and
Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005), 268.
We also have certain units of speech that facilitate turn taking. Adjacency pairs are related communication
structures that come one after the other (adjacent to each the other (adjacent to each other) in other) in an
interaction. For example, questions are followed by answers, greetings are followed by responses, compliments are
followed by a thank you, and informative comments are followed by an acknowledgment. These are the skeletal
components that make up our verbal interactions, and they are largely social in that they facilitate our interactions.
When these sequences don‘t work out, confusion, miscommunication, or frustration may result, as you can see in t
you can see in the following sequences:
Travis “How are you? “
Wanda “Did someone tell you I’m sick?”
Darelle “I just wanted to let you know the meeting has been moved to three o-clock”
Xyra “I had a cake for breakfast this morning”
Language, Culture and Society

Some conversational elements are highly scripted or ritualized, especially the beginning and end of an
exchange and topic changes. Conversations often begin with a standard greeting and then proceed to “safe”
exchanges about things in the immediate field of experience of the communicators (a comment on the weather or
noting something going on in the scene). At this point, once the ice is broken, people can move on to other more
content-specific exchanges more content-specific exchanges. Once conversing, before we can, before we can initiate
a topic change, it is a social norm that we let the current topic being discussed p he current topic being discussed
play itself out or lay itself out or continue until continue until the person who introduced the topic seems satisfied. We
then usually try to find a relevant tie-in or segue that acknowledges the previous topic, in turn acknowledging the
speaker, before actually moving on. Changing the topic without following such social conventions might indicate to
the other person that you were not listening or are simply t listening or are simply rude.
Social norms influence how conversations start and end and how speakers take end and how speakers take
turns to turns keep the conversation going.
Ending a conversation is similarly complex. Surely, we‘ve all been in a situation where we are “trapped” in a
conversation that we need or want to get out of. Just walking away or ending a conversation without engaging in
socially acceptable ―leave-taking behaviours would be considered a breach of social norms. Topic changes are
often places where people can leave a conversation, but it is still routine for us to give a special reason for leaving,
often in an apologetic tone (whether we mean it or not). Generally though, conversations come to an end through the
cooperation of both people, as they offer and recognize typical signals that a topic area has been satisfactorily
covered or that one or both people need to leave. It is customary in the United States for people to say they have to
leave before they actually do and for that statement to be dismissed or ignored by the other person until additional l
other person until additional leave-taking behaviour are enacted. When such cooperation is lacking, an awkward
silence or abrupt ending can result, and as we‘ve already learned, US Americans are not big fans of silence. Silence
is not viewed the same way in other cultures, which leads us to our which leads us to our discussion of cultural on of
cultural context.
Language and Cultural Context
Culture isn‘t solely determined by a person‘s native language or nationality. It‘s true that languages vary by
country and region and that the language we speak influences our realities, but even people who speak the same
language experience cultural differences because of their various intersecting cultural identities and personal
experiences. We have a tendency to view our language as a whole more favourably than other languages. Although
people may make persuasive arguments regarding which languages are more pleasing to the ear or difficult or easy
to learn than others, no one language enables speakers to communicate more effectively than another.
From birth we are socialized into our various cultural identities. As with the social context, this acculturation
process is a combination of explicit and implicit lessons. A child in Colombia, which is considered a more collectivist
country in which people value group membership and cohesion over individualism, may membership and cohesion
over individualism, may not be explicitly told, ―You are a member be explicitly told, ―You are a member of a
collectivistic culture, so you should care more about the family and community than yourself.‖ This cultural value
would be transmitted through daily actions and through language use. Just as babies acquire knowledge of language
practices at an astonishing rate in their first two years of life, so do they acquire cultural knowledge and values that
are embedded in those language practices. At nine months old, it is possible to distinguish babies based on their
language. Even at this early stage of development, when m stage of development, when most babies ost babies are
babbling and just learning to recognize but not wholly reproduce verbal interaction patterns, a Colombian baby would
sound different from a Brazilian baby, even though neither would actually be using words from their native languages
of Spanish and Portuguese.
The actual language we speak plays an important role in shaping our reality. Comparing languages, we can
see differences in how we are able to talk about the world. In English, we have the words grandfather and
grandmother, but no single word that distinguishes between a maternal grandfather and a paternal grandfather. But
in Swedish, there‘s a specific word for each grandparent: morfar is mother‘s father, farfar is father‘s father, farmor is
father‘s mother, and mormor is mother‘s mother. In this example, we can see that the words available to us, based
on the language we speak, influence how we talk about the world due to differences in and limitations of vocabulary.
The notion that language shapes our view of reality and our cultural patterns is best represented by the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis. Although some scholars argue that our reality is determined by our language, we will take a more
qualified view and presume that language plays a central role in influencing our realities but doesn‘t role in
influencing our realities but doesn‘t determine them.
Culturally influenced differences in language and meaning can lead to some interesting encounters, ranging
from awkward to informative to disastrous. In terms of awkwardness, you have likely heard stories of companies that
failed to exhibit communication competence in their naming and/or advertising of products in another language. For
example, in Taiwan, Pepsi used the slogan ―Come Alive with Pepsi‖ only to later find out that when translated it
meant, ―Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the dead
Similarly, American Motors introduced a new car called the Matador to the Puerto Rico market only to learn
that Matador means ―killer,‖ which wasn‘t very comforting to potential buyers. At a more informative level, the el, the
words we use words we use to giv e positive e positive reinforcement are culturally relative. In the United States and
England, parents commonly positively and negatively reinforce their child‘s behaviour by saying, “Good girl” or “Good
Language, Culture and Society

boy”. There isn‘t an equivalent for such a phrase in other European languages, so the usage in only these two
countries has been traced back to the puritan influence on beliefs about good and bad behavior. In terms of
disastrous consequences, one of the most publicized and deadliest cross-cultural business mistakes occurred in
India in 1984. Union Carbide, an American company, controlled a plant used to make pesticides. The company
underestimated the amount of cross-cultural training that would be needed to allow the local workers, many of whom
were not local workers, many of whom were not familiar with familiar with the technology or language/jargon use the
technology or language/jargon used in the instructions for plant operations to do their jobs. This lack of competent
communication led to a gas leak that immediately killed more than two thousand people and over time led and over
time led to more than five to more than five hundred thousand injuries.
Customs and Norms
Social norms are culturally relative. The words used in politeness rituals in one culture can mean something
completely different in another. For example, thank you in American English acknowledges receiving something (a
gift, a favour, a compliment), in British English it can mean “yes” similar to American English‘s yes, please, and in
French merci can mean “no” as in “no, thank you”. Additionally, what is considered a powerful language style varies
from culture to culture. Confrontational language, such as swearing, can be seen as powerful in Western cultures,
even though it violates some language taboos, but would be seen as immature and weak in Japan
Gender also affects how we use language, but not to the extent that most people think. Although there is a
widespread belief that men are more likely to communicate in a clear and straightforward way and women are more
likely to communicate in an emotional and indirect way, a meta-analysis of research findings from more than two
hundred studies found only found only small differences in the small differences in the personal disclosures of
personal disclosures of men and women. Men and women‘s levels of disclosure are even more similar when
engaging in cross -gender communication, meaning men and woman are more similar when speaking to each other
than when men speak to men or women speak to women. This could be due to the internalized pressure to speak
about the other gender in socially sanctioned ways, in essence reinforcing the stereotypes when speaking to the
same gender but challenging them in cross-gender encounters. Researchers also dispelled the belief that men
interrupt more than women do, finding that men and women interrupt each other with similar frequency in cross-
gender encounters. These findings, which state that men and women communicate more similarly during cross-
gender encounters and then communicate in more stereotypical ways in more stereotypical ways in same-gender
encounters, same-gender encounters, can be explained with communication accommodation theory.
I think, language, culture and society have a correlation because language is an instrument or embodiment
of culture that used by human to communicate with each other, either through writing, oral, or movement (sign
language), with the aim of conveying the mind intent or willingness to others. There may be many cultures in one
society by language diversity; society is a number of people who have a settled relationship and the same interest;
culture is everything that is learned and experienced socially by the members of a society, so the culture is not only
the accumulation of habits and code of conduct but a system organized behaviour. Culture embraces all aspects and
terms in human life, be it a material or non-product material. There may be many cultures in one society by language
diversity.
Relationship between language and society
Language and society are two things meet at one point, it means that between language and society will not
be separated. Language as arbitrary symbol system sound that used by members of the community as a means of
communication, interaction, and identify yourself. Language so firmly attached, fused soul in each speaker in the
community. The function of language as an instrument to do the interaction and communication to convey thoughts,
ideas, concepts or also feeling in society life. Type of relationship between language and society is an association
between certain forms of language, called the variation or dialect diversity with the use of function in society. For
examples, we use standard language in education activity, we use non-standard language in non-formal activity, and
we use a literature language in our art activity, and so on. Sociolinguistic examines the relationship between
language of society which relate two areas those we can study them separately, it is formal structure language by
linguistic and structure community by sociology.
Relationship between language and culture
Language is a part of the culture, so the relationship between language and culture is subordinate
relationship, which the languages are under the cultural sphere. Language and culture are the two systems that
attached in human life. If culture as a system that regulates the human interaction in society, the language will be a
system that serves as a means of the interaction ongoing.
In conclusion, languages are closely in the life community, and they used by people to communicate,
whether they are in sign form, written, or oral. Then, contrary to human nature, they cannot do society without
languages. That might be said that human as same as animals if there is no language in society, so there is a
relationship between language and society. Because of that relation, there is culture. It develops because of the
public speaking/people speak to each other, public thinking/people who think to create something that
becomes values in society, that is culture. So, society life cannot be separated from language system and culture
system.
Language, Culture and Society

Language can bind people together like nothing else, even if it is imposed from one culture to another —
just think of the worldwide popularity of Hollywood movies in English, or of the connection that nations in the pan-
Arab world still feel with one another despite serious ethnic, political, and religious differences. I doubt we
Americans would have allied ourselves so quickly with Britain in World War II if we didn‘t speak the same language.
Even a written language can bind people who speak differently, which helps explain the success of China as a
nation, where the written language is commonly read among people with very different spoken languages, and can
be generally understood even by the Japanese. I guess I‘m saying that a common language, especially a common
first language, adheres cultures together in a way that is even stronger than race, nationality, or shared history.
On the dark side of this equation, the purveyors of cultural genocide have known the power of language for
centuries as well, which explains the attempts by the Romans, Greeks, Arabs, English, Spanish, French, etc., each in
their own time of world mastery, to block out the languages of the nations they conquered as a method of
social control. This doesn‘t even have to be a colonial problem —Franco and Mussolini both attempted to unify
their fascist nations by eliminating regional dialects and languages and pushing for a unified Spanish and Italian,
respectively. Even in the United States, most Native Americans were forced to go to schools until fairly recently
where their native languages were banned.
This method of control has nearly or completely wiped out dozens if not hundreds of languages in the past
century or two, including Basque, Manx, Cornish, Venetian, Mohican, Eyak, Tillamook, and many more —often
because well-meaning leaders believed that having splintered bands of folks not speaking the main lingua franca
would hurt the nation at large.
In many cases, the attempts to eliminate a language has gathered societies together because it lets them
know full-well their culture is under attack. And thus there are efforts underway to save Gaelic in Ireland, to save
Basque in Spain, to save Navajo in the Southern United States, and to save Hebrew all over the world —which was
actually a dead language and was revived! So language not only binds cultures, but the desire to preserve a
language promotes the preservation of a society, and vice versa.
Of course, there‘s a philosophical bent to your question as well, and I think this is the wellspring from
whence all the lingual genocide comes from —it is true that people who think in one language will literally be
incapable of thinking quite the same as another people of a different language. If we don‘t have the words for a
concept, we don‘t give that concept primary importance in our reasoning about things. And if we DO have a concept
baked into the language, we might easily think that it‘s a natural state of affairs that doesn‘t need to be proved or
argued.
One example I think of a lot is how different languages talk about the past. Many cultures don‘t have as
many verb tenses for past experiences as English or Romance languages do, and for these cultures, there seems to
be less of a tendency to dwell on the past. On the other hand, English doesn‘t have a verbal concept of the common
distinction in many African cultures between the recently departed (who have friends and relatives alive who still
remember them) and the ancient dead who are only remembered in stories and books —and so our understanding of
the past is not as rich as theirs, because we don‘t have a common fulcrum around which to distinguish the recent
past and its live witness accounts from what came before.
Of course, sometimes having fewer words for a thing can lead to a richer experience than having too many
words. Consider our recent battles in Western culture over transgendered folks or those who do not want to identify
as one sex or another. For many folks in our culture, this insistence on abandoning gender is a crazy fantasy,
since it‘s “known” that people are essentially male and female. But this is in some ways a limitation of our language
—Mandarin, for example, does not gender most words, and does not have a “he” or “she”, so everyone is just “s/he”.
On the other side of the equation, many romance languages designate every noun as feminine and masculine, which
can potentially freeze a certain action or occupation as “women‘s work” in the minds of speakers simply because,
say, the word for “broom” or “cook” might have a feminine ending. English has a few words, like “stewardess” that
have feminized endings, but for the most part it‘s easier in English to think of occupations as gender neutral because
we‘re not forced to specify. Clearly the words used in one language can certainly enforce stereotypes that wouldn‘t
be present in another.
In fact many languages enforce class structures as well. In English we all know that a job interview or a
court case will require more formal language than a convivial meeting with friends, but many languages have specific
tenses and words you only use with your grandmothers, or only use with your social betters or inferiors. Many of the
things we now consider racial slurs or offensive terms fall into this category —they at one time were not
meant so much to offend as to subtly degrade, and put a person “in their place” enforcing a lifetime of social
stratification. In English, we‘ve been fighting against this kind of language for a while now, and it kind of works. Much
of modern PC culture may seem a little weird or forced at first (―do we really need to call the stewardess a ―flight
attendant or call someone ―differently abled rather than ―crippled?) But this ―lessening of language is actually
helpful in removing the power of language to limit people‘s chances to exceed those roles. Changing the language is
changing the culture.
In short, languages bind cultures together, but they also can limit our abilities to think about things. The
good part is, it only takes about a generation to change language considerably, and we‘re slowly realizing that
because of the limits of language, having a world with many languages is a better solution to new and profound
thoughts than having a world with just a few. If I were having kids, I‘d try to get them to learn as many languages as
Language, Culture and Society

possible, so they could have two or three different cultural systems of thought at their disposal, rather than just the
one.

Application:
For this part, I want you to observe or be engaged in a discourse (written or oral) where you can
spot misunderstanding/misinterpretation between/among the people in the discourse. Analyse the reason/s of
misunderstanding/misinterpretation and expound your claim. Identify whether the reason/s fall/s under LANGUAGE,
CULTURE, or SOCIETY. Use the given space below and/or the space at the back of the paper if necessary.
LANGUAGE
CULTURE
Language, Culture and Society

SOCIETY

Assessment:
TRUE or FALSE: Each item below contains two (2) statements that make each number two (2) points. You
have to identify whether the given statements are TRUE or FALSE. Use the legend below in answering this. Write
your answers on the space provided.
Legend:
TT – first and second statements are TRUE
FF – first and second statements are FALSE
TF – first statement is TRUE and the second statement is FALSE
FT – first statement is FALSE and the second statement is TRUE
ANSWER # STATEMENTS
Anthropologist-etymologist Edward Sapir of the United States said that the language
1 propensities for explicit gatherings of people assembled this present reality.
He further included that two dialects are comparable so that they would speak to one
society.
Language is culture and culture is language is regularly referenced when language and
1 society are examined.
Culture is a result of the associations of people, the demonstrations of correspondence are
their social signs inside a particular network.
Language, Culture and Society

1 Language is transmitted, which means it can be culturally learned.

Conversely, culture is transmitted in a large part, by language, through observing
In English, we have the words grandfather and grandmother, but no single word that
distinguishes between a maternal grandfather and a paternal grandfather.
1
But in Swedish, there‘s a specific word for each grandparent: morfar is
mother‘s father, farfar is father‘s father, farmor is father‘s mother, and mormor is
mother‘s mother.
1 Language is a part of the culture, so the relationship between language and culture is
subordinate relationship, which the languages are under the cultural sphere.
Language is at the center of a paradigm if we are to plot the three concepts on a Venn
Diagram.

Enrichment Activity:
Essay: Answer the following questions by citing key ideas from the discussion part and provide practical situations
and/or scenarios parallel to your answer.
1. How does this lesson help you become an effective and efficient global English Language teacher in the future?
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2. How do the overlapping concepts/interconnected concepts of ―Language, Culture, and Society work/manifest in a
classroom setting? What would be your role as a
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Language, Culture and Society

Lesson 2: Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology

In this lesson, we have two disciplines that, at first glance, might appear to be very different. Stereotypically,
people think of anthropologists in pith helmets out in a jungle someplace uncovering bizarre tribal customs. Likewise,
they imagine a linguist as someone who can speak a dozen of languages fluently, or else as a scholar poring over
ancient texts deciphering secret hieroglyphic messages. In reality, these two are fields are hardly like that, but that
does not make them any less exciting. This lesson is about how those people who call themselves LINGUISTIC
ANTHROPOLOGISTS who study the universal phenomenon of human language.
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1.distinguish whether Filipino language, specifically Tagalog dialect, is a primitive language;
2. evaluate themselves as to how are they going to preserve our native language while promoting globalization in
their own future English language classroom; and
3. draw their own paradigm of Language, Culture, and Society utilizing their knowledge from the first and second
lessons.

Getting Started: Answer the question comprehensively

Why should we study language? Give at least five (5) reasons, then expound.
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Language, Culture and Society

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Discussion
The question posted above is hardly a rhetorical question. Most people never formally study language and
they seem to get along fine. But do they? Have you ever been misinterpreted by the people you are talking to
because you are not on the same plate? Why do we need lawyers to translate a document written in a language that
all parties share? Why do doctors have to use plain language whenever they talk to their patients?
At school, we are confronted with language problems the moment we enter the room. Why can‘t we
understand Shakespeare if he did use the English language? Why do we use “I” and “you” instead of “me” and
“you”? Some problems, such as the subtle sexism found in some textbooks, maybe beyond our everyday
psychological threshold. Problems of ethnicity and community-identity can be seen in such controversial issues as
BILINGUAL EDUCATION or THE TEACHING OF EBONICS.
Language is involved in a wide variety of human situations, perhaps every situation. If something permeates
every aspect of human life and is so complex that we cannot fathom its influence, we should study it. The scientific
study of language is one of the keys to understanding much of human behaviour.
The study of language will not in itself solve all the world‘s problems. It is useful enough to make people
aware that these problems of language exist and that they are widespread and complex. Besides being of intellectual
interest, then, the study of language offers a special vantage point of ―linguistic sensitization‖ (Crystal 1971:35)
to problems that are of concern to everyone, regardless of discipline and background.
MODERN MYTHS CONCERNING LANGUAGES
This may be a good place to provide information about languages in general to set some basic matters
straight. Every human being speaks a language, but what people think about languages —particularly those about
which they know little or nothing — is quite another matter. Consider the following statements. Which ones do
you think are true?
Modern Myths Concerning Languages
- Almost everywhere in the world, everyone is monolingual or monodialectal, just as in America.
- Spelling in English is basically phonetic and governed by clear rules.
Language, Culture and Society

- Most writing systems in the world are based on some kind of alphabet.
- If you really want to learn Spanish, don‘t take a class in school. It is better to just go, say, to Mexico for a month or
two.
- Some languages are naturally harder to learn than others.
- Some languages are naturally more ―primitive‖ than others.
- Language itself is not ambiguous; it is people‘s misinterpreting things that causes problems.
- Some dialects are, well stupid, demonstrating that a person is uneducated.
- The use of language somehow reflects one‘s intelligence.
- People who are fluent in another language may not have complete mastery of their native language.
- The ability to learn a foreign language is a special kind of skill that some of us have, and others don‘t.
- As our grade school teachers taught us, if you want to get it right, go to the dictionary!
- People who use double negatives (“I don‘t need no anthropology classes”) are really not thinking logically.
- It is easier to learn Chinese if you come from a Chinese family background than from a European family.
- Languages seem to have special characteristics or personalities: for example, French is romantic; German is
scientific; Russian is soulful; Spanish is hot-blooded; Italian is emotional; Chinese is simple and straightforward;
Japanese is mysterious, spiritual, and Zen-li ke; English is logical; Greek is philosophical, and so on.
Most anthropologists and linguists would say that all of these statements are suspect, if not outright wrong.
Let us briefly consider a few of these misconceptions concerning languages in more detail because they appear to be
widespread, even among those who are otherwise well educated and knowledgeable. These misconceptions we can
refer to as myths, in the sense of being unfounded, fictitious, and false beliefs or ideas.
Primitive Languages Or Not?
The most common misconception is the belief that unwritten languages are “primitive”, whatever that
may mean. Those who think that ―primitive‖ languages still exist invariably associate them with societies that
laypeople refer to as “primitive” —especially the very few remaining bands of hunter-gatherers. There are of course
differences in cultural complexity between hunting-and- collecting bands and small tribal societies, on the one hand,
and modern industrial societies, on the other, but no human beings today are “primitive” in the sense of being
less biologically evolved than others. One would be justified in talking about a primitive language only if referring to
the language of, for example, the extinct forerunner of Homo sapiens of a half million years ago. Even though we do
not know on direct evidence the nature of the system of oral communication of Homo erectus, it is safe to assume
that it must have been much simpler languages than of the past several thousand years and therefore primitive in
that it was rudimentary, or represented an earlier stage of development.
Why certain languages are mistakenly thought to be primitive? There are several reasons. Some people
consider other languages ugly or “primitive sounding” if those languages make use of sounds or sound
combinations they find indistinct or “inarticulate” because the sounds are greatly different from those of the
languages they themselves speak. Such a view is based on the ethnocentric attitude that the characteristics of one‘s
own language are obviously superior. But words that seem unpronounceable to speakers of one language —and are
therefore considered obscure, indistinct, or even grotesque —a re easily acquired by even the youngest native
speakers of the language in which they occur.
The Grammar of Non-Western Languages
Another myth has something to do with grammar. Some think that languages of peoples whose societies
are not urbanized and industrialized have “little grammar”, meaning that such languages have few, if any, of
the sort of grammar rules students learn in school. According to this misconception, members of simple societies use
language in rather random fashion, without definite pattern. To put it differently, GRAMMAR in the sense of rules
governing the proper use of cases, tenses, moods, aspects, and other grammatical categories is erroneously
thought to be characteristic of “civilized” languages only. Once again, nothing could be further from the truth.
Some languages have less “grammar” than others, but the degree of grammatical complexity is not a measure of
how effective a particular language is.
What sorts of grammars, then, characterize languages spoken by members of tribal societies? Some of
these languages have a fairly large and complicated grammatical apparatus, whereas others are less grammatically
complex —a diversity similar to that found in Indo-European languages. Edward Sapir‘s description of the
morphology of Takelma, based on material collected in 1906, takes up 238 pages (Sapir 1922). In Takelma, the now
extinct language spoken at one time in south-western Oregon, verbs were particularly highly inflected, making use of
prefixes, suffixes, infixes, vowel changes, consonant changes, and reduplication (functional repetition of a part of a
word). Every verb had forms for six tense-modes, including potential and present and future imperatives (the future
imperatives expressing a command to be called out some stated or implied time in the future) among the other
Language, Culture and Society

grammatical categories and forms marked in verbs were person, number, voice (active or passive), conditional,
locative, instrumental, aspect (denoting repeated, continuing, and other types of temporal activity), and active and
passive participles. Sapir‘s description of verb morphology fills more than 147 pages —yet is not to be taken as
exhaustive. Although the brief characterization here is far from representative of Takelma verb morphology, it clearly
indicates that Takelma grammar was anything but simple. A similar and more detailed demonstration of
morphological complexity could easily be provided for hundreds of other so- called primitive languages.
Vocabulary Deficiencies
When it comes to the vocabulary of languages, is it true, as some suppose, that the vocabularies of so-
called primitive languages are too small and inadequate to account for the nuances of the physical and social
universes of their speakers? Here the answer is somewhat more complicated. Because the vocabulary of a language
serves only the members of the society who speak it, the question to be asked should be: Is a particular vocabulary
sufficient to serve the sociocultural needs of those who use the language? When put like this, it follows that the
language associated with a relatively simple culture would have a smaller vocabulary than the language of a complex
society.
Lexical specialization in non-scientific domains is of course to be found in complex societies as well. The
Germans who live in Munich are known to enjoy their beer; accordingly, the terminology for the local varieties of beer
is quite extensive. Per Hage (1972) defined ten “core” terms for Munich beers according to strength, color, fizziness,
and aging. But when local connoisseurs also wish to account for the degree of clarity and the Munich brewery that
produced a particular beer, the full list now exceeds seventy terms. Such a discriminating classification of local beers
is likely to impress even the most experienced and enthusiastic American beer drinker.
However, even though no languages spoken today may be labelled primitive. This does not mean that all
languages are the same, do all things in the same way, or are equally influential in the modern transnational world.
The linguistic anthropologist Dell Hymes claims that languages are not functionally equivalent because the
role of speech varies from one society to the next . One of his examples is the language of the Mezquital
Otomi, who live in poverty in one of the arid areas of Mexico. At the time of Hymes‘s writing, most of these people
were monolingual, speaking only Otomi, their native language. Even though they accepted the outside judgment
of their language as inferior to Spanish, they maintained Otomi and consequently were able to preserve their
culture, but at a price. Lack of proficiency in Spanish, or knowledge of Otomi only, isolated the people from the
national society and kept them from improving their lot. According to Hymes, no known languages are primitive,
and all “have achieved the middle status [of full languages but not] the advanced status [of] world languages
and some others [But though] all languages are potentially equal and hence capable of adaptation to the needs of a
complex industrial civilization,” only certain languages have actually done so (Hymes 1961:77).
These languages are more successful than others not because they are structurally more advanced, but
because they happen to be associated with societies in which language is the basis of literature, education, science,
and commerce.
Language, Culture and Society

Application
1. Are all languages the same? Why or why not?
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2. How does this discussion help you to being culturally, linguistically, and social linguistically aware and sensitive
ELT?
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3. How will your knowledge from this lesson help you preserve our native language while promoting globalization in
your own classroom in the future?
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Language, Culture and Society

Assessment:
1. Explain the relationship between humans and their languages from this perspective “the scientific study of
language is one of the keys to understanding much of human behaviour”
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2. Do you consider tagalog dialect as primitive? Expound.

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3. As future ELT in the Philippines, how will you teach your students the value of BILINGUALISM?
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Language, Culture and Society

Enrichment Activity:
If you are to do the paradigm of LANGUAGE, CULTURE, and SOCIETY that can demonstrate the
relationship between and among the concepts, what would it be? Draw your answer inside the box.
Language, Culture and Society

Lesson 3: ANTHROPOLOGY, LINGUISTICS, AND LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY

As a teacher, do you believe that understanding your students‘ language and their immediate environment
is at of paramount in determining your teaching styles and methodology for a more effective and efficient teacher? Do
you believe that your students are the end results of their immediate environment and institutions in the society?
As a teacher, keeping and considering the profile of your students in drafting your lessons will be helpful in
achieving the your goals and objectives in each of your lessons, thus, this lesson will give you a good opportunity to
understand the specific roles of anthropology and linguistics in the teaching and learning process.
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. have a recall on your schema about linguistics and anthropology;
2. define the line between and among linguistics, anthropology, and linguistic anthropology; and
3. relate these concepts to your future profession.

Getting stated:
Complete the given table by writing your thoughts/schema about Linguistics/Linguists and
Anthropology/Anthropologists. What do they do? What are their concerns?
LINGUISTICS/LINGUISTS ANTHROPOLOGY/ANTHROPOLOGISTS
Language, Culture and Society

Discussion:
Another discipline that also focuses on uniquely human attributes is linguistics, the scientific study of
language. Linguistics does not refer to the study of a particular language for the purpose of learning to speak it;
rather, it refers to the analytical study of language, any language, to reveal its structure —the different kinds of
language units (its sounds, smallest meaningful parts of words, and so on) —and the rules according to which these
units are put together to produce stretches of speech. There is a division of labor, then, between linguists and
linguistic anthropologists. The interest of the linguist is primarily in language structure, whereas the interest of the
linguistic anthropologist is in speech use and the relations that exist between language, on the one hand, and
society and culture, on the other . As for the prerequisite training, the linguist does not need to study anthropology to
become fully proficient in linguistics; a linguistic anthropologist, in contrast, must have some linguistic sophistication
and acquire the basic skills of linguistic analysis to be able to do significant research in linguistic anthropology.
A terminological note is appropriate here. Although anthropological linguistics has frequently been
employed to refer to the subfield of anthropology otherwise known as linguistic anthropology, and a respected journal
exists under that name ( Anthropological Linguistics), the term linguistic anthropology is to be preferred, as Karl V.
Teeter argued some years ago (1964). Briefly, if anthropology is the study of humanity, and language is one of the
most characteristic features of humankind, then the study of language is an obvious and necessary aspect of
anthropology as a whole. To modify the noun linguistics by the anthropological animal species communicate, so far
as is known no other species uses anything comparable to human language. Only if, say, members of the cat family
(Felidae) or of the class of birds (Aves) had something like human speech (not just some system of communication,
no matter how intricate) would it make sense to speak of anthropological linguistics to distinguish it from some such
field of study as felid or avian linguistics (that is, the study of the language of cats or birds). As we have already seen,
there are several subfields of anthropology; just as the subfield concerned with culture is referred to as cultural
anthropology, the one concerned with language is aptly referred to as linguistic anthropology. This is the term used
throughout this lesson: it states exactly what the subfield is about —the study of language (or speech) within the
framework of anthropology.
Others, however, have been quite adamant about these apparently picayune differences in terminology,
which to the uninitiated would seem to matter little. Dell Hymes (2012), for example, argued that there were political
and academic consequences to these choices of words. Hymes said it was important to be clear that the work
discussed here was not just a kind of linguistics that anthropologists decided to do, but rather an integral part of the
anthropological paradigm. But in the 1960s, the formalist study of grammar and language, as advocated by Noam
Chomsky and his followers, came to dominate much of all intellectual thought (as we will see in Chapter 4). Chomsky
and others stressed the notion of linguistic competence —t he underlying knowledge and ability a person has
for a language, regardless of his or her actual manifestation —o r performance of that language in a social context
at any given time. But to Hymes and others it was exactly this communicative ability of language to produce results in
social life that held the most interesting problems and prompted the most important questions. Communicative
competence and the social life of language, then, was what anthropologists should be studying, and the way to best
describe this activity was to use the cover term linguistic anthropology.
Methods of Linguistic Anthropology
What linguistic anthropology is concerned about with are the consequences of the process that led to
language. Because linguistic anthropologists try to view language from the very broad base of anthropology, their
research interests are correspondingly comprehensive: from communication among the primates to language origins
to structural characteristics of language to non-verbal types of communication to language in social context,
and so on – too many fully enumerate here. If the study of language is the main concern of linguistic
anthropologists, then how does ANTHROPOLOGY differ from LINGUISTICS?
Contrasting Linguistics with Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistics is the study of language. This term does not refer to the study of a particular language or
languages for the purpose of learning to speak them; rather, it refers to the analytical study of language, any
Language, Culture and Society

language, to reveal its structure and the rules according to which these units are put together to produce stretches of
speech while Linguistic anthropology is a study of language in its biological and sociocultural contexts.
The term society is frequently used almost interchangeably with the term culture, and the compound word
―sociocultural‖ points out their interconnection. There is a fine distinction between society and culture,
and linguistic anthropologists deal with aspects of both concepts: when they study and describe the communicative
links between individual members of a group and between groups within a society, and when they study and describe
traditional learned behaviour (culture) and how it relates to the values of the members of a group, their linkages with
language are sociocultural.
Read and analyse the given examples below. Guess which statements are from linguists or linguistic
anthropologists.
a. In Javanese, the choice of words is determined by such characteristics of the speaker and the addressee as their
age, gender, wealth, education, and occupation: and the more refined the level of speech, the slower, softer, and
more even the presentation will be.
b. In English, the nasal consonant ―n‖ as in ―sin‖, and ―ng‖ as in ―sing‖, are in contrast because they
differentiate in the meanings of two English words.
c. The remarkable cave-wall paintings and carvings of the Upper Paleolithic Cro- Magnons serve as an indirect proof
that these prehistoric people had a full-fledged language.
d. The Modern English word ―woman‖ developed over the centuries from the old English
Language, Culture and Society

Application
Now, after reading the given statements above, which statements do you think are from LINGUISTS? Which
are from LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLGISTS? Include the letter/s in your explanations.
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Language, Culture and Society

Assessment:
Identification: Read and analyse each item below. Identify what is being described in each item. Write your answer
before each number using the legend below.
Linguistics/Linguists – LNGS
Anthropology/Anthropologists – ANTP
Linguistic Anthropology/Linguistic Anthropologists – LNAN
1. I must have a sophisticated knowledge of language.
2. I study how plosives and fricatives can be learned.
3. My area is about understanding the products of humans.
4. I am concerned about with are the consequences of the process that led to language.
5. I look into l inks between and among the factors affecting language dynamism in context.
Language, Culture and Society

Enrichment Activity:
Rationalize the importance of having a deep understanding about this topic in relation to your future work as English
Language Teacher
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Lesson 4: Nonverbal Communication

Language, Culture and Society

Spoken language – speech – is by far the most common and important means by which humans
communicate with one another, but it is not the only one. The many different writing systems used throughout the
world are of tremendous importance for communication, having in some respects an advantage over spoken
language, especially their relative permanence.
This lesson deals with the how nonverbal communication expresses one‘s culture in relation to the
societal systems present.
Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. discriminate the dynamics of nonverbal communication;
2. identify situations wherein nonverbal communication is effective; and
3. cite situations where this lesson shall be beneficial to you as an ELT.

Getting Started:
Can we sign language verbal or nonverbal? Expound.
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Discussion
The term ―nonverbal communication‖, taken literally refers to the transmission of signals accomplished by
means other than spoken or written words. Not everyone agrees on what the term encompasses, and some even
question whether nonverbal communication is definable. This term includes bodily gestures, facial expressions,
Language, Culture and Society

spacing, and touch, and smell, as well as whistle, smoke-signal, and drum languages, and such optional vocal effects
as those that accompany spoken utterances and can be considered apart from actual words.
Nonverbal systems of communication may be divided into those that are derived from spoken language and
those that are independent of it. Other systems of communication that are based on speech are drum and whistle
languages which imitate some of the reproducible distinctive features of the spoken languages along with which they
are used. Another way of classifying nonverbal communicative systems is according to channel or the medium by
which signals are conveyed. The channel employed in drum language is acoustic, whereas sign language or smoke
signals use optical channel. Blind people make use of touch when they feel the raised dots of the brail system and
those who are deaf as well as blind may learn to monitor articulatory movements by speaker’s face and neck or also
known as TADOMA METHOD.
Paralinguistics
Paralanguage refers to the characteristics of vocal communication considered marginal or optional and
therefore exclude from linguistic analysis. The most common paralinguistic features are usually assigned to three
categories:
1. Voice qualifiers have something to do with the tone of voice and pacing of speech, and they include variations in
volume or intensity, pitch, tempo, and articulation.
2. Voice characterizers do accompany speech or, more precisely, through which one talks. These range from
laughing and giggling to crying and sobbing to yelling, moaning, groaning, whimpering, and whining.
3. Vocal segregates represented for the most part by such extra linguistic sounds as the ones graphically
represented in English texts as “uh-huh” to indicate agreement or gratification, “uh-uh” to indicate disagreement,
“tsk –tsk” to express mild disapproval, and other graphic approximations of different kinds of snorts and sniffs.
Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body language. There is no question that bodily gestures serve as an important
means of communication. Comedians are notably adept at slanting, cancelling, or completely turning around the
meaning of their spoken lines with a well- chosen grimace or gestures of different communicative content, and
professional mimes know how to move their audiences to tears or laughter without uttering a single word. But
speech-related body motions are by no means limited to performers – they are an integral part of everyone‘s daily
communicative activity. KINEME, analogous to the phoneme, has been defined as the smallest discriminable
contrastive unit of body motion. Students of kinesics take note several basic components, all of which are associated:
facial expression, eye contact, body posture, and hand gestures.
Proxemics
In the early 1960s, the interdependence between communication and culture stimulated Edward T. Hall to
develop proxemics, the study of the cultural patterning of the spatial separation individuals maintain in face-to-face
encounters. The term has subsequently come to embrace studies concerned with privacy, crowding, territoriality,
and the designing of buildings, private and public, with the view of meeting the different cultural expectations of their
prospective users.
According to Hall, the distances individuals maintain from another depend on the nature of their mutual
involvement and are culture-specific. In the close phase of the intimate distance, the individuals are close enough to
be encircled by each other‘s arms. All senses are engaged: Each individual receives the body heat as well as any
odor or scent emanating from the other individual, and the other person‘s breath is felt; because of the closeness,
vision may be blurred or distorted and speaking is at a minimum. As is obvious, this narrowest of all interpersonal
distance is suited to love-making, protecting, or comforting. By contrast, business is transacted at the social-
consultative distance: The close phase is characteristic of contact among people who work together or are
participants at casual social gatherings; the far phase characterizes more formal business transactions, such as
interviews or situations in which two or more people find themselves in the same space and do not want to appear
rude by not communicating.
Some differences in proxemics and haptic behaviour (haptic behaviour relates to the sense of touch) may
be noticeable even among members of the societies who live in close proximity. Without being acquainted with Hall‘s
proxemics matrix, people are aware when someone encroaches into their personal zone, or into the zone of
someone for whom they think they have a special claim. Finally, it should be mentioned that personal space is
occasionally modified by the conditions imposed by the physical situation in which people find themselves.

Sign languages
Signing, that is, communicating manually by sign language of some kind is undoubtedly at least as old as
speech. From the writings of ancient Greeks and Romans, we know that their deaf made use of signs. It is, however,
reasonable to assume that even among the earliest humans those who were not able to communicate orally would
have used their hands to make themselves understood. Sign languages used to the exclusion of spoken language –
Language, Culture and Society

for example, by people born deaf – are referred to as primary. Sign languages found in communities of speaker-
hearers as regular or occasional substitutes for speech are termed alternate sign languages.
If primary sign languages function much like spoken languages, do they also have duality of patterning, that
is, are they analysable at two levels of structural units comparable to phonemes and morphemes? According to
William C. Stokoe Jr. (1960), Ameslan grammar has the same general form as the grammars of spoken languages. It
is characterized by a small set of contrastive units meaningless in themselves that combine to form meaningful sign
of units, the morphemes. Chereme refers to a set of positions, configurations, or motions that function identically in a
given sign language. And each morpheme of a sign language may be defined according to hand shape, orientation of
the palm and fingers, place of formation, movement and its directions, point of contact, and other spatial and
dynamic features. Users of Ameslan and other natural sign languages are no more aware of cheremes than users of
spoken English are of phonemes.
To sum up, contrary to popular misconceptions, primary sign languages used by the deaf are highly
structured, complete, and independent communicative systems, comparable in complexity to spoken and written
languages; otherwise they could not substitute for spoken languages as effectively as they do. Furthermore, they are
natural languages in the sense that their acquisition is the automatic result of interaction with others who depend
upon signing.

Application
1. Differentiate KINEME from CHRENEME by giving at least two examples or situations.
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2. How do you explain the interrelatedness and interconnectedness of proxemics and haptics/haptic behaviour?
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3. How do you see this lesson‘s worth to you as a future ELT?
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Assessment:
1. From the discussion, can we consider sign language nonverbal? Why or why not?
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2. How do nonverbal cues can help linguist anthropologists identify and/or one’s culture?
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Enrichment Activities
1. In the 21st century classroom where technology is highly utilized, how do you explain to your future students the
importance of nonverbal communication in our virtual life?
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Lesson 5: Code-Switching, Code-Mixing, and Diglossia

Probably, all speakers of every language have a variety of linguistic resources available to them. For
example, the prewar Russian literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin (1981) wrote of the illiterate peasant who prays to God
in Old Church Slavonic, speaks to his family in their local village dialect, sings hymns in Standard Russian, and
attempts to petition the local government in what he thinks is the high-class speech of officialdom. In most places in
the world, there are not only dialects but several languages present in a community, the speakers possessing varying
degrees of facility. In these multilingual situations the codes often become blended. This is so common that linguists
have special terms for this blending: code-switching and code-mixing.
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. compare and contrast code-switching, code-mixing, and diglossia;
Language, Culture and Society

2. identify ways on how culture affects the use of code-switching, code-mixing, and diglossia; and
3. explain the concept of diglossia in acquiring language.

Getting Started
Recall situations where you can say that you used the wrong language which resulted to
miscommunication/misinterpretation. What happened after that situation? How has the problem been resolved?
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Discussion
This nomenclature has had a long history in linguistics. Einar Haugen (1956:40), who almost likely coined
the term code-switching, defined it as when a bilingual introduces a completely unassimilated word from another
language into his speech. Carol Myers- Scotton (1993:3) broadened the definition by saying that code-switching
is the selection by bilinguals or multi-linguals of forms from an embedded variety in utterances… during the
same conversation. Eyamba Bokamba (1989:3) distinguishes code-switching and code-mixing: Code-switching
is the mixing of words, phrases and sentences from two distinct grammatical systems across sentence
boundaries within the same speech even while code- mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units such as
affixes, words, phrases and clauses from a co-operative activity where the participants must reconcile what they hear
with what they understand.
These distinctions are not always separated by all scholars, and some use code- switching to refer to all
types of combined languages. The important thing in this situations is that a person capable of using two languages,
A and B, has three systems available for use. Mixing and switching probably occur to some extent in the
conversations of all bilinguals. Code-mixing and code-switching can serve a variety of functions such as building or
reinforcing solidarity among speakers who share these languages.
Language, Culture and Society

The use of two distinct varieties of a language for two different sets of functions is called diglossia. The
common language is the colloquial or the low variety. A second, high variety is used in formal circumstances. It is
taught in schools and assumes administrative, legal, religious, and literary functions. Of the two varieties, the
colloquial typically is learned first and used for ordinary conversations with relatives and friends or servants and
working persons in cartoons, popular radio, and television programs, jokes, traditional narratives, and the like. The
formal variety which carries prestige is taught in schools and assumes most of the literary, administrative, legal, and
religious functions.
Instances of diglossia are fairly common. Those Swiss who use Standard German as their formal variety are
fluent in the Swiss German dialect, the low variety in addition to the other national languages they may have learned.
Similarly, in Greece colloquial Greek is in use side by side with the literary form derived in large part from its classical
ancestor. In actual speech, however, neither the two diglossic varieties nor the languages of a bilingual community
are always kept strictly apart.

Application
1. Using the Venn diagram, compare and contrast code-switching, code-mixing and diglossia.
2. Evaluate yourself. Do you code-switch and code-mix? Cite situations when you use these two.
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3. From you answer in item 2, what do you think are the roles of your learned culture in utilizing these?
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Assessment
As a future ELT, will you allow code-switching and code-mixing in your classroom? Why or why not?
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Lesson 6: Languages in Variation and Languages in Contact

Strictly speaking, the speech pattern of one individual is somewhat different from the speech pattern of the
next, even though to speak the same language and regional varieties of language differ from each other by features
of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. differentiate language from dialect;
2. differentiate pidgin from creole;
3. identify Philippine pidgins; and
4. discuss how our culture affects the development of pidgin in our country.

Getting Started
Differentiate Language from Dialect by citing their distinct characteristics that made them different from each other.
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Discussion
Idiolects
This is why it is possible to identify over the telephone people we know well without their having to say who
they are; similarly, we recognize familiar television newscasters even when we cannot see the screen. The
recognition of individuals by voice alone is possible because of their idiosyncratic combination of voice quality,
pronunciation, grammatical usage, and choice of words. VOICE QUALITY or TIMBER, is determined by the anatomy
of the VOCAL TRACTS (the tom, the nasal, and oral cavities, the vocal cords, the larynx, and other parts), over
which the speaker has little or no control. Other voice features -for example, tempo, loudness, and to some extent
even teach range- can be controlled fairly simply. But none of these features of an individual's speech pattern is
constant. Voice quality changes with age as muscles and tissues that area rate in the dentition undergo modification.
Over a lifetime, changes tend to occur in the choice of words, grammar, and pronunciation as well.
An individual's speech variety is referred to as an IDIOLECT. Almost all speakers make use of several
idiolects, depending on the circumstances of communication. Typically differ from those any one of them would use
in, say, an interview with a prospective employer. The concept of Idiolect therefore refers to a very specific
phenomenon – The speech variety used by a particular individual.
Dialects
Often, people who live in the same geographic area, have similar occupations, or have the same education
or economic status speak relatively similar idiolects compared to those from other groups. These shared
characteristics may entail similarities in vocabulary, pronunciation, or grammatical features. When all the idiolects of
a group of speakers have enough in common to appear, at least superficially alike, say that they belong to the same
dialect. DIALECT refers to a form of language or speech used by members of a regional, ethnic, or social group?
Dialects that are mutually intelligible belong to the same language. All languages spoken by more than one small
homogeneous community are found to consist of two or more dialects.
Language, Culture and Society

MUTUAL INTELLIGIBILITY, of course, can vary as to degree. In the early 1950s, a number of men and
women from 8 reservations in New York and Ontario word tested in an experiment designed to determine which of
their local dialects were mutually intelligible and therefore dialects of language, and which were not and, therefore,
could be classified as individual languages of the Iroquoian language family. Even though the investigators arrived at
the percentages of intelligibility between any two of the Iroquoian speech communities, the question of where the
boundaries between intelligibility and intelligibility remained unresolved. If the boundaries between language and
dialect had been thrown at 25% of mutual intelligibility, there would have been four different languages, of which one
would have consisted of two dialects and another of three. If set at 75%, there would have been five languages, two
of which would have consisted of two dialects each.
Because it is spoken in so many different areas, English is particularly diversified dialectally.
Speakers‘ home countries may be guessed from their pronunciation and from the use of certain word that are
characteristic of specific variety of English. A speaker of any dialect of American English is likely to find it quite
difficult to understand a cab driver in London who speaks cockney, the dialect of London‘s east end, even
though both speak dialects of the same language.
The way individuals speak varieties not only according to the regional and social dialects but also according
to context. The distinctive manner in which people express themselves in a particular situation are referred to as
STYLE. Speech styles are thus comparable to styles of dress. One would feel out of place and uncomfortable going
on a hiking trip in formal attire for attending a traditional wedding reception in sneakers, jeans, and sweatshirts.
Similarly, a person who might use the vulgar expression “I‘m pissed” when talking with former schoolmates would
probably substitute the colloquial phrase “I‘m mad” under other circumstances and use such words as “angry” or
“aggravated” under more formal conditions.
Styles
Stylistic variation or not only lexical, but also phonological (for instance, the casual pronunciation of butter
with the flap [f] rather than the dental [t]), morphological (as in casually styled “who are you taking to lunch?” as
against the formal “who are you taking to lunch?”), and syntactic (as in “Wanna eat now? As against “Do you want to
eat now?”). A stylistic or dialectal variety of speech that does not call forth negative reaction, is used on formal
occasions and carries social prestige and considered standard varities that do not measure up to these are reffered
to as non-standard or substandard. Standard British English often referred to as Received Standard and its
pronunciation as Received Pronunciation, is used at English public schools (private secondary boarding schools),
heard during radio and television newscasts, and used when circumstances call for a serious, formal attitude
(sermons, lectures, and the like). In less formal situations, there has been an increasing tendency to use a style that
deviates from or falls short of the standard. Informality in dress, behaviour, and speech is a sign of the times both in
the US and elsewhere.
How many different styles do speakers of English use? For Martin Joos (1907-1978), five clearly
distinguishable styles were characteristic of his dialect of American English (spoken in the east-central united
states); he termed them frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate (Joos,1962). Today, very few
speakers of American English ever use the frozen style except perhaps occasionally informal writing. The
assumption that the exact number of speech styles can be determined for a language serving millions of speakers
does not seem to be warranted. Not to native speakers of English talk alike, and just exactly what use each person
makes of the various stylistic features, ranging all the way from a pompous formality to an intimate or even vulgar
informality, is up to the individual speaker.
Language Contact
Languages must have been in contact as long as there have been human beings. From what can be certain
from the current and historical ethnographic record people have also other been in close proximity with those who
speak languages that were mutually unintelligible. Trade, travel, migration, war, intermarriage, in other non-linguistic
causes of forced different languages to come in contact countless times throughout history. When this occurs,
several things can happen over time: languages can die, new languages can develop, or languages in contact can
become mixed in various ways. We will now explore some of the consequences of mixing and see how it can
sometimes lead to the development of drastically different linguistic structures.
Win a new physical item or concept is borrowed from another culture, the name for that new item in the
donor language is often just directly taken over. For example, Hawaiian gave English ukulele; Bantu, gumbo; Czech,
polka; Cantonese work; Arabic, algebra; German, pretzel; and Malay, rice paddy. Of course, English contributed
hundreds of word other language as well as a weekend to French, boyfriend to Russian, aerobic classes to German
and Beefsteak to many languages.
Please exchange can go both ways. As most native English speakers know, many words of French origin
have been borrowed into the language. In return for the weekend, the English receive rendezvous and lingerie. One
of the reasons for these was the introduction of old French during the Norman conquest of England in 1066, which
replaced old English as a language of the ruling class in England ( and which held prominence until well into the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries). During the centuries of French linguistic dominance, a large proportion of English
vocabulary drastically changed.
Pidgins
Language, Culture and Society

A common way in which individuals and groups interact across language boundaries is by means of a
PIDGIN. Typically, a pidgin originates when speakers of two or more mutually unintelligible languages develop and
need to communicate with each other for certain limited or specialized purposes, especially trade. Because
pidgins have a much narrower range of functions than the languages for which they substitute, they possess a limited
vocabulary, and because they need to be learned rapidly for the sake of efficiency, they have a substantially reduced
grammatical structure. From a sociocultural perspective, an important characteristic of a pidgin is that it does not
serve as a native, or first, language of any particular group
A pidgin is not the result of the same kind of development through languages are subject to it tends to come
about suddenly, as the need arises, and ceases to exist when no longer called upon to perform its original function. It
may last as little as a dozen or so years; only infrequently does it out last century. In its phonology and morphology, a
pidgin is invariably simpler than the first languages of those who use it, and the bulk of its lexicon is based on or
derived from, one of the languages in contact.
Although it is true that pidgins can be simplified versions of any language, the most common are those
based on English. The reason for this is the widespread contact that English- speaking people have had with non-
western nations. The British Empire not only spread the Union Jack but also its language over much of the world.
Thus, English – based pidgins were found from the coasts of Africa to the new world to the South Pacific. For
example, here is an example of the first lines of Shakespeare’s Juluis Caesars (Act 3, Scene 2) in Melanasian Tok
Pisin compared to the original English (Murphy 1980:20)
Pren, man bolong Rom, Wantok, Harin nau
Mi kam tasol long plantim Kaesar, Mi noken beaten longen

Friends, Romans countrymen, lend me your ears;

I come to burry Caesar, not to praise him.
We can see here many of the typical devices pidgins (and later creoles) use that allow them to communicate
effectively with a limited set of grammatical and lexical resources. Words such as pren, mi, kam, or simply
revised forms of English “friends”, “me”, and “come”. Romance comes out man bolonv Rom. Countrymen is
Wantok - those of us who all speak “one talk”. Though lend me your ears loses some of its power when rendered
harim nau (hear em now), it still makes its point; but plantim (plant'em) meaning “bury” is almost as poetic metaphor.
The pidgin tasol (That's all) acts as a conjunction (such as but) or adverb (such as only). The word noken (no can) is
a verbal negative auxiliary. There are no inflections, case markers, or tenses in pidgins there for certain words must
do a multiplicity of tasks. Once such word is long. This word serves many uses, as. A preposition, a comparative
marker, indirect object sign, or an indication of duration. For example, lukluk long (look look long) can mean to seek,
to watch, to look for, to take care of, or to protect. Beten or beiten is “prayer”, and beiten longer (prayer belong - em)
is a way of saying “praise”.
Although the characteristically luck in flexion and possess a limited vocabulary, pidgins structure of their
own and readily adapt to changing circumstances. The structural simplicity of pidgin is to their advantage, allowing
cross-cultural communication with the minimum of effort. The reduction or total elimination of inflectional affixes, the
use of morphemic repetition for intensive fiction and simplified syntactic construction make geographically separated
pidgins look remarkably similar - so much so that some scholars have argued that in their basic structure all
modern and reason pidgin may well go back to some such PROTOPIDGIN as Sabir, the original lingua franca,
a medieval pidgin based on Romance languages and use in Mediterranean ports until the beginning of 1 st century as
similar to pidgins may be structurally, though, they differ according to the languages that have lexified them (that is,
supplied them with the bulk of their word-stock).
Finally, it is important to remember that PIDGINS ARE NOT BROKEN LANGUAGES, a kind of primitive
speech or manifestation of corrupt though processes of simple peoples. They are quite the opposite: ―pidgins our
demonstrative creative adaptations of natural languages, with the structure and rules of their own. Along with the
creoles they are evidence of a fundamental process of linguistic change … [and] they provide the clearest evidence
of language being created and shaped by society for its own ends, as people adapt to new social circumstances
(Crystal 2010: 344).
From Pidgins to Creoles
The process of grammatical and lexical reduction of a language such as English or Navajo to a pidgin,
referred to as pidginization, reflects a limitation on functions that pidgin is expected to serve. But it would be wrong to
assume that the roles pidgins are the same to play is invariably humble. In many instances, a pidgin has come to be
used by a growing number of people over an increasingly large area, especially when none of the native languages
can claim priority by virtue of population size or the prestige of a written tradition. In short, a pidgin may become
widely recognized and depended upon as an indispensable means of interethnic communication. Under such
circumstances, the growing demands placed on the pidgin cause an expansion of its vocabulary and elaboration of
its syntax is a process opposite to pidginziation, semi-official established with a writing system and used in mass
media, it may acquire a semi-official status, it may even become the mother tongue of those children and whose
families it is habitually used. This process of expansion of a pidgin to other language function is referred to as
Language, Culture and Society

creolization, and the end result is the term creole. A creole, then, is a pidgin that has become the first language of a
speech community.
Among the many places in the world where this process has taken place in Papua New Guinea. There what
once was an English-based pidgin of limited utility has been elevated over the past several decades to one of the
official languages of the now independent country. Known as Neo- Melanesian, or Tok Pisin (from talk pidgin), it has
become the lingua franca of about 1 million people speak some a700 languages native to Papua New Guinea and
the first language of some 20,000 households (MÜhlhäusler 1987:178). Tok Pisin has acquired such prestige
that more parliamentary debates are now conducted in it done in English, in most recently it has been heard even in
the country's university lecture halls.
Even though crayons are languages and their own right and have in some instances found their way into the
mass media as well as into primary school instruction, they nevertheless tend to carry less prestige than the standard
European languages besides which they are used and from which they derive the bulk of their vocabulary.
Consequently, some speakers of creoles, especially those who live in cities and hold semi-professional jobs, try to
improve their speech by using the standard language as a model. When this happens, creoles undergo a change,
moving in the direction of the standard language in a process known as the decreolization. Such a change is
currently taking place, for example, in English based Jamaican creole, giving rise to a continuum ranging from the
basilect, the variety most differentiated from the standard and used by members of the rural working class, to the
acrolect, an urban variety approaching the standard and therefore the same as more prestigious.
The great majority of pidgins and creoles are found in coastal areas of the equatorial belt wear contacts
between speakers of different languages, including those of former European colonists nations, have been a
common occurrence because of trade. Some reason pidgins, however, have been developing under different
circumstances – for example, the Gastatbeiter Deutsch spoken in the federal republic of Germany by several million
guest workers from southern and southeastern Europe.
Pidgins and Creoles have received the serious attention they deserve only during the fourth quarter of the
last century. Some of the most stimulating (but also controversial) contrbutions to their study where made by Derek
Bickerton. One important concept based on the study of creoles is Bickerton's bioprogram hypothesis (1981), that is,
the assumption that the human species must have a biologically innate capacity for language. In support of this
hypothesis Bickerton links pidgins and creoles with children's language acquisition and language origins. Because
the syntax of Hawaiian Creole English, which Bickerton knew well, shares many features in common with other
creole languages, the cognitive strategies for deriving creoles from pidgins are so much alike as to be part of the
human species-specific endowment. Furthermore, the innate capacities that enable children to learn a native
language are also helpful to children as they expand a pidgin into a creole. According to Bickerton, some basic
cognitive distinction (such as pacific versus general and state versus process) must have be an established prior to
the hominization process (development of human characteristics), and these distinctions are evident in the structures
of chaos as well as in the earlier stages of language acquisition.
Some of the recent researches concerning pidgins and creoles have resulted in the blurring of these two
types of speech (Jourdan 1991). It is now accepted the pidgin and creole varieties of a particular language can exist
side by side and that at creole can become the main language of a speech community without becoming its native
language. In other respects, however, our understanding of pidgins and creoles has improved because greater
attention is being paid to the historical and socio-economic context in which pidgins and creoles come into being.
In spite of the dominance of English, or the effects of electronic mass media and the internet which are
supposedly diluting some of the linguistic differences among us, languages are still in contact in very complex ways.
As an example of what might happen in current contact situations, we can consider Japanese-English has been very
much a presence in the country everything's a Japanese infatuation with English began in the 19th century. Almost
every Japanese take some six years of formal English instruction in school, yet Japan is hardly a bilingual nation. In
fact, Japanese critics and English language instructors alike often lament the poor English abilities of most Japanese,
especially conversationally.
Nonetheless, the number of English loanwords is extensive. Estimates of the number of commonly-used
loanwords in modern Japanese range up to 5,000 terms, or perhaps as high as 5 to 10% of the ordinary daily
vocabulary (Stanlaw 2004, Stanlaw 2010). The presence of some of these loanwords is not surprising: there for
“television”, tabako (tobacco) for cigarettes, and many baseball terms (e.g. battā for batter and pitchā for a pitcher)
all came as these things were imported. Many words however are wa-sei-eigo terms, or made in Japan English -
vocabulary created using English words as building blocks to coin words that have no real correspondence in the
United States or England. Examples include famikon (FAMily COMputer) for a nintendo entertainment system,
furaido poteto (fried potato) for french fries, puraso-doraibā (plus driver) for a Phillips screwdriver, sukin-shippu (skin-
ship) for bonding through physical contact of the skin as with a mother and the child, uinkā (winker) for an automobile
turn signal, handoru (handle) dor the steering wheel of a car, romance- gurē (romance gray) for the silver hair of an
older virile man who is still sexually attractive and the ubiquitous pokemon(POCKet MONster) for the Pokémon game
and anime franchise. Probably most of these vocabulary items are not immediately transparent native English
speakers.
Often English loanwords reflect changing Japanese cultural norms. For example, the very productive
English loanwords possessive pronoun mai (my) apparently is indicative of a new view held in japan that the values
of corporate allegiances or group loyalty which were thought to be the mainstay of Japanese society are now being
Language, Culture and Society

questioned. Terms such as mai- hoomu (owning “my home”), mai- wafu ( adoring “my wife”), mai- peesu (doing
things at “my pace”), mai- puraibashii (valuing “my privacy”), or being a member of the mai-kaa-zoku (the “my own
car tribe”) suggest that individual interests and goals can compete on equal footing with the traditional priority given
to group responsibilities. In the mass media, this prefix is found on a vast array of products or their advertisements:
my juice, my pack, my summer, my girl calendar (Stanlaw 2004a: 17-18).
Besides pidginization, mixing, or one language dominating another there are other possibilities that can
occur when speakers of different languages come into contact. Speakers of mutually and intelligible languages who
wish to communicate with each other have a variety of means available to them. One widespread method of bridging
the linguistic gap is to use a lingua franca, a language agreed upon as a medium of communication by people who
speak different first languages. In present-day India, for example, the English that spread with British imperialism
frequently served as a lingua franca among speakers of the many different languages native to the subcontinent. In
the United States, the language used for communication with members of the many different Native American tribes
has been English, the speech of the dominant society. And in Kupwar, a southern Indian village with speakers of four
separate languages- Marathi, Urdu, Kannada and Telugu - where almost all male villagers are bilingual or
multilingual, the speakers of the first three languages have been switching among them for so long that the structures
of the local varieties of these languages have been brought very close together making it easier for their speakers to
communicate (Gumperz and Wilson 1971).
Which should mention another possibility when discussing how people who speak different languages try to
communicate? Besides choosing a lingua franca or a pidgin, some have proposed adopting an artificial or auxiliary
language to facilitate international communication. Although several hundred are known to have been devised over
the past several centuries, only a few have achieved any measure of acceptance and use, with Esperanto already
more than 100 years old and the most widespread despite efforts to make Esperanto the official international
language, however, English, the mother tongue of some 400 million speakers and the official or semi-official
language serving will over a billion people in the world, appears today to have a little, if any, serious competition
(Crystal 2010:371).

The world of languages

It may come as a surprise to learn that no one knows exactly how many languages are spoken in the world
today. One standard or suggest the total is more than 6900 (Gordon 2005). This number includes creole languages
but excludes pidgins, as well as the thousands of languages in the course of history and prehistory that must have
disappeared without a trace. There are several reasons for the lack of precision in gauging the world's linguistic
diversity. A few languages are likely to be discovered in those regions of the world still only partly explored, especially
the equatorial rainforest of South America, Africa, and New Guinea. Some languages are on the very verge of
extinction, currently used by as few as a handful of speakers and not even habitually at that. Then, too, it is not
always easy to determine whether to dialects are sufficiently divergent to become mutually unintelligible and
therefore merit the status of two separate languages. In respect, socio-cultural considerations sometimes override
the linguistic theory of mutual intelligibility. For example, Czechs and Slovaks communicate with one another in their
respective languages without the slightest hindrance, all thought Czech and Slovak have separate standards and
literary tradition as well as dictionaries and textbooks. If these two languages were to be spoken in nearby village
somewhere in New Guinea they would unquestionably be classified as dialects of ones language. As for number of
dialects of the languages currently spoken in the world, the total would reach tens of thousands if anyone were
interested in making such a count.
The figure of some 6900 languages amounts to an impressive number when one considers that it
represents a distinct means of communication with its own elaborate structure and unique way of describing the
cultural universe of its speakers. However, in terms of the number of speakers, the great bulk of today's world
population makes use of relatively few languages. It is obvious that at this point in human history, speakers of some
languages have been more successful than speakers of others, whether by conquest, historical accident or some
other circumstance.
Language, Culture and Society

Application
Think of a Philippine PIDGIN and discuss its characteristics or features.
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Assessment
1. Using a Graphic Organizer, differentiate PIDGIN from CREOLE
2. Discuss the BICKERTON HYPOTHESIS
3. How does our culture/history affect the development of PIDGIN in the Philippines?
Language, Culture and Society

Lesson 7: Language and Ideology: Variations in Class, Gender, and Nationality

It is obvious people speak quite differently, even those who share the same native language. But there are
other reasons why people speak the same language in different ways. During the 19th century, most people thought
that physical difference and language were closely connected. That is, people were thought to speak differently
because of race. In the early 20th century, Franz Boas vehemently argued that there is no relationship between
race, language, and culture, though this often fell on deaf ears. That children of immigrants learn to speak the
language of the new country should be the obvious proof of this statement. Likewise, language ability is separate
from religion, occupation, financial status, or other aspects of culture. Unlike many physical attributes, language and
culture are subject to change from generation to generation. In one sense, then, one‘s language and culture is an
individual choice. Thus, difference in language can be readily observed among people in the same speech
community.
Early sociolinguists and anthropologists thought that such variety was analogous to geographic dialects.
That is, just as differences in speech could result from geographic isolation, social isolation due to ethnicity,
nationality or race could also create linguistic variation. Even gender could be a factor, because although women and
men share the same space geographically, they might live in different social environments. Language ideology is the
mediating link between social form and form of speech.
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. examine and discuss class, gender, and nationality in the Philippine context;
2. explain the study of Jane Hill in 1987; and
3. discuss the role of culture in the use of language of both sexes.

Getting Started
1. Differentiate GENDER from SEX. How do you see these two concepts from the perspective of a future ELT?
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Language, Culture and Society

2. Is speaking the same language sufficient grounds for people to establish a nation? Should all people in the same
nation speak the same language? Why or why not.
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Discussion
Language, Social Class, and Identity
One of the most obvious manifestations of social class is found in language – perhaps more so than
personal possessions, style, or place of residence. For our purposes, we will reduce class distinctions to differences
in economics, education, familial prestige, and some other ways people might rank themselves in society. Speech
differences can characterize different economic or social status. In the most extreme situations, such as castes in
India, hereditary social classes restrict the association of their members with members of other classes, and this is
often reflected in language. In addition, even in places where class differences are less pronounced. Similar kinds of
linguistic stratification can be found in the US, William Labov conducted a well-known study of socio-linguistic change
understood in the context of society in which it occurs.
Language and Gender
J.K. Chambers in this textbook on sociolinguistic theory (1995:102) states categorically that ―in virtually all
sociolinguistic studies that include a sample of males and females, there is unequivocal evidence that women use
fewer stigmatized and non-standard variants than do men of the same social group in the same circumstances‖ .
Although admitting specific cultural differences, he claims this finding holds true cross-culturally as well.
First, a few general remarks about the term “GENDER” as it is used here. Among the all senses of this term
is SEX – meaning one of the two forms of most organisms that are characterizes by differences in reproductive
organs and related structures. The use of the term GENDER rather than SEX avoids the misleading association with
sexuality, but mainly it acknowledges that gender is a social construct that is likely to vary from one society to the
next, or even from one social group to another within an embracing society or culture.
The choice of words by men and women varies according to the occasion, the type of audience present,
and various other circumstances. Profane or coarse speech is less likely to be heard when children or people held in
respect are within earshot, and a job interview calls for a more considered vocabulary than a casual conversation
between two close friends. Nevertheless, some lexical differences between the speech of men and women are fairly
common and can be illustrated from American English. Certain words are used by women much more frequently than
by men. Among such words are expressive adjectives that convey approval or admiration – for example, delightful,
spectacular, charming, divine, lovely, fascinating, and sweet – and fashionable color names – for example, beige,
chartreuse, fuchsia, magenta, and mauve.
Men are much more likely to phrase their approval or liking for something by using a neutral adjective such
as fine, good, or great, and reinforcing it, it necessary, with such an adverb as damn. As a rule, men‘s color
vocabulary is much less discriminating, hence, somewhat poorer than women‘s.
Other differences between the speech behavior of men and women were suggested.
For Example:
1. When women talk to with other women on a social basis, topics are about relationships, social issues,
house and family, workplace, and personal and family finances.
2. When men talk with other men, topics are work, recreation and sports, and WOMEN.
SOCIAL POWER THEORY goes back to the 1980s when William M. O‘Barr and Bowman K. Atkins (1998)
studied how witnesses speak in court. They studied courtroom witness testimony for a two and a half years, looking
at ten speech differences between men and women. They concluded that speech patterns were ―neither
Language, Culture and Society

characteristic of all women nor limited only to women‖. Instead, they found the women used lowest frequency of
women‘s language traits had unusually high social or economic status – being well-educated professionals with
middle-class backgrounds. A similar pattern was found for men – men with high social or economic status
spoke with few women‘s language traits. O‘Barr and Atkins argued that it was power and status, rather than gender
that accounted for these differences. A powerful position that ―may derive from either social standing in the larger
society and/or status accorded by the court‖ allowed speakers – both male and female – certain linguistic
advantages.
Some scholars argue that women‘s language is also significantly shaped by the style of
COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY. For example, Jane Hill (1987) studied the social expectations, gender roles, power
differences, and language in Malinche Volcano Communities near Mexico City. She found that local women changed
their native language Nahualt to be ―more Spanish‖. By the mid-1970s, many Nahuatl-speaking men were earning
relatively good wages in Mexico City where Spanish was the elite language. The men saw Spanish language as the
language of capitalism and hegemonic power, but they used Nahuatl to maintain local social solidarity. The women
remained behind to take care of fap7aw8-qqqqrm field. They had the responsibility to pass the Nahautl language on
to the children. Understandingy the importance of maintaining the language of their ethnic group, but also wishing to
show their appreciation of modern things and education, the women began to speak a form of Nahuatl highly
influenced by Spanish pronunciation.
Language and Nationality
In the last decades of the 21th century, many scholars argued that “ethnicity is not always the survival of
cultural diversity born of geographical and social isolation, but may be the outcome of intensive interaction, a
constellation of practices that evolve to channel complex social relations”.
As part of contemplating, we ask, “Is speaking the same language sufficient grounds for people to establish
a nation? Should all people in the same nation speak the same language?” if the answer to these questions is NO –
and probably most people in the 21st century would agree – what should be the status of “minority”
languages in multilingual societies? Because of the symbolic value of language, language choice, maintenance, and
shift are some of the most important personal and political social issues of any community.
In this discussion, we will focus on language and the nation-state. We will look at how the symbolic value of
languages is used by the people to pursue political power and ends, and foster consciousness among members of
the group. We will look at two of four case studies: INDIA, SPAIN, Czech Republic, and Canada.
INDIA. Occupying an area only one-third as large as US but with the second largest population in the world,
India is one of the most multilingual countries in the world. what makes India one of the world‘s most linguistically
diversified nations is that more than 400 languages are spoken there; they span at least four language families –
Indo-European, Dravidian, Austroasiatic, and Tibeto-Burman), as well as some isolates. There are 22 official
scheduled languages recognized in the constitution.
How does India, a federal republic, deal administratively with such a vast collection of languages? On a
regional basis, eastern India is dominated by three Indo-European languages – Bengali, Oriya, and Assamese - ,
western India by two – Maratji and Gujarati – northern India by four – Hindi and Urdu, Panjabi and Kashmiri, and
southern India by four languages of the Dravidian language family – Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam. The
principal official language in six of the 25 states of the republic as well as of the country at the federal level is
Hindi. However, as long as many non-Hindi-speaking citizens are reluctant to accept Hindi, English serves as the
associate national language and as a lingua franca acceptable in both Hindi-speaking north and the south.
In a country where many languages are spoken but do not enjoy all the same degree of prestige
bilingualism, multilingualism and diglossia are common of common occurrences. For interethnic communication of an
informal nature, Hindi is used to a varying degree throughout the country. For reasons of cultural prestige, there has
been some resistance to the use of Hindi as a contact language in the Dravidian-speaking part of the country and in
Bengal. For formal or written communication, English-language newspapers and periodicals accounted for,
respectively, 26 and 20 percent of the total published, and those in English had the highest circulation.
Today, more than a half century after India gained independence, knowledge of English is still considered
indispensable for high government positions, and although only a very small percentage of the population speaks
and reads English, Indians with knowledge of English tend to be the cultural, economic, and political leaders.
Throughout much of the world, dialectal differences have tended to diminish rapidly in recent decades as a
result of the mass media, education, and mobility. This has not happened in India, where caste differences are
effectively symbolized by speech differences. As long as the old and well-established social hierarchy persists,
linguistic differences serve a useful function and are likely to be retained.
SPAIN. Although the official language of Spain is Castilian Spanish, some dozen other languages are
spoken in the county. Catalan and Basque are two of the most important minority languages, and they are spoken by
15% and 1.4% of the population respectively. Both are important because of the issues of nationalism and ethnic
pride associated with each.
Euskara or Basque, is the language of the Basque people who inhabitant northeast Spain and southwest
France. There are about 650,000 Basque speakers in Spain and some 100,000 in France. The language is an
Language, Culture and Society

isolate, with only disputed affiliations with other languages. It has five major dialects. Under the language policy of the
Franco Regime (1939- 1975), from 1937 until the mid-1950s, it was prohibited to use the Basque language in public.
After the Basques regained some political sovereignty, they were once again allowed to use their language in public.
The Royal Academy of the Basque Language created a standard orthography. Although many Basque speakers
were reluctant to accept such standards at first, Euskara Batua gradually became accepted and is now used by the
Basques at all levels of education.
Unlike Basque, Catalan is a Romance language of the Indo-European family, and shares 85% lexical
similarity with Spanish. Its history goes back to the 3rd Century BCE when the Catalonia area was ruled by Rome.
Because of close contact with Rome Catalan developed from a more modern and more popular form of Latin than did
Castilian. Currently about 7 million people in Spain speak catalan as their first language. It is also spoken in small
areas in southwest France, and Sardinia in Italy.
Right after World War II, the Franco government took severe repressive measures against Catalan
language and culture, partly because of the resistance put up be Catalonia during the Spanish Civil War. Barcelona,
its capital, was then a center of revolutionary leftist activity. Much of Catalonia‘s prewar autonomy was lost and the
public use of the Catalan language was prohibited. During the latter days of the Franco regime, some folk
celebrations and religious observances in Catalan came to be tolerated. But because of the institutionalized language
discrimination, and its similarity to Spanish, today there are few, if any, monolingual Catalan speakers.
Language, Culture and Society

Application:
1. You have read about India and Spain. Now, your task is to discuss the same topic in the Philippine Context.
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2. Explain the study of Jane Hill in 1987.
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3. What does SOCIAL POWER THEORY imply?
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Language, Culture and Society

Assessment:
1. How does this lesson characterize the differences between men’s language and women’s? Provide
examples/situations where you yourself noticed the difference.
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2. From your answer in item number 1, what is the role gender/sex with the use of language?
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