Learning experiences : English Language adquisition

and Bilingualism
UNIDAD 1
Introduction to Language learning theory
ÍNDICE

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 Introduction to Language learning theory

1. U nit 1: Introduction to
Language learning theory
2. Topic 1: Generalities
Objetive:

Identify the foundations of language as a social process in second language

learning as well as the difficulties, which can arise. Describe the role of structure
in the learning of a second language and its effects in the process of language
development.
Introduction:
Languages that are not the learner's "native language" or "mother tongue" are
called "second languages". As a result, they provide both local languages (e.g.,
at the job) and really alien languages (which have no immediate local uses or
speakers), as well as a variety of other languages. They could be a second
language, but they could also be a third, fourth or even fifth language students.
In a more generic definition of "second language," it is included the use of
"foreign" languages since it is believed that the underlying learning processes are
similar for local and remote target languages, regardless of their different learning
aims and conditions.
Certain second language scholars have made an important distinction among
formal and informal language learning.

1. Subtopics information
2.1 Subtopic 1: Language as a social
phenomenon

Figure 1. Social role of language

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Human social behavior is built on the foundation of language. The development

of society depends on the ability of people to communicate in a variety of
languages. Language distinguishes humans from animals, which communicate
only through emotional speech, because language is an instrument of articulated
speech (Ili, 1980). Language, on the other hand, is malleable, as it is the primary
medium through which culture, values, norms, and identities are communicated
(Gvozdanovic, 2010). In addition, language is shaped by society, so it cannot be
considered a discrete entity with a predetermined past or a predetermined set of
linguistic characteristics (Kordic, 2010,
p. 52). A more recent (and more fruitful) debate concerns the impact of
globalization and the predominance of English as a lingua franca above other
languages it comes into contact with on languages' ability to express cultural
content, opinions, or emotions (Jezic, 2014, p. 31).
There has been little systematic sociological attention paid to language despite it
being one of the most important social phenomena. Throughout the history of
sociology, some of the most influential thinkers recognized its importance in other
contexts. Marx viewed language as a representation of practical awareness,
Durkheim highlighted that social facts could be defined on the basis of language,
and Bourdieu linked the uniqueness of identities of various cultural groups to
language differences, referring to distinct habitus depending on the particular
abilities, ambitions, and behaviors of these groups' distinct languages (Heritage,
2006, p. 322). In microsociology (ethnomethodology), for example, the study of
conversation as a methodological approach can be linked to systematic
engagement in the social roles of language (e.g., how people communicate when
joking, apologizing, threatening, and so on).
The expansion of communication at the local, national, regional, and
supranational levels has altered the present-day world, nations, and lives of
individuals through the power of language (Sun, 2013, p. 35). An important tool
of globalization is the English language, which is used by businesses and the
general public alike as the most common means of communication. Political,
economic, technological, and scientific (thus sociological) discourse all use the
term "globalization." It is argued that globalization has made the world more
homogeneous because of the increased contact between cultures and the
increase in movement of people, information, and goods, enabled by the
development of technology for 'time and space compression' (ICT, traffic
systems, and so on). To answer this question, we need to look at the impact of
linguistic and social changes, such as the spread of English-language
communication, the rise of Anglicism in other languages, on teaching practices.
A more specific question is: What impact does the globalization of human contact
have on language instruction? Teachers should link the knowledge of a language
with the social context in which it is spoken not only because of successful
communication, but also because of various contextual factors, such as the social
status of language and its instrumental value, affect motivation for learning. Thus,
it is important to know about the social sciences in order to improve the quality of

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Introduction to Language learning theory

a community's curriculum and language practice. Teaching methods and content

must also be adjusted to the local cultural context. This is in line with the so-
called transformationalists' view that globalization is a complex process that
occurs in conjunction with the local level of government. However, this process
is not uniform or necessarily positive; as a result, the same working methods do
not provide equal outcomes everywhere (Block, 2004, p. 756; Milardovic, 2004,
p. 155).
Kovacevic (2017) on the results of his study about language as a social
phenomenon mentioned that teachers valued all aspects of cultural
communication—cognitive (e.g., to describe principles which are not part of the
historical and cultural situation of students ,to relate students with various cultures
and countries and their ethnic, linguistic, interpersonal, and other particularities,
to break preconceptions against other cultures and countries,' and so forth),
affective ( to deal with anxiety and disapproval of the other and the different ones
and behavioral (to foster acceptance for different cultures and nationalities, as
well as to encourage pupils to take on the role of democratic citizens who value
diversity)
A deeper intercultural competency is needed, which goes beyond simply knowing
about just current cultural traditions and beliefs to analytical analysis about a
target culture as well as ethnic differences in general.

Conclusion
Teaching intercultural competency was vital to the teachers, and they praised
their own efforts to cultivate it in their students. Students' interest in language
began to wane as a result of a lack of effort on the part of their teachers. Students'
interest in these courses was also shown to be problematic. Is this linguistic
superficiality widespread throughout the school population as a whole? If so, this
would be quite concerning and necessitate an empirical investigation, which
would be highly recommended. It is possible to be superficial in one's own culture
as well as in the global environment in which we are all a part of. As a result, we
may be unable to see things from a new angle in our social interactions.

To work in class
Video Quiz
How language shapes the way we think
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKK7wGAYP6k
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

2.2 Subtopic 2: What we acquire when we

acquire a language

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Imagine that you've been given this task. If you want to understand a system with
tens of thousands of pieces, you have to figure out how they all work together.
In turn, these units can be put together in an unlimited number of ways. Despite
the fact that only a few of those combinations are true, the subset itself is limitless.
To make advantage of this system for communication, you'll need to figure out
how it's structured. Moreover, you are just a few years old at this point.
This is a human speech system. Words are the building blocks, sounds are the
raw materials, and the sentences that can be created from them are the
combinations. In light of this system's intricacy, it appears highly unlikely that
toddlers could uncover its fundamental structure and utilize it to communicate.
Despite this, the vast majority of people do so within the first few years of their
lives.
Three recent studies on children's language development, understanding, and
genesis are outlined by Saffran et al (2001). As a starting point, the authors
looked at how newborns identify the words in the audio stream that serve as input
for language learning. Furthermore, they examine how youngsters learn to swiftly
integrate linguistic pieces in order to identify the relationships between them. For
their concluding investigation, researchers study how youngsters organize their
perceived input, even to the point of constructing a new language when there is
none to choose from.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Identifying the Components of a Language

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Prior to beginning to associate words with objects, newborns must identify which
sound patterns are words. This means that newborns have to filter through a
continual stream of sounds that rarely pauses to find at least some of their native
language's components. As early as 7 months old, newborns are able to
segregate phrases from oral language using this reverse engineering issue.
How are infants able to absorb their native language's grammatical components
so quickly?
When it comes to resolving this question, a common strategy has been to expose
infants with little artificial languages that mimic the structure of natural language.
New samples of this language or samples from other languages are offered to a
newborn once they have become familiar with a previous sample.

It is therefore possible to determine whether the infant's reaction to the new

sample is one of surprise (e.g., how long he or she stares at the new noises). For
example, we can ask the newborn what he or she learned from the artificial
language in order to gain insight into the learning mechanisms that govern
language acquisition at this early level. For the first time, researchers have
discovered that infants are able to segment new words based on the statistical
features of syllable co-occurrence . Syllable pairs aren't just detected by how
often they occur, but rather by how often one syllable predicts another (3). The
low transitional probability of syllable pairs may help babies identify word
boundaries. Astonishingly, these computations can be performed by 8-month-
olds after only two minutes of exposure. Infants are able to quickly organize
language data into relevant and ultimately meaningful units by taking in statistical
regularities of seemingly meaningless acoustic events.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

To what degree does a baby's capacity for linguistic sound statistics detection
translate into nonlinguistic learning?
Remarkably, newborns are also able to recognize the probability with which
musical tones predict one another, which suggests that the statistical learning
capabilities employed for word segmentation may also be used for learning items
like music. As an example, newborns can trace the statistical structure of a tone
sequence learning task's exact tone patterns, unlike adults . At least some of the
statistical learning techniques outlined above may not only be used for language
acquisition.

Creating Meaningful Units of Words

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The first step for a language learner is to learn the language's vocabulary and
understand what it means in the real world. The distribution of these elements,
including linguistic items (-s, -ed, -ing) and function words (of, to, the) conveys
the additional combinatorial meaning of words to children. That is, children must
explore and have their own language's grammar to evaluate who did what to
whom in each statement. Especially basic sentences like "Mommy gave Daddy
the milk" versus "Daddy gave Mommy the milk" fall within this category.
Consequently, the decoding process serves as an important part of the language
understanding device, allowing young minds the opportunity to construct crucial,
or even new, relational perceptions of the world through the assembling of string
elements.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Students at an adult age are very good at deciphering the meaning of a sentence
by analyzing the context of the words. Research findings of adult linguistic ability
indicate that learners are so adept at this system that they typically achieve it in
real time, as each word is perceived. These studies show that adults use a variety
of probabilistic cues gleaned from the sentence and its context to quickly combine
received words into probable phrases.
Trueswell (1999) has looked into how this rapid parsing system develops. Study
participants aged 4 and older were asked to move objects around on a table while
their eye movements were tracked. Even during statement, the children's visual
interrogation of the scene offered a door into the ongoing process of
interpretation. Their response to commands that considered necessary an implicit
grammatical option, such as "Tap the doll with the stick," was of specific
importance. The phrase with the stick can be linked to the verb Tap, which
indicates how to tap the doll, or to the noun doll, which indicates which doll to tap.
In situations like this, adults begin to depend on context, picking the most
believable analysis based on the current scene. Kids were given the opportunity
to select from a variety of analyses. Language cues were crucial in determining
what the speaker was trying to convey.
It doesn't matter how likely an interpretation is provided on the situation; children
interpret with a stick how to carry out an action like Tap, which frequently refers
to an instrument. This same phrase would be interpreted differently if the verb
was of the kind that does not note a tool, such as "picking a doll."

Learning a language as a process of creation

Observations of objects can help children learn the vocabulary and phrases of a
language, but so many advanced linguistic features can't be learned solely
through this method. An unlimited group can only be generated with a limited
number of samples. They appear to have extra language-learning skills that allow
them to assemble their language without any need for specific instruction.
Because todays modern languages were learned by children in the past, they by
now contain the products of instinctive preconceptions. Consequently, scientific
efforts to isolate them experimentally meet a methodological problem. A child's
ability to speak a specific language is thus difficult to determine whether it is an
innately or obtained trait. It is possible to deviate from this logical chain of
reasoning by taking a closer look at situations where the linguistic atmosphere is
lacking. In the absence of a rich, full language, can children develop an effective
native language? A recent example is the situation of deaf students in Nicaragua.
Two decades ago, deaf children attending new special education systems in
Nicaragua began using Nicaraguan Sign Language. Their verbal input was
limited because they couldn't hear the Spanish spoken there and there was no
sign language that had been previously created.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Gestural expressions that comprised grammatical patterns that were not present
in the children's input introduced a new and organic sign language in this method.
As new generations of children enter school and learn to sign from older peers,
the language keeps evolving and alter. A clear contrast can be seen, for example,
between the first wave of children (now grown ups in their early twenties) and
second wave of children (now adolescents) in terms of language acquisition .
When it comes to expressing semantic roles, i.e. who did what and to whom, one
example is the distinction among both "the girl" and "the boy" when it comes to
expressing who did what to whom. A group of young people began by creating
simple signs to represent common words and concepts (such as "boy" and "girl");
they then went on to create more complex signs that could be used to express
more complex ideas. For example, they might use phrases like "girl pushes boy
and falls" or "boy gives girl receives" to describe events.
In this study, researchers found that children are able to apply their own
organizational preconceptions to information that is not well-structured. It is
possible for kids to learn a shared language even if there are no external cues in
their surroundings.

Conclusion

It's during this time that children begin to learn about the raw resources of their
speech and how they're assembled into longer sequences. Children must
concurrently integrate their abilities as they learn and decipher the code of
interaction that surrounds them in order to be effective in school. Young children
are adept at solving linguistic riddles, even when their insight lacks the expected
structure. This is regardless of the fact that modern computers are presently
incapable of solving these problems.

To work in class
Video Quiz
The secret of learning a new language
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_XVt5rdpFY
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

10
Introduction to Language learning theory

2.3 Subtopic 3 3: Role of grammar in second

language acquisition

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A foreign language has been component of school for more than two millennia.
Education and language learning have both been affected by changes in other
fields. The dominant learning theories of the time have also had an impact on
foreign language learning techniques. There have been three main periods in the
history of language learning when it comes to the importance of grammar in
second language teaching: In the past, there were three distinct periods of time:
a) grammar age, b) zero- grammatical-age, and c) grammar-and-meaning age,
which meant rethinking the importance of grammar in the target language
development and language proficiency.

Grammar- based methods Grammar translation

Learning a new language in its earliest stages was primarily a matter of learning
the rules of grammar in order to be able to read and write in the chosen language.
Students were taught rules, ideas and structures of grammar in order to better
comprehend the target language in this method. Grammar translation is by far
the most common method because it was first used to explain grammatical
structures in the target language by translating them into the learner's native
language.
For L2 learners, precision is a must-have when it comes to evaluating their
proficiency. L2 users benefit from accuracy because it prevents
misinterpretations and allows them to convey their message clearly and

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Introduction to Language learning theory

effectively. Grammar plays a big role in conveying ideas clearly. For the L2
learner, especially those who require a lot of proficiency and accuracy, there is
no evidence that grammar instruction can be dispensed with altogether, as Celce-
Marcia concluded in 1991. (Celce-Murcia, 1991) Grammar instruction in any form
can lead to a precise understanding of the language.
Audio lingual and Direct method
Audio-Lingual and Direct Methods were developed in response to the growing
demand for effective oral communication in a variety of contexts. In contrast to
the grammar translation method, they focused on grammar's structure rather than
on individual categories of grammar. Focusing on oral competence rather than
written ability, it also helped students remember crucial intrinsic patterns for L2
learning. Learning grammar rules experimentally and in a real-world context was
one of the goals of the direct method. It was hoped that by using this method, the
learner would acquire L2 grammar in the same way that he or she acquired L1
grammar as a youngster. (Thornbury, 1999)

Presentation- Practice – Production methods

Communication-based methods were born out of the shortcomings of grammar-
based methods. Even though the PPP method was intended to help students
improve their communication skills, it was not effective and was still heavily
grammatical.
In this concept, a new grammatical rule or structure is introduced to the learner
in the form of a dialogue, reading text, or listening segment. Through a series of
monitored exercises, the teacher guides the student throughout a series of
repetitions of the structure. Learners' attention is directed to specific structures in
this stage. It is less regulated so that the learner can put new structures into
practice more easily and fluently. Here, presentation and practice play an
essential part in the learning of languages.
It is Ellis' contention that the traditional view of grammar teaching is one of
presentation and practice. There is no doubt that grammar teaching can include
both presentation and practice, but this doesn't necessarily imply that some of
the grammar lessons need to be presented while others only require practice.
As a further point, he argues that grammar teaching can involve students working
out the rules of the language on their own. (Ellis, 2006)

Reasons to teach grammar.

In this section, there are major reasons why grammar has been re-evaluated as
a teaching tool for second language acquisition.

Self-awareness on learning
Deliberate training of second language forms and structures is widely accepted
by SLA researchers. Ellis employs the phrase consciousness raising in an
attempt to help the student grasp a grammatical function. Rather than repeating

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Introduction to Language learning theory

the aimed characteristic, he emphasizes that the learner should use intellectual
effort to understand the targeted feature rather than relying on repetition.
There are two kinds of grammar rules: explicit (conscious) understanding and
implicit (unconscious) understanding.
In this model, they assume that exposing learners to grammar forms, either
explicitly or through communicative exposure, can help them obtain these
structures. While consciousness-raising does not actively correlate to the
obtaining of knowledge resources, it certainly enables the transfer of skills
interaction. (Ellis, 2002)

Focus on form
Focus on form, on the other hand, focuses on the meaning of the form that
emerges from communicative activity, rather than instruction where the learner
focuses on accuracy. To enable students to recognize the properties of L2, it
combines formal instruction with communicative language use. If students are
involved in communicative tasks, this approach is extremely beneficial.
In terms of the variables that influence the significance of grammar for learners,
Teaching young adults at a high-intermediate proficiency level necessitates a
form of language if teachers want their students to succeed in the structure
requirement. In 1991, (Celce-Murcia, 1991) As a result, focusing on a particular
form or forms is a matter of personal preference and the goals of the learner.
Teaching grammar with a focus on meaning is also supported in two other ways
by Celce-Murcia. In the first place, she sees the examples in the box and on the
table as illustrations of grammar used to convey meaning. Secondly, she explains
how grammar serves a social purpose. The nonnative's use of will/would rather
than can/could in requests does not imply rudeness or a lack of tact.

Task- based instruction

While grammar-based instruction stresses the importance of correct grammatical
structure, task-based instruction places a greater emphasis on the learner's
participation in actual communication methods.
Both directly and indirectly, these factors relate to the acquisition of underlying
knowledge by providing students the opportunity to engage in the kind of
communication that is thought to increase supply of implicit knowledge. Task-
based instruction, according to Ellis, necessitates student-centered approaches
that empower them to take charge of the conversation and shape its direction.
The method he uses requires students to forget that they are in a schoolroom
and to assume that they can learn a foreign language and via communication.
Ellis is best suited to tasks that require students to communicate about grammar.
They deduced that the use of communicative, grammar-based tasks in the
college Efl classes creates incentives for the kind of interaction that is believed to
boost the acquisition of implicit learning. Developing learners' explicit knowledge
of L2 may also have an indirect impact.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Students in non-English speaking countries can benefit from task-based training

because it provides them with the opportunity to communicate with each other
beyond the classroom. Learners benefit from the sequence analysis of
communicative tasks that are more difficult and those that focus on the
language's grammar.

Conclusion

Aside from the debates surrounding its role in language learning, the impact of
grammar to second language acquisition cannot be questioned. Language
learning has undergone a paradigm shift in the way grammar is taught after it was
discovered that grammar- based approaches did not include any appropriate
communicative competence for the learners. Grammar instruction required to be
reevaluated in light of this new tendency toward communication riddled with
errors, which was incongruent with the high levels of proficiency required. While
grammar was being reconsidered, new methods emerged that focused on
communicative competency rather than disregarding it altogether

Researchers and teachers have always been searching for the most effective
means and ways to teach language and grammar. The selection of
communicative tasks that emphasize interaction among students and promote
efficient learning is still a significant challenge for them.

To work in class
Video Quiz
Why we struggle learning languages
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBMfg4WkKL8
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

2. Preguntas de comprensión de
la unidad
1. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 1?

How does language distinguish humans and animals?

Language distinguishes humans from animals, which communicate only through
emotional speech, because language is an instrument of articulated speech

2. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 2?

How can we help children absorb grammar components quickly?

A common strategy has been to expose infants with little artificial languages that
mimic the structure of natural language

3. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 3?

Why is decoding an important part of language acquisition?

The decoding process serves as an important part of the language understanding
device, allowing young minds the opportunity to construct crucial, or even new,
relational perceptions of the world through the assembling of string elements.

4. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 4?

What are 3 examples of grammar based methods?

Grammar translation, audiolingual and direct method, PPP

5. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 5?

What are some reasons to teach grammar?

It helps to be self-aware of your own learning, it focuses on form, and it is task
based instruction

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Introduction to Language learning theory

3. Material complementario
Los siguientes recursos complementarios son sugerencias para que se pueda
ampliar la información sobre el tema trabajado, como parte de su proceso de
aprendizaje autónomo:

Videos de apoyo:
How language shapes the way we think
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKK7wGAYP6k
The secret of learning a new language
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_XVt5rdpFY
Why we struggle learning languages
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBMfg4WkKL8

Bibliografía de apoyo:
Nation, I. S. P., Macalister, J. (2010). Language curriculum design. New York,
NY: Routledge.
Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2012). Methodology in language teaching:
An anthology of current practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Links de apoyo:
Subtopic 1 https://padlet.com/abanos21/coc1i3f2idmyjxb7

Subtopic 2 https://padlet.com/abanos21/baszmbc03zyk6gxv

Subtopic 3 https://padlet.com/abanos21/r8cf0ibwzc378tqw

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Introduction to Language learning theory

4. Bibliografía
» Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (Eds.). (2013). The handbook of bilingualism
and multilingualism (Second edition). Wiley-Blackwell.

» Curzan, A., Adams, M. (2013). How English works: A linguistic

introduction.Pearson Education.

» Kovacevic, V., Spetic, M., & Pleslic, M. (2018). Language as a social

phenomenon in a global context: Implications for teaching practice. New
Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences, 5(3),
173– 182. https://doi.org/10.18844/prosoc.v5i3.3922

» Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2013). Second language learning
theories (Third edition). Routledge.

» Nation, I. S. P., Macalister, J. (2010). Language curriculum design. New

York, NY: Routledge.

» Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2012). Methodology in language

teaching: An anthology of current practice. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

» Saffran, J. R., Senghas, A., & Trueswell, J. C. (2001). The acquisition of

language by children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
98(23), 12874– 12875. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.231498898

» Sogutlu, Enriketa. (2014). Review on the changing role of grammar

teaching in second language instruction. Beder University Journal of
Educational Sciences. 5. 137-144.

17
Learning experiences : English Language adquisition
and Bilingualism
UNIDAD 1
Introduction to Language learning theory
ÍNDICE

2
 Introduction to Language learning theory

1. U nit 1: Introduction to
Language learning theory
2. Topic 1: Language Learning overview
Objetive:
Identify the functions and domains of language and its relationship to cognitive
development. Describe the role of competence and performance and its effects
in the process of language development.

Introduction:
Certain second language scholars have made an important distinction among
formal and informal language learning. Language is one of the ways by which we
communicate our thoughts and feelings. They focus their energy and resources
on achieving these goals, regardless of the methods they employ. Language
plays a critical role in nearly every aspect of the creative process, including but
not limited to thinking, moving, interacting with others, and expressing oneself.

There are many ways to accomplish a goal. There is a variety of ways to pass
the time, from doing one's own chores to playing one's f avorite sport. It can also
be a way to express one's beliefs, participate in a social gathering, invest in one's
spiritual and ethical development, or even get along with others. When people
are working hard to achieve their goals, they make extensive use of their verbal,
physical, and social abilities. There is also a wide range in the type of language
used to achieve a goal, from simple "I" to long strings of complex sentences and
paragraphs. These are the words that can be used quickly and successfully to
fulfil the objectives of those who use them.

Students, as predicted, gain knowledge to use language in a variety of ways by

modifying register, that is, by varying the tone, form, and content to meet the
needs of various situations. While having shared a book with one of the other
students in the classroom, a student might say, "I'd like a copy of this book!"
without upsetting the other person.

However, if the social interaction is to proceed smoothly, the same desire should
be stated differently to a less familiar companion ("please pass me the book").
Thus, the desired outcome is realized.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Schools' location in a particular community can have a significant impact on how

students speak their native language. Current cultural issues were communicated
through its language, as can be deduced. It's got a place in society. An entire civilization
would cease to function without it. The speakers' perceptions of reality are gradually
shaped by their use of language, resulting in the development of feasible thought
behaviors.

1. Subtopics information
2.1 Subtopic 1: Functions of language

Esta foto de Autor desconocido está bajo licencia CC BY-SA-NC

Halliday (1975) pointed out seven uses or functions of communication and social
linguistic theories. Hence, he divides those uses into seven features that
incorporate social interaction, such as:
The "I like," "I need" function of language provides the speaker with a gratification
when he or she receives what he or she has requested.
The ability to regulate the actions of another individual or group. Do what you
need to do before you leave the house. "That nonsense riddle disappeared," he
says. This role is more concerned with the performer who executes the provided
command than it is with the things or services provided.
Language have been using interpersonally by a speaker when interacting with
other people. People who need your answers or are close to you are the ones
who really need you. When talking on the phone, the same language is used.
"Greetings" and "You and Me" are two examples. To put it another way, this
language is used to build social bonds.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Personal: language is the one that allows the presenter to express their
uniqueness. One can openly say one's thoughts. In addition, somebody can tell
others what they like, what they don't like, and what they're interested in. "Here I
come" is a common phrase in this language.
Imaginative: The linguistic function "Let's let our imaginations run wild." Creative
ideas, imagined ideas, end up making notions, and out of this world, one’s
speaker expresses all narratives here. One's imagination is allowed to run wild in
this particular role. In addition, one creates one's own fantasy world. In this way,
letting one to write poetry and other written outcomes that demonstrate one's
inventive open mindset.
Describe to me whether language is a common heuristic. They crave answers,
facts, statistics, and information to satiate their thirst for knowledge and
understanding. That which surrounds you can be known for what it is and why it
is so through this language. Questioning methods are used to obtain meaning
from the people being spoken with. I have something to tell you, language is
informative. This language gives the person the freedom to convey one's
thoughts and ideas without fear of being censored. People's "why's" are
answered in this capacity, and so the person speaking replaces their minds with
answers.
As stated above, people learn language in order to communicate and influence
the actions of others ( Bruner, 1974). To put it another way, this rational theory
asserts that people are drawn toward language learning along with its usefulness
to them. Owens (1984) who agrees with the prior view that speech has an impact
on language. Purpose or task utterance is the term used by speakers to describe
the goal they are trying to achieve. In other words, before or shortly after a person
says their first relevant word, they can express a variety of early intentions,
according to Dore (1974) and Owens (1974). As a more effective way of
disseminating these intentions, language structure is learned. Muma (1978) as
cited by Owens (1984) discussed interpersonal and intrapersonal functions of
language. This internal communication, which Halliday (1978) renamed idea of
getting, is used for memory, challenge, and the creation of new concepts. On the
one hand, language serves as a tool for interpersonal communication.

A speech act, according to Dore (1974), is a component of discourse, which is

expressed according to linguistic and rational rules that function to communicate
a speaker's, abstract characterizations and motivations It is not the sign or word
or sentence which is the unit of discourse, but rather it is the production in the
performance of the speech act that represents the fundamental unit for
communication. Searle (1988) emphasized this point.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Different kinds of speech acts.

There are three types of speech acts: locutions, illocutions, and perlocutions,
according to Austin (1994).
Illocutionary acts are described by John Austin as thread of components that
include tone of voice, tone of verb, appearance of an interpretive verb, and
punctuation in writing or speech. When a performative verb is used, it triggers an
event. He also tried to distinguish speech acts by reason, curiosity and status of
each person involved, extra- linguistic establishment, verb form and power of the
illocutionary act. The following are the categories of speech acts that he
proposes:
Statements that express faith or incredulity in some hypothesis, such as an
assertion. An effort to persuade or direct a listener is the goal of directives.
Commitments, such as vows, promises, and swears, are expressions of one's
emotional attachment to a future direction. Thank you, sorry, and deplore are all
examples of expressive words.
"I confer" is a declarative, a factual statement that aims to change the current
situation. Language may have evolved from a well-integrated nonverbal
communication system, according to Mahoney and Seely (1976). A word uttered
that includes markings, reiterating and trying to answer, asking for an action,
soliciting answer, calling, saying hello, resisting and applying is called a primitive
speech act (PSA) in their categorization. As demonstrated, language learning is
a social practice. A person's ability to decipher and incorporate language forms
and content is facilitated by socialization and social connections.
According to Lenneberg and McNeill (1994), Jones and Dixon (1995), and
Chomsky's innatist/rationalist theory, language serves a variety of purposes
(1989). Every person, they say, is born with the ability to learn any language.
There are four instinctive characteristics in every human being that make up the
"Language Acquisition Device (LAD), a worldwide theory of language acquisition
that includes: (1) the ability to identify speech sounds from other sounds; (2) the
capacity to comprehend language's occurrences into various classes; (3)
understanding that only a very such kind linguistic structure is feasible and other
kinds are not; and, (4) the agnostic belief that there are other different types of
linguistic systems. Moreover, this faculty's built-in language course is ready and
waiting to be established when the time is right. Because of its pre- made
structure, the LAD is a framework for the system of words. So the language
learner is able to master the new language with ease. A more specific question
is: What impact does the globalization of human contact have on language
instruction? Teachers should link the knowledge of a language with the social
context in which it is spoken not only because of successful communication, but
also because of various contextual factors, such as the social status of language
and its instrumental value, affect motivation for learning.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Thus, it is important to know about the social sciences in order to improve the
quality of a community's curriculum and language practice. Teaching methods
and content must also be adjusted to the local cultural context. This is in line with
the so- called transformationalists' view that globalization is a complex
Environmentalist and behaviorist theories, on the other hand, rejected the
rationalists' and innalists' viewpoints (Norton 1992). A person's ability to speak
depends on their ability to hear, not on their innate ability to speak. In other words,
such theories advocate a rigorous set of learned habits that are acquired through
stimuli, responses to stimuli, and rewards, and thus, the creation of routines.
Many educators have found that they can develop a native-sounding language
just by mimicking the language of those around them. Positive feedback has a
direct impact on the frequency of text used.
It identifies desires and requirements of language personalities. Learning to
speak a foreign language leads to the acquisition of materials that satisfy the
primary desires and needs of each person. As an example, a child who is thirsty
and cries out "wa-wa" receives water more quickly than one who simply says "wa-
wa." This reinforces the learning and use of the phrase when the water is given
to the child after he or she says "wa-wa."
Behavior is influenced and changed by language. Learning how to use language
effectively can help people change their surroundings and influence the behavior
of others. A young child to get an adult’s attention, for example, can use peek-a-
boo or “peek-a-boo,” Because of changes in behavior, both the adult and the child
benefit. Attempting to answer the teacher's question with a partly correct answer
is more beneficial than quietness or even a refusing to answer in the eyes of the
teacher, an older kid understands. In this case, the child who is seeking validation
or avoiding rejection responds with, "I'm not sure, but I think..." instead of "I don't
know." When a child gets mad to get attention, for example, the user may be
attempting to assert influence over behavior and the environment.
Language aids in the development of one's mind. The tangible and intangible are
both symbolically represented in language. When new knowledge is learned, it
can be retrieved from the past and linked to it. It enables people to assume about
the past, present, and future. People use language as a means of expanding their
knowledge base through their experiences and knowledge. It makes it possible
them to keep and organize the data they need to investigate and solve problems.
When people write or speak about a subject, they are able to better understand
the information, clarify their thoughts, and also generate new knowledge through
the use of language.
Language facilitates a more complete exchange of ideas and feelings with others.
Because of language, people are capable of building connections with others.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

They are able to communicate their opinions, feelings, and actions through the
use of language.
Language is used by people to interact socially and to interact within their own
social groups. Simply put, language plays a huge role in the growth of
interpersonal communication.
Individuality is expressed through language. The ability to express oneself
creatively through the use of language is a fundamental human right. They
express their thoughts and feelings in ways that are unique to each of them. Even
in young kids, who interact their understanding and knowledge of the world in
distinctive addressing their distinct personalities, this is evident.

To work in class
Video Quiz
Functions of language https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4Z_K-kWV9w
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

8
Introduction to Language learning theory

2.2 Subtopic 2: Competence and performance

Esta foto de Autor desconocido está bajo licencia CC BY-SA

Chomsky (1965) claims that it is a comprehensive statement of bilinguals' ability

to be using their language fluently , which means that a sentence construction is
a template of how native speakers communicate. They're known as native
language fluency and proficiency, respectively, because they're a native
speaker's capable of speaking the language fluently and effectively. What people
actually suggest or comprehend based on someone else's words is called
performance. Having a good command of one's native language is one thing, but
being able to communicate effectively in real life is quite another.
According to Noam Chomsky (1965), study of language is directly associated with
the ideal speaker-listener within an entirely homogenous language system, who
understands his language excellently and is intact by such grammatically
irrelevant conditions as memory restriction, diversion, shift of attention and focus,
as well as random or described errors in implementing his expertise in actual
results. As a result, one's capacity to execute is directly related to one's
performance.
In addition, Chomsky's generative transformational grammar aims to identify
what the communicator truly understands, rather than what he might say about
it. It is also not a prototype for the speaker-hearer relationship. As a way of
describing how a speaker- hearer actually uses language, it tries to be as
impartial as possible in its characterization of linguistic competence.

Furthermore, according to Chomsky (1975), linguistic performance measures

and reflective reports from native speakers or linguists who have studied the
language will determine whether or not a hypothesis about fundamental language
system is correct.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

looked at how newborns identify the words in the audio stream that s erve as input
for language learning. Furthermore, they examine how youngsters learn to swiftly
integrate linguistic pieces in order to identify the relationships between them. For
their concluding investigation, researchers study how youngsters organize their
perceived input, even to the point of constructing a new language when there is
none to choose from.

According to him, transformational linguists seek to define the nature of language

competence as a conceptual set of organizing principles underlying the fact of
linguistic competence or the actual use of language in a given circumstance.
"Language and speech" is the term Ferdinand de Saussure, as quoted by Robins
(1979), uses to describe competence and performance. A person's lexicon,
grammar, and phonology are imbedded in him by his social growing up, and it is
on this foundation that he speaks and understands his language, while Parole is
the immediately accessible data. In other words, Language refers to the phonic
and grammatical systems that each speaker integrates when learning a
language. Instead, parole refers to the executive side of language, in which a
speaker chooses and incorporates elements of the linguistic system in order to
give them a concrete manifestation as phonic and meaning, in order to express
his or her own thoughts. These definitions, nevertheless, are based on the
English-speaking native speaker.

Types of competence

Esta foto de Autor desconocido está bajo

Chomsky uses the term linguistic competence to describe a native speaker's level
of language skills. Linguistic knowledge was once assumed of as an unified force
that could best be summed up in concepts of the grammatical rules of a language
at the beginning of its existence.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Before the advancement of text and conversational analysis by discourse

analysts and speech ethnographers, this was a common notion in the explanation
of languages at the lexical level. As a result, linguistic competence has been the
first type of competence to be criticized.

Communicative competence

The concept of "communicative competence" was the subject of particular

scrutiny. Communicative competence is clearly different from linguistic
competence in that it concentrates on the native speaker's ability to generate and
comprehend sentences that are suitable to the context of the situation, or what
that speaker deserves to understand in order to function successfully in socially
various contexts. There are many differences with this and the language view of
competence in terms of how much attention is paid to official terms of linguistic
knowledge versus how much attention is required to pay to context, the
relationship between both the speaker and the listener, and any other external
conditions that are considered to be systematic inside the society. There are
many factors that contribute to linguistic behavior, including, but not limited to:
how one is perceived by others, how one is viewed by others, how one is viewed
by oneself, and so on. According to this argument, it's necessary for a theory of
language to provide a clear and specific record of these communicative
restrictions, as long as they are structured within a community, and not just focus
on the rigorous analysis of structure. Communicative competence is a term used
to describe the skill of making clear and concise statements by following the rules
of grammar of a language. In response to Chomsky's distinction among
competence and performance, Hymes (1972) coined the term. In Hymes' opinion,
such a difference was insufficient because it focused solely on linguistic
competence.
Chomsky (1965) and Hymes (1970) coined the term communicative competence,
and since then, many different definitions have been offered to the phrase.
Van Ek (1987) established another good concept. There are six components to
communicative ability, according to him: linguistic competence, social language
and cultural competency; discourse and strategy; socio-cultural and social
competence; and social competency. Social competence is not included in
Canale's categorization, but Van Ek does include it as a separate piece in his
model. Motivation, attitude and self- confidence or empathy as well as the ability
to deal with social situations" are among Van Ek's definitions of social
competence.

Syntactic, semantic, and phonological abilities are all part of a native speaker's
grammatical competence, or his right to communicate his native language.
The first skill is associated to the ability to put words together into sentences;
Second: The speaker's insight about how well formed sentences are semantically

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Introduction to Language learning theory

organized; Third: The speaker's intuition about how sentences sound and how
well-structured they are phonologically (Radford, 1988: 3-7).

However, grammatical competence is still a matter of mastering the programming

language itself. These include features and rules of the language, such as
vocabulary, word formation, sentence structure (syntax), pronunciation, spelling
and linguistic semantics (morphology and phonology).

Sociolinguistic competence

This distinction between what is possible, what is feasible, what is appropriate,

and what is actually done when using communicative language is one of Hymes's
(1972) contributions to competence research. According to Swain (1984),
sociolinguistic competence refers to the extent to which people can speak and
understand in different sociolinguistic situations, depends upon factors such as
the subject matter, the status of attendees and their goals.
Both the meaning and the form are considered suitable when it comes to
statements. If an utterance's structure and meaning are considered, then
sociolinguistic competence is associated to the suitability of the statement in
different situations. According to the status of participants, the goals of the
communication, and communication social rules, this suitability may vary.

Discourse competence

Sociolinguistic competence does not refer to the term "discourse competence,"

as used by Canale and Swain (1980), but it does include the concept of "cohesion
and coherence." Researchers, on the other hand, describe discourse
competence as the ability to combine grammatical forms and meanings to
produce a cohesive spoken or written text in various genres.
The cohesion of a text's form and the coherence of its meaning are essential to
its unity. Yoshida (2003: 3), according to Yoshida (2003: 3), discourse
competence refers to the ability to combine grammatical forms with meanings
to produce coherent and cohesive texts. That's why it's referred to as "textual
competence" on occasion.

It's all about putting words together in a logical and cohesive way. What Halliday
and Hasan (1976) describe is the idea of cohesion and coherence, which are
linguistic characteristics that connect sentences together, and coherence refers
to texts that are appropriate for the context in which they are written. As a result,
when a piece of writing is both internally consistent and coherent, it is both
cohesive and coherent.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

Literary competence

Similarly, French theorist Ronald Barthes suggested that literary competence

refers to a native speaker's capacity to control literary language's unique
properties. It is similar to Chomsky's focus on the speaker's artistic talents
(Crystal, 1987: 79) in this respect. A number of contentious topics have emerged
or re-emerged to handle the unique properties of literary language when
answering a question like, "Where can the meaning of the literary text be found?"
The idea that the meaning of a literary text is not found in the language of the text
itself has been particularly emphasized in this respect.
Instead, it is up to the reader to make sense of the text. According to this
perspective, a text has no separate identity apart from the reader's instinct. Some
of the factors that contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the text include
linguistic cohesion and the-world-of-text cohesion.
It is this ability to detect the interrelations seen between text pieces that provides
the text with a sense of cohesion.

Performance

Performance in linguistics has two meanings: (1) a pronunciation method used to

prepare amateur practitioners of the subject to control their vocal organs; and (2)
a phrase used in the theory of transformational generative grammar, to refer to
language as a repository of particular expressions produced by native speakers.
Transformational generative grammar has been heavily criticized for failing to
clearly distinguish between competence and performance. For example,
determining whether a particular speech feature, such as intonation or discourse,
is a matter of competence or performance can be difficult.

Incomplete structures and hesitations will be present in the expression of

performance, due to various psychological and social problems acting on the
speaker (e.g., forgetfulness, or biological constraints, such as moments of silence
being introduced through the need to breathe), which are not part of the abstract
rule set. Grammars dealing with the systematic procedures of sentence
construction should not include these characteristics (Crystal, 1985: 224-5).

Performance as a reflection of competence

Competence is a native speaker's ability to communicate effectively, while

performance refers to what people actually say or understand based on what
someone says. In many cases, performance does not properly represent
competence, such as the fact that people start making occasional errors in daily
conversation does not imply that they lack fluency (i.e. competence) in their native
language. As far as Chomsky is concerned, mistakes and other similar
occurrences are performance inconsistencies that can be attributed to a lot of

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Introduction to Language learning theory

things, including exhaustion (Radford, 1981: 2; Gleason and Ratner, 1993: 206).
Yule (1996: 165) attributes these manifestations to the difficulty in coordinating
the brain and speech production.

According to certain schools that emerged in the early to middle 20th century,
language can be best studied through speech and writing. For the behaviorist,
these two tasks show the real observable behavior. Analyzing either or both
actions is the best word to explain and write down the rules of language.
This can be seen in the attempts of some structuralists, such as C.C.Fries, to
read and listen straight to letters and telephone calls.. They believe that any
characterization of language should start and finish with the description of native
speakers' verbal behavior. The Chomskyians present a novel framework to the
study of language because they are unhappy with the current one.
Rationalism, a new psychological school, is at the heart of their beliefs.
That the linguists' task is not to write down regulations and to define language as
an independent system, but rather to see the user's things from the perspective
of the user's world, is what they believe. If you want to know the spear's linguistic
knowledge, you need to know what it does with it. To put it another way, his job
would be to use the latter to explain the former.

There are those who believe that a better notion of human language can only be
gained by studying the native speaker's actual words and phrases.
There are two basic types of assumptions that they make, one from "an intuitively
deduced system to human functioning," and the other from contributors' reactions
to language as a system (Herriot, 1970: 14).

To work in class
Video Quiz
Competence vs performance https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WnYDv-
TWE8w
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

14
Introduction to Language learning theory

2.3 Subtopic 3 3: Domains of language learning

Esta foto de Autor desconocido está bajo licencia CC BY-SA

For two reasons, the language of school-age children is difficult. First, high school
students' communication skills continue to grow in all five domains (phonology,
morphology, syntax, semantics, and prag- matics). Children, for example, must
use their phonological skills to read, understand, and spell, despite the fact that
they have attained all speech sounds by the age of eight. Similarly, despite the
fact that 8-year- olds have access to all sentence types, their ability to
comprehend and generate academic phrases keeps growing. There are four
modes of communication that are required in the classroom: listening, speaking,
reading and writing. The focus is on trying to teach and developing the latter two
modes. During the school years, it is crucial to examine the relationship between
spoken (listening, speaking) and written (reading, writing) language. This
chapter's goal is to expand and analyze the basic understanding in language
acquisition for older students.

All students are put in compulsory education after the age of 5 years old in the
United States. A teacher's dialect is used to instruct students on academic
material and govern the classroom's actions. The classroom, the school, the
sports field, and the schoolyard are just some of the places where children of
school age use language to get by. In the classroom, children use their
language skills to ask questions that make comments about instructors and
classmates, to develop social relationships, and to comprehend and produce
shared text. Aside from English, other subjects such as math, science and
social studies can also benefit from the use of language in the classroom as a
teaching tool. The capacity to reason about and evaluate language in an
intentional way is known as metalinguistic skill. At school, metalinguistic
capacity has a significant impact on a child's ability to learn and use language
effectively. When a child is writing a statement, she must consider who will read

15
Introduction to Language learning theory

it and how it will be interpreted. Metalinguistic skills are difficult for students with
certain types of language difficulties (such as autism).

Language in four modalities

Processing areas for each of the four modes of language are shared by all four
(i.e., in the brain). All four language modalities share or have access to these
brain processing resources. As a result, the way language is understood or
expressed has its own distinct components. When it comes to language, for
example, one can learn it by listening as well as seeing. Aside from listening to
the words, our eyes process visual cues related to body language throughout a
conversation. Reading, which involves decoding print and using reading
comprehension skills to gain meaning, is another way that language can be
visually input.

According to this definition, reading is the understanding of linguistic information

through written form, and this input is referred to as visual. We primarily use our
mouths to communicate the thoughts, feelings, and other thoughts that are in
our heads when we speak verbally. We can also express our thoughts in written
(print) form, either by hand on paper (for the purists) or by hand on a computer
(for everyone else!).

Speakers have unique skills in articulating sounds, words, and sentences in

order to communicate effectively. Listening requires a unique set of skills,
including the encoding of acoustic signals by the ear and related brain centers,
until the signal is transmitted to linguistic centers of the brain. Visual cues, such
as gesture and facial expressions, are just as important to convey information
as prosodic cues like pitch, tone, and loudness.

Reading requires a unique set of skills, including the ability to decipher words
on paper in order to comprehend the written message.

Wide ranges of abilities are required to process these messages based on their
length, purpose, and academic level. Once the message has been processed, it
must be understood in the same way that spoken language is interpreted.
Unique writing skills include the ability to use the hand to express oneself, as
well as the ability to spell and the multitude of other writing skills. Word,
sentence, and text levels of communication are all rooted in language,
regardless of the mechanical and cognitive requirements of writing.

Five Domains across four modalities Phonology

Language comprehension and production are heavily influenced by phonemes,

which are the smallest language units. In school, students must also learn to
process phonological information from listening to their teachers and peers
speak. Phonology and reading and writing are intertwined in school. Study after
study has shown that children who have had previous phonological and/or

16
Introduction to Language learning theory

speech sound disorders have a harder time learning to read and write than their
peers. As it turns out, the use of technology is critical to learning to read. In
order to decipher print, a child must have phonological and phonemic abilities.

As the reader is made aware, reading and writing require translations between
pho- nemes and orthographic symbols. The child relies on his phonology or
comprehension of sound to spell words in order to write.

Morphology

Both grammatical and inflectional bound morphemes are relevant to school-age

populations. The 14 grammatical morphemes identified by Brown (1973) should
be properly matured by the time a child enters school, which is typically around
the age of 5 or 6. Children who have difficulty with language may not be able to
consistently understand or produce these morphemes by the time they reach
school age (Windsor, Scott, & Street, 2000). This necessitates that elementary
student be taught to recognize and produce grammatical morphemes. On more
than one occasion, you may have heard the child with a language disorder who
has difficulty with the visual representation of the grammatical morphemes in
written text read out loud to you, and you may recall the child's elimination of the
words "ed," "ing," and "s." According to Windsor et al. (2000)'s study of fourth
and fifth-grade students with language-learning problems, they found that this
was the case in their test. These grammatical morphemes, in particular, are
frequently omitted by children when they write descriptive and interpretive
sample data. For school-aged children with language impairments, grammatical
morphology appears to be an area of growth and concern.

Syntax

A sentence is constructed using syntax, which is a set of rules for the

arrangement of words, utterances, and clauses (Shapiro, 1997). Words are
linked together by this structure. Children use syntax in all four modalities of
language in their early school years. In attempt to comprehend and make sense
from the sentences they hear, children must be able to comprehend and
generate quality sentences. Discourse or connected speech is the most
common type of speech that children hear in the classroom, but they are also
expected to follow instructions and answer questions. In this way, they're
dealing with more difficult syntax. As an example, students may be asked to
introduce one of their textbooks to a particular page, or they may be asked to
work with a peer to complete a specific task. Students are typically expected to
respond to long, convoluted sentences in these directives. Wh- and yes/no
questions are common in social studies classes, and they require the student to
process the information before responding appropriately. Throughout the course
of the day, children are expected to respond to questions and ask their own
questions, a task that requires advanced and complex syntactic skills.

17
 Introduction to Language learning theory

Semantics

With each passing year, students gain an ever-increasing amount of semantic

knowledge. A continuous flow of new words must be assimilated into a child's
vocabulary, so they must be taught not only their literal meanings but also how
they relate to other words. Take a moment to recall your first encounter with the
term "photosynthesis." Assuming you were in a biology or chemistry class, the
word itself was intimidating. After the first time an individual hears or sees this
word, he or she will connect the phonetic (word form) and semantic (meaning)
aspects of it. We use the term fast mapping to describe a process by which we
link a term to its meaning. For children to be able to utter a word correctly, they
need to hear it several times. Slow mapping occurs as the meaning of a word
deepens over time after first hearing it. Your teacher most likely introduced the
term and clarified that it refers to the process by which plants convert sunlight
into food.

After reading the initial description, you've probably taken several classes to
better understand this intricate process and, by extension, the meaning of the
term. As an example, you might first read about it, then listen to the teacher talk
about it, and then carry out a test to demonstrate it.

This word presented an opportunity to quickly map the phonological information,

and subsequent lessons having the chance to deepen our understanding of the
meaning.

When a child has mastered the meaning of a new word, it is time to explore the
word's relationships with others in the dictionary. There are a lot of science
words associated with photosynthesis, for example. Photosynthesis and
synthesis may also be related to the word because of their similar phonetic
patterns. It's possible that students who have a well-rounded lexicon can try to
deduce the meaning of the word from their understanding of the two root words,
photo and synthesis. In order to do this, you must know that the word is
classified as a plant and a science.

Pragmatics : Discourse

Discourse is defined as a group of statements or maintained interactions

combined in a coherent way to convey meaning (Merritt & Culatta, 1998). When
teachers and students interact in a way that promotes learning, comprehension,
skill development, and the processing of interconnected text (Merritt & Culatta,
1998), this is an example of instructional dialogue. This can be seen in a variety
of ways in schools. Educators use discourse levels of language to communicate
classroom instruction, directions, lectures, and lessons. The students must then
understand this discourse while listening and paying attention to the guidance.
Children must be taught that the pragmatics of speaking to a teacher and a
friend are distinct.
Milagro – UNEMI

18
Introduction to Language learning theory

It is also possible to see discussion in written texts or books where information

is woven together in such a story-book or textbook, for example, in social
studies or science, for example Discourse is created by students in a variety of
ways, including oral presentations to teachers and peers and written work such
as short stories, essays, book reports, and term papers (i.e., expository
discourse). Organization, content, and style should be taken into account when
analyzing how instructional discourse appears to work, Merritt and Culatta
(1998) argue.

It is possible to detect these three characteristics in all kinds of educational

discourse, whether it is a lecture in the classroom, or a group discussion.

As part of the educational discourse in schools, one must also take into account
the school's social or pragmatic essence. Students, for example, are generally
expected to raise their hands when they have a question or a comment. We've
all seen the student who speaks up without raising their hand when asked a
question or gives an answer. For a number of reasons, this student may be
unaware of the classroom's social pragmatics. My experience has shown that
hand-raising is not always necessary in elementary school classrooms. It's
suggested by Westby (1997) that learners acquire social skills as well as
academic ones as part of the school's learning to do school curriculum.

Non-literal language is also an important area to keep in mind. idioms,

metaphors, similes, humor, proverbs, and abstraction are all examples of
nonliteral language. If you've ever taken a language arts class, you know that
similes and metaphors are distinct from one another because they don't use the
word like or as. From kindergarten through high school, teachers and students
alike use nonliteral language in their classrooms. In a language arts class, we're
exposed to metalinguistic rules that reveal the structure of this nonliteral
language. Because children with language difficulties, such as those with mild
to severe autism spectrum disorders, will be unable to understand this nonliteral
language, this is an important factor. Using the phrase "It's raining cats and
dogs" as an example, a preschool teacher may see one or two students looking
out the window for a new puppy or kitten.

To work in class

Video Quiz

5 domains of language

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-snqa1YOKtU

Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work

Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

19
Introduction to Language learning theory

2. Preguntas de comprensión de
la unidad
1. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 1?

What are the seven functions of language ?

Instrumental, regulatory , interactional , personal , heuristic , imaginative ,

representational

2. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 2?

What is competence?

It refers to the person’s knowledge of the language .It is an idealized conception

of language

3. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 3?

How does the communicative competence differ from the linguistic

competence?

Communicative competence focuses on the native speaker’s ability to produce

and understand sentences, which are appropriate to the context in which they
occur

4. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 4?

What is performance in linguistics?

It refers to language seen as a set of specific sentences produced by native

speakers

5. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 5?

What are the domains of language ?

Phonology , morphology, Syntax, semantics and Pragmatics

20
Introduction to Language learning theory

3. Material complementario
Los siguientes recursos complementarios son sugerencias para que se pueda
ampliar la información sobre el tema trabajado, como parte de su proceso de
aprendizaje autónomo:

Videos de apoyo:
Functions of language https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m4Z_K-kWV9w
Competence vs performance https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WnYDv-
TWE8w
5 components of language https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-snqa1YOKtU

Bibliografía de apoyo:
Nation, I. S. P., Macalister, J. (2010). Language curriculum design. New York,
NY: Routledge.
Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2012). Methodology in language teaching:
An anthology of current practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Links de apoyo:
Subtopic 1 https://padlet.com/abanos21/coc1i3f2idmyjxb7

Subtopic 2 https://padlet.com/abanos21/baszmbc03zyk6gxv

Subtopic 3 https://padlet.com/abanos21/r8cf0ibwzc378tqw

21
Introduction to Language learning theory

4. Bibliografía
» Ahamad, J. K., Luddin, S. A., & Abdurahman, A. J. (2019). Student
Performance in Michael Halliday’s Seven Language Functions: Lesson
Guides for Teaching/Learning English Discipline. International Journal of
Innovation, Creativity and Change. Retrieved December 11, 2021, from
https://www.ijicc.net/images/vol10iss6/10615_Ahmad_2019_E_R.pdf.

» Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (Eds.). (2013). The handbook of bilingualism

and multilingualism (Second edition). Wiley-Blackwell.

» Curzan, A., Adams, M. (2013). How English works: A linguistic

introduction. Pearson Education.

» HajjaKaru, S., Baba, I., & Sadiq, M. (2019). Competence and

Performance. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 24(11),
52–54. https://doi.org/10.9790/0837-2411065254

» Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2013). Second language learning
theories (Third edition). Routledge.

» Reishaan, AbdulHussein Kadhim and W ia’am AbdulWahab Taha. (2008)

The Relationship between Competence and Performance: Towards a
Comprehensive TG Grammar. Adab Al – Kufa Journal. Retrieved
December 11, 2021, from
https://www.iasj.net/iasj/download/db8ce3f19ae6362f.

» Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2012). Methodology in language

teaching: An anthology of current practice. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

» Saffran, J. R., Senghas, A., & Trueswell, J. C. (2001). The acquisition of

language by children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
98(23), 12874– 12875. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.231498898

» Singleton, N. C., & Shulman, B. B. (Eds.). (2014). Language development:

Foundations, processes, and clinical applications (2nd ed). Jones &
Bartlett
Learning.http://samples.jbpub.com/9781284022070/9781449685041_ch
12_printer.pdf

22
Learning experiences : English Language adquisition
and Bilingualism
UNIDAD 2
Facts to consider about human learning when acquiring a language
 ÍNDICE

Unidad 2: Facts to consider about human learning when acquiring a language ... 3
Tema 1: Positive and negative factors affecting language
performance ................................................................................... 3
Objetivo .......................................................................................... 3
Introducción:................................................................................... 3

1. Información de los subtemas...................................................... 3

1.1 Subtema 1: Factors influencing academic performance ........ 3
1.2 Subtema 2: Role of Socio cultural factors in second language
acquisition ............................................................................ 9
1.3 Subtema 3: Strategies for supporting primary languages ... 13
1.4 Subtema 4: Interference , avoidance and error analysis ..... 17

2. Preguntas de Comprensión de la Unidad.................................. 21

3. Material Complementario ........................................................ 22

Bibliografía 23

2
Introduction to Language learning theory

1. U nit 2: Facts to consider

about human learning when
acquiring a language
2. Topic 1: Positive and negative factors
affecting language performance
Objetive:
Identify the issues regarding human learning and Second language acquisition.
Describe the benefits and problems associated to second language learning

Introduction:
To put it simply, acquisition is a synonym for learning. However, it can be used in
a different context, such as when learning a second language. Since some
linguists genuinely think that the growth of a child's first language is unique, the
process of learning a language is often referred to as acquisition rather than
learning. Acquisition can also be easily interpreted as learning the rules and
formulas of L2 in order to communicate effectively. Finally, acquisition is the
natural study of a language, and it does not depend on the teaching of that
language. Learning, and from the other hand, is a deliberate process that takes
place in the context of a classroom, such as learning a language.

1. Subtopics information
2.1 Subtopic 1: Factors influencing academic
performance

Esta foto de Autor desconocido está bajo licencia CC BY-SA

3
Introduction to Language learning theory

Maturity level, intellectual capacity, smartness, cognitive style, behaviours, and

ambition are just a few of the many factors that go into learning a second
language (Ellis, 1985).
Motivation
One of the most crucial components of second language acquisition is the
motivating force of the learner. According to Richards (1985, p. 185) a person's
desire to do something is determined by their level of motivation. Students who
would like to learn more than others are more able to win. According to Gardner
and Lambert (1972), who define motivation as the learner's ultimate aim or
orientation and mindset as the perseverance shown through learner in working
hard for a goal, attitudes and motivation play an essential part in SLA (Ellis 1985).
2 different types of motivation are outlined by the authors:
a .Language learning is motivated by a wide range of factors, including an
individual's desire to learn a foreign language and the desire to share with people
from other cultures who speak the language they are learning.
b. Integrative motivation: a learner's goals for acquiring a new language, such as
passing a test or reading a foreign newspaper, are workable and helpful, for
example. Motivated learners can be influenced by either type of motivation.
There are, however, circumstances in which one is more efficient than the other.
When learning a second language (L2) as a foreign language, an integrative
motivation is more essential than an instrumental motivation. Integrative
motivation is related to additive bilingualism, which implies that students create a
second language to their set of skills without causing any harm to their native
tongue. Subtractive bilingualism where pupils tend to substitute the mother
tongue for the chosen language, is more likely to be connected to integrative
motivation (Ellis, 1985).
Intrinsic and extrinsic inspiration can be differentiated. For activities that have no
apparent benefit other than the activity itself, they are self motivated. Internally
rewarding outcomes, such as feelings of competence and self-determination, are
the primary objective of intrinsically motivated behavior patterns (Edward Deci,
1975, as cited in Brown, 1994, p. 155). As a result, extrinsically motivated actions
are motivated by the expectation of a reward. Many researchers, including
Maslow (1970) and others, believe that intrinsic motivation contributes to
improved success in learning another language, medium to long term (Brown
1994).

Attitude
An attitude is a set of views about elements such as the culture of the target
language, their personal culture, and their instructors, and the training goal they
are assigned in the classroom. People's opinions toward other languages and
their own are referred to as "language attitudes." Whether a language is easy or
difficult to learn, how essential it is, how much social standing it has, etc., all play
a role in a person's opinion of the language (Richards, 1985, p. 155). It has been

4
Introduction to Language learning theory

found that Stern (1983, p. 376-7) has categorized a number of various attitudes
into three categories:
views toward the community and persons who speak L2, as well as attitudes
about language learning and languages in general.
Personality traits and a general interest in foreign languages can have a
beneficial or detrimental impact on language learners. The way individuals feel
about taking a certain course and studying a specific language from a specific
teacher is also crucial. Although it is evident that students with good attitudes
learn more, it is equally true that students who do well in school develop
positive attitudes as a result of their success.

Age

Learning a second language can be influenced by a variety of circumstances,

including a person's age. Children are often thought to be better at learning a
new language than adults. This premise is supported by research undertaken in
naturalistic educational experiences. According to Lenneberg's critical period
theory, a child's ability to learn language is enhanced throughout a specific
period of development. Biological development is to blame for the vital period,
he claims. The lack of ability and adaptability in the brain, he says, could make
learning a language more challenging after puberty (Richards:1985). A number
of studies have shown that children who begin learning a foreign language at an
early age have a more native voice than those who begin at a later age
(Oyama, 1976).

However, research in formal educational settings yields the contrary outcomes.

Adolescents, on the other hand, are the best at both grammatical structures in
the classroom, according to Fathman (1975). When it comes to the influence of
age on the course of SLA, the research reported by Ellis (1985) shows no
correlation between a student's beginning age and their rate of learning. When
it comes to grammar and vocabulary, teenagers outpace both adults and
youngsters. Despite the fact that young learners do not understand as quickly
as their older counterparts, they are more likely to succeed in the long run
because they have been exposed to the language for longer. He also explains
some of the findings of the study. The crucial period hypothesis, which argues
that children can spontaneously and without effort acquire a language until a
certain age, is not supported by the studies. Selinger's (1978) claim that there
could be many key periods is supported by the fact that the starting age is
solely relevant to pronunciation.

The disparities between children and adults in their ability to acquire a new
language are highlighted by cognitive theories. It's easier for older language
learners to apply linguistic norms when speaking or writing in the target
language. As a means of conveying meaning, language is not a structure for
children. The learners' emotional

5
Introduction to Language learning theory

moods may also play a role in the explanation. A child's need to be accepted by
their classmates motivates him or her to learn faster than an adult. Aiming to
determine when is the best time to begin learning a foreign language, these
research examined the impact of age. Each age has its own benefits and
drawbacks when it comes to learning a new language, and the best time to
begin is based on the individual learner's condition. Students of diverse ages
are taught, and teachers must adapt their approaches to meet the needs of
each age group (Patsy Lightbown, 2000).

Self-esteem

To be successful in any endeavor, one must have some sense of self-worth and
self- belief. As Coopersmith (1967) defined it as self-esteem, it is the
assessment that the individual can make as well as customarily maintains with
respect to himself; it reflects an attitude of approval or disapproval, and
suggests the degree to which an employee believes he is competent,
substantial, effective and deserving. People's perception of self-worth is shaped
by the data they get from others. According to the social comparison theory put
out by Wiliams and Burden (1997), classroom interactions have a significant
impact on students' perceptions of their own talents. As a result of this, their
perception of accomplishment is influenced greatly by the messages they
collect from their teacher and classmates. Teachers should be aware that they
have a direct impact on their pupils' emotional well-being as well as their
academic achievement. In the classroom, teachers should cultivate an
atmosphere that fosters students' self- confidence and encourages them to
succeed. Researchers found that self-esteem is a significant factor in SLA.
Academic success and high levels of self-esteem are shown to be linked in
numerous research (Brodkey and Shore, 1976).

Anxiety

Another psychological trait that has an impact on foreign language learning is

anxiety. anxiety is a state of mind associated with feelings of discomfort,
dissatisfaction, identity and concern. When certain persons are predisposed to
be nervous, MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) identify trait fear and state concern
as distinct types of anxiety. They also distinguish between three types of anxiety
related to learning a foreign language: communication apprehension, risk of
social rejection, and test-related anxiety. The concept of a little stress and
tension in the process, which is defined as a little uneasiness in the process," is
often regarded as a negative component that should be minimized.

Both too often and too little worry may impair the progress of effective second
language learning must be considered (Brown, 1994, p. 143). There has been
some investigation on the causes of classroom anxiety. Student competition,
the teacher-student connection, and assessments were found to enhance
anxiety by Bailey (1983).

6
Introduction to Language learning theory

Empathy and extroversion

Empathy – the desire and ability to empathize with others – is another facet of
behavior that has been researched (Stern, 1993). Only in terms of language
skills is it seen as a crucial aspect in learning a second language because it
entails participating in other people's experiences and emotions. Some studies
have attempted to link empathy with the learning of a native-like pronunciation,
but it is considered a crucial aspect in the total ability to obtain a second
language rather than only the process of acquiring an authentic speaking skill
(Schumann, 1975).

However, it is said that one's personality has no bearing on one's overall

success in learning a language. But while talkativeness and responsiveness do
aid in the development of linguistic knowledge, it doesn't mean that a quiet
person who prefers learning a language on his or her own has no hope of
mastering it. All of this depends on how much effort someone puts in, how long
he devotes to learning a new language, and what inspires him to do so.
Teachers need to know their students' personalities in order to provide them
with appropriate instruction and establish the right learning environment.

Conclusion

Several factors determine the acquisition of a second language. SLA is

complicated by the fact that each person is unique. There are a number of
components that affect the way language learners face language learning and
can either help or impede their efforts to acquire L2. A second language
learner's achievement may be influenced by these characteristics, which appear
to be crucial to the learning process.

To work in class
Video Quiz
Factors influencing academic performance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7HkTd_jNXSY
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

7
Introduction to Language learning theory

2.2 Subtopic 2: Role of socio cultural factors in

SLA

Esta foto de Autor desconocido está bajo licencia CC BY-SA-NC

When a person learns a second language, it is known as a second language (SL).

In the field of second language learning, researchers examine how language
learners acquire a new second language. The environment in which a language
is developed makes a distinction between the acquisition of a language and the
learning of a language. Assuming that the learner's goal is to be able to
communicate with others in the cultural context using such a language, this
process is called acquisition. Interaction with the environment is critical for
acquisition to take place. In this environment, language skills are learned either
on the street, through friendship, or in informal settings. There is a difference,
however, between learning and teaching. To learn, you need to accept things
about the language, such as its grammar and linguistic structure, while to acquire,
you need the ability to speak it.
Disposition, stigmatizing, separateness, encouragement, and character are all
socially constructed factors that influence language learning. This study focuses
primarily on attitude, stereotyping, social distance, motivation, and personality,
but there are many other factors to consider.

Personality
Personality, according to De Rad (2000), is what distinguishes one person from
another. According to Hippocrates and Galen, there are four types of
personalities: phlegmatic sanguine; choleric; and melancholic; these are the
people who wish to stay in their own worlds and are prone to suspicion.

8
Introduction to Language learning theory

According to Dörnyei (2005). Personality traits such as self-confidence, risk-

taking, extroversion and cooperation have been linked to successful language
learning in studies. Rubin's (1976). Learner characteristics such as extroversion
and introversion describe the extent to which students are exposed to their
surroundings. In contrast to introverts, extroverts are characterized by their
willingness to share their thoughts and ideas with others, whereas introverts are
more likely to keep their thoughts to themselves. Extroverts are more successful
at learning a new language than introverts, according to research. (1975) by
Naiman Studies in language acquisition are looking for a connection between
language and one's personality. Some examples of this include the work of
Krashen (1985) and Skehan (1986). (1991). Ehrman (1996) represents a clear
link among personality and language acquisition, which is the most important
one. Self-esteem, risk-taking, and impulse control are some of the personal
attributes that affect language learning. Learning language and personality are
strongly linked, according to Brodkey and Shore (1976). Someone or something
can be inhibited when they try to stop anything from happening. As a result,
students are more likely to make mistakes and become irritated by their inability
to succeed. Having a language ego is a major hindrance to learning a second
language, according to Zafar and Meenakshi (2012). It is impossible to correct
one's language skills because of one's ego, which prevents one from learning
from one's mistakes while learning a new language. When it comes to (Zafar
and Meenakshi, 2012).

Motivation and attitude

Motivation is involved with what drives people to create a decision in the first
place. Behaviour is the driving force behind a person's actions and motivations.
There is a general truth that success is dependent on inspiration, and that foreign
language learners are energetic in their studies. Ushioda, (2009) stated that In
1968, an associate professor of psychology at the university of Western Ontario
presented a paper at the TESOL convention. There are four key findings: 1)
Motivation is crucial in the process of learning a second language. 2) Effective
language learners are driven to incorporate into the target culture. 3 ) Motivation
for learning to integrate comes from a student's home environment's attitudes and
values (active and passive role). 4) Learning a second language involves
adopting the social norms of the cultural context. (Gardener, 1968).

In 1972, Gardener and Wallace Lambert perform a thorough investigation into the
role of attitude in the process of language learning. Integrative and instrumental
motivations are two of the many subtypes they classify under the umbrella term
motivation. The integrative motivation refers to learners who want to become part
of a specific community and participate in social interactions in the society.
Students who want to learn the language for practical reasons are classified as
integrative motivation. To become proficient in a second language, a person must
have a positive attitude toward those who speak the language they are interested

9
Introduction to Language learning theory

in learning. Learners are motivated by three factors: a sociocultural component,

which includes personal and cultural perspectives, an educational component
that focuses on the educational environment, and an internal component that
includes attitudes and assumptions. Motivated behavior is influenced by each of
these elements. It is these behaviors that show motivation. Sociocultural
components, such as a positive outlook toward a selected population, can have
a positive effect on motivational behavior (motivated behavior) toward learning a
target language. (Helena, 2013)
Stereotyping and acculturation
Culture provides a setting for people to develop affective and cognitive behaviors.
People understand veracity through the context of their culture, and they prefer
to believe that their own truth is the correct perception. Perception, on the other
hand, is always open to interpretation. It entails organizing out ideas before they
accumulate in the memory, resulting in a new type of perception. In the eyes of
other cultures, what there seems to be a correct belief of a person may be
incorrect. Misconceptions are probable among societies, but there will be no
problems as a result of cross-cultural differences if people realize varying world
views and adopt a personable good mindset toward diverse cultures. Cultural
stereotypes influence people's views, speech, and actions, as well as their
interactions with one another. Stereotyping is usually associated with a negative
mindset towards to the language or culture in question. Learners who have
positive traits about the target language's culture are more likely to learn it. Brown
(2000) defines formalized formalized formalized formalized formalized formalized
formalized formalized formal It is critical to comprehend the procedure of
intercultural communication because gaining knowledge a language entails, to
some extent, learning about another culture. This procedure entails acquiring a
second identity. Acculturation is the process by which a new identity is formed.
Culture acquisition occurs in four stages: The first stage is an exciting period
that included the freshness of the scenery. The second step is referred to as
culture shock. It implies a sense of self-pity and rage at not comprehending the
new culture. The third phase is one of progressive recovery. People are starting
to accept cultural differences. The final phase is nearing or complete recovery.
This is where the new culture is accepted and assimilates.

Conclusion
The second language learner's attitude forward towards the second language it
seems to be one of the most important factors influencing second language
learning. There is a clear association between learners' attitudes toward second
language acquisition and their success in second language acquisition. Attitude
refers to a set of values that are important in the acquisition. Psychological
planning, which necessitates a good mindset forward towards the second
language, is a fundamental component for second language acquisition success.
The positive attitude of the learners encourages them to make serious efforts to
learn the language. Negative attitudes, on the other hand, stymie learning.

10
Introduction to Language learning theory

Learners' attitudes toward language learning are shaped by their perceptions of

their teachers, the target culture, and the curriculum. Competence in a second
language is achieved when the ability to maintain continuous contact with the
second language is demonstrated. This ongoing contact is determined by the
learner's behavior further towards the second society.

To work in class
Video Quiz
Sociocultural factors in SLA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WcW1ohhSYjo
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

11
Introduction to Language learning theory

2.3 Subtopic 3: Strategies for supporting

primary languages

Esta foto de Autor desconocido está bajo licencia CC BY-SA

There are two types of primary language support (PLS): primary language
support (PLS) and secondary language support (SLS). As an example, if a child
initially learns Italian at home, and then goes to school in America where English
is the main language, the native tongue of Italian would be leveraged to build the
English language.
Bilingual education is not the same as primary linguistic knowledge. PLS and
bilingual instruction are distinct in that multilingual instruction uses the student's
primary language as the medium of instruction. English language instruction,
from the other hand, uses PLS to create content understandable and reduce the
linguistic burden. In order to help students learn English, teachers employ the
students' native languages as an aid.
In the United States, main language support has long been a contentious issue
in education. Some suggest that ELs' English language development may be
hindered by the employment of their primary language. According to an article
by Claude Goldenberg in American Educator, there is an intrinsic advantage to
being bilingual.

Because primary language support fosters an asset-based approach, it is

beneficial to English learners. It is important to question, What language skills do
students now have when they come to us? as part of the PLS approach. Is there
a way to make use of their primary literacy to help them learn a new language?
PLS is based on the idea that a student's sense of self is inextricably linked to
their language skills. For us to truly respect students' diversity means allowing

12
Introduction to Language learning theory

them to express themselves in all of their original tongues. As a result of our

efforts, they have been able to expand their lexicon.
Some strategies to follow
When a teacher or assistant understands the very same language as the student,
primary language assistance can be easily provided. There's no need to worry
about not being fluent in the language of your students. While working as an
English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher, I dealt with students from around
the world who spoke a variety of languages. It's a prevalent misperception that
using primary language instruction is difficult when there are numerous kids
speaking different languages. Even if you don't know your students' first
language, you can still benefit from PLS.
1 . A bilingual dictionary can be a great tool for students who are educated in their
native tongue and can utilize it effectively in standard courses if they are bilingual.
However, they are of no assistance to kids who have trouble reading in their
primary language. The ability of your students to communicate effectively in their
native languages should be assessed at regular intervals. You can find out by
talking to the children, asking their parents, and observing. Ask your child to read
to you from a book in his or her primary language if you have access to one. Even
if you aren't fluent in the language, you can still offer remarks on the student's
reading and speaking abilities. How fluent is the pupil, or are they simply reading
word for word? Is the narrator struggling to pronounce a word? They seem to be
pointing at something. Is it clear that the text has worn them down? Is the text, if
it was chosen, appropriate for this audience? A bilingual dictionary may be a good
PLS for your student based on these observations.

2. Class materials : Label English and the major languages of the kids should
be used to identify the space. This can be done by students. If you need
something to read while you're waiting in line for lunch or recess or as you're
finishing up class, the labels are a terrific resource. Students chant or echo the
English words that teachers point out. Some teachers use the labels to conduct
reading games, such as asking students to discover the object in the room
whose name ends in "ER." The labels in the students' native language serve as
a key language support for the new vocabulary.

3 . First Language use : Students should be encouraged to continue using their

primary language at home, including reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
Goldenberg claims in the same American Educator article that "learning to read
in their home language helps ELs increase reading skills in English" in numerous
experimental experiments. While it isn't always the case, it's encouraged that
parents communicate with their children in the language they are most
comfortable speaking. Read aloud to children in their native language boosts
literacy development and helps parents to participate in their child's education,
according to Wayne Wright. Purchasing primary language books for your
classroom or school library is a good method to support pupils. Translated

13
Introduction to Language learning theory

versions of popular books can be found in a variety of languages. Begin

purchasing books that are relevant to your students as soon as you have
additional money. These people will get a kick out of seeing their native tongue
depicted on screen.
4. Preview-Review: Teachers and paraprofessionals are used in Preview-Review
because they share a common language as students. Preparation for a class
begins with a class summary in the student's primary language. English is then
used to teach the lesson. Ultimately, it's assessed in its native tongue. Who cares
if you don't know the kids' native tongue? You can alter Preview-Review by
allowing students to study the topic in their native language before the actual
presentation. Then you can instruct your students in English. As a last step, the
reviewers should express themselves in their own tongue. Before beginning a
new unit of study, some teachers would send home information about it with their
students' families, encouraging them to speak with their children about the
material at home. One more approach to customize Preview-Review is to do this.
5.Cognates: Cross-linguistically related words are known as cognates.
Whenever possible, teach cognates. For example, nose (English) and nos
(Serbian). Cognate relationships may seem clear, but not to all pupils. Students
will become more aware of cognates as they start to see the connection between
two languages.

Conclusion
When it comes to classroom discussions, professors often ask pupils to talk only
in English during the class time period. Usually, they're just trying to be helpful.
Their goal is for students to improve their English skills. It is in their best interest
for them to improve their English skills. They encourage kids to succeed both in
and out of the classroom. While language is an important part of our identities, if
we advise someone they can't speak their original language, what signal are we
sending? A safe, pleasant, and welcoming environment can be created by
communicating ideas that tells students they are appreciated and that they are
part of a community.
None of us can switch off a language that has already been implanted into them.
A second-language student would have access to their primary language in the
classroom, regardless of whether or not their teacher authorized it. Because of
this, we are stifling our students' cognitive growth as information learners and
thinkers. Assimilation, rather than cultural assimilation, is also encouraged by
this. Being assimilated means becoming like everybody else and destroying one's
individuality. In contrast, acculturation acknowledges both cultures and depicts
bicultural life, while assimilation is subtractive in nature.

14
Introduction to Language learning theory

To work in class
Video Quiz
Supporting cultural and linguistics diversity in early childhood
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWg-ZrV3wPk
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

2.4 Subtopic 4: Interference, avoidance and

error analysis

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If you're interested in learning about how people acquire and use their second
language (L2), you'll want to read up on second language acquisition research.
The study was conducted using a range of methodologies and conceptual
approaches. Contrastive Analysis, Transfer Analysis, Error Analysis, and
Interlanguage are four methodologies that tend to share the same focus,
namely the competence of learners in their target language, particularly errors
made by those individuals who are learning the language. Evolutionary stages
of theories that attempt to understand and explain the nature of learners' L2
performance are represented by these four strategies. The views of each
hypothesis are slightly different, but they all share a common thread. In terms of
their focus on and attitude toward learners' achievement, especially their errors,
the most apparent contrasts exist. Nonetheless, they all appear to have the
same purpose in mind, which is to aid in the learning or teaching of L2 by
analyzing mistakes made by learners. As a whole, these four fields of study
methodology three distinct stages that lead to a single goal:

This paper focuses on the conceptual framework of the four research

instruments stated in L2 acquisition research and how well they are related to
one another. Five key sections make up the presentation.

15
Introduction to Language learning theory

Contrastive Analysis hypothesis

It is possible to express the contrastive analysis hypothesis in two ways: a

strong version and a weak one. Lado (1957: IV) asserts that the strategy of the
book appears to be based on the supposition that we can anticipate and define
the habits that will cause learning disability, and those that will not create
difficulties, by trying to compare methodically the language of the host to be
managed to learn with the born and bred culture and language of the students.
In the contrast between native and foreign language, those aspects that are
related to the mother tongue will be easy for him, and those components that
are distinct will be tough in foreign language learning (1957: 1- 2).

It is possible to compare and contrast one language's system with another's

structure in order to foresee challenges, design instructional materials, and
assist learners in learning a second language. The key points underpin CA,
according to Lee (1968: 186), who says: (1) that intervention from the learners'
native language is the main cause, or even the direct cause, of complexity and
error in foreign-language learning; (2) that the challenges are primarily or wholly
caused by between both languages; (3) that the more severe the distinctions,
the more complicated it will be to learn the new language.

Wardhaugh has presented a weakened version of the bill (1970). No priori

assumption of complexity (strong version) is implied in the weaker variant.
While acknowledging the importance of language interference, it also
acknowledges that such interference exists and can as to. Furthermore, an
inference explanations for linguistic issues are acknowledged. The teacher can
use his expertise of the goal and local tongues to identify the source of faults as
the learner progresses through the language.

Error analysis

A method to the analysis of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) that includes

an internal culture on learners' creative ability to produce language is called
error analysis (Saville- Troike 2006: 38). Learning errors and the data they
provide for interpreting SLL or SLA processes are the core focus of EA.
Language learners' mistakes can be seen as windows into their brains (Saville-
Troike 2006: 39) because they reveal the form of language that a learner is
employing and the tactics or methods he or she is employing in his or her
"discovery of the language" at any given time. It is through errors that students
can "test their hypotheses about the second language," which "inform the
instructor what needs to be educated, indicate the researcher how acquisition
progresses, and are a mechanism by which learners test their ideas" (James
1998: 12). Learner language methods, investigations of learner contemplations,
case analysis, diary experiments, classroom observations, and research
designs can be used to infer the learners' learning processes or learning
methods (Long 1990).

16
Introduction to Language learning theory

Interlanguage

EA research is increasingly embracing interlanguage as a method for studying

the language of second language learners. It was coined by Selinker (1977;
1997) in order to emphasize that the learner's linguistic knowledge is neither
that of the original language nor that of the mother tongue. Both are present in
the learner's system of language acquisition. A continuous between the
learner's starting understanding and the L2 framework, which includes the TL,
allows us to claim that at any specific instance in the learner's L2 learning, the
learner communicates ILs.

If interlanguage is a natural language, then Selinker's IL thesis holds true. A

learner's endeavor to build a linguistic forms that gradually approaches the
target language (TL) can be seen in interlanguage. Internal techniques that
students use to construct meaning of and control their production evolve with
time. Selinker views IL through the lens of these techniques. The NL and the TL
are thought to have influenced the emergence of IL as a result of cross-
pollination. There are a few similarities between it and the other one.

According to Sridhar (1990: 107-108), the term IL seems to be appropriate

because it encapsulates the definite status of the learner's system among his
NL and TL, it shows the typical advancement with which learner's language
evolves and it concentrates on language which explicitly recognizes standardize
of the learner's achievement, from the learner's perspective.

Additionally, Sharwood Smith (1994: 7) expressly defines it as the methodical

linguistic conduct in students of a secondary or other tongue; in other terms,
pupils of non-native languages (p. 7). As a follow-up, he claims that the term
language in IL implies an autonomous system, but inter implies that this edition
is designed to be an intermediate step in the user's linguistic growth, which
makes sense. Indeed, it demonstrates that students have their own unique take
on how to speak the target language, which is separate from both their native
tongue and the target language itself. In place of natural languages, IL is an
autonomous system that has unique qualities.

Conclusion

It is becoming more accepted in EA literature that the study of bilingualism, the

language of second language learners, is becoming more accepted. Both the
learner's primary language and their intended target language are regarded to
be distinct in interlanguage. It changes over time as individuals use different
methods to acquire the language they are studying. In Selinker's view, such
tactics are essential. As a result of students' attempts to construct target
language systems, interlanguage results. Code switching, transmission of
training, methods of second language acquisition, techniques of second

20
17
Introduction to Language learning theory

language interaction, and overgeneralization are the five stages he suggests for
second language acquisition.

To work in class
Video Quiz
Error analysis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JrNPvetWF1w
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

18
Introduction to Language learning theory

2. Preguntas de comprensión de
la unidad
1. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 1?

What are 2 kinds of motivation according to the authors?

Internal and external motivation

2. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 2?

What are language attitudes?

People's opinions toward other languages and their own are referred to as
language attitudes

3. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 3?

How is stereotyping perceived?

Stereotyping is usually associated with a negative mindset towards to the
language or culture in question.

4. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 4?

How are PLS and bilingual education different?

PLS and bilingual instruction are distinct in that multilingual instruction uses the
student's primary language as the medium of instruction.

5. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 5?

What is error analysis?

A method to the analysis of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) that includes an
internal culture on learners' creative ability to produce language is called error
analysis

19
Introduction to Language learning theory

3. Material complementario
Los siguientes recursos complementarios son sugerencias para que se pueda
ampliar la información sobre el tema trabajado, como parte de su proceso de
aprendizaje autónomo:

Videos de apoyo:
Factors influencing academic performance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7HkTd_jNXSY
Socio cultural factors in SLA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WcW1ohhSYjo
Supporting cultural diversity https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWg-ZrV3wPk
Error analysis https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JrNPvetWF1w

Bibliografía de apoyo:
Nation, I. S. P., Macalister, J. (2010). Language curriculum design. New York,
NY: Routledge.
Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2012). Methodology in language teaching:
An anthology of current practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Links de apoyo:
Link 1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?si=jUqchdIB-
5lZPfpG&v=E9ogLh3megQ&feature=youtu.be

Link 2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TXaZgj7tWbg

Link 3 https://youtu.be/D_PMVZY2Cz8?si=F69Sjz4VX7PtcYsp

20
Introduction to Language learning theory

4. Bibliografía
» Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (Eds.). (2013). The handbook of bilingualism
and multilingualism (Second edition). Wiley-Blackwell.

» Curzan, A., Adams, M. (2013). How English works: A linguistic

introduction.Pearson Education.

» Gonzalez, V. (2019). Primary Language Support in General Education

Classrooms. Seidlitz Education.
https://seidlitzblog.org/2019/07/10/primary- language-support-in-general-
education-classrooms/

» Kovacevic, V., Spetic, M., & Pleslic, M. (2018). Language as a social

phenomenon in a global context: Implications for teaching practice. New
Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences, 5(3),
173– 182. https://doi.org/10.18844/prosoc.v5i3.3922

» Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2013). Second language learning
theories (Third edition). Routledge.

» Nation, I. S. P., Macalister, J. (2010). Language curriculum design. New

York, NY: Routledge.

» Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2012). Methodology in language

teaching: An anthology of current practice. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

» Saffran, J. R., Senghas, A., & Trueswell, J. C. (2001). The acquisition of

language by children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
98(23), 12874– 12875. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.231498898

» Sogutlu, Enriketa. (2014). Review on the changing role of grammar

teaching in second language instruction. Beder University Journal of
Educational Sciences. 5. 137-144.

21
Learning experiences : English Language adquisition
and Bilingualism
UNIDAD 2
Facts to consider about human learning when acquiring a language
 ÍNDICE

1. Unidad 2: Facts to consider about human learning when acquiring a language .. 3

Tema 2: Former theories and hypothesis in language learning 3

Objetivo 3

Introducción: 3

2. Información de los subtemas 4

2.1 Subtema 1: Theories of Second language acquisition.Theory in the second language

classroom 4

2.2 Subtema 2 : Learning factors in the second language classroom. Critical period hypothesis ,
cognitive processes 12

3 Preguntas de Comprensión de la Unidad 19

4 Material Complementario 20

5 Bibliografía 21

2
Introduction to Language learning theory

1. U nit 2: Facts to consider

about human learning when
acquiring a language
2. Topic 1: Former theories and hypothesis in
language learning
Objetive:
Identify and describe theories of second language acquisition and its connections
to each other. Describe some learning factors in the second language classroom
and its effects in the process of language development.

Introduction:
Many of the most fundamental questions about second language learning and
language acquisition in general can be found in the discussion out over critical
period hypothesis. The fundamentals of linguistics, cognitive psychology, and
neurolinguistics are based on these issues. Do environmental factors influence
language learning, or is there an internal bioprogram that governs it? Is the
processing of languages mutually accessible, or do they exist in separate mental
representations? When it comes to the acquisition of a second language, is the
process of translation legitimate? Many fundamental questions about human
language learning can be partially answered by analyzing the role that age plays.
According to this logic, the responses to questions about how the human brain
processes language are logically consistent with those of second-language
learners. If one accepts the hypothesis of a critical period in second language
acquisition, one has to be cautious. Starting with the assumptions that no such
restriction exists is a necessary step in the research process.

There is no method to know how long it will take someone to learn a language
because it isn't a linear process, like many SLA models suggest. Although many
theories have been proposed to explain SLA, many only consider the acquisition
of syntactic structures while neglecting other equally important aspects of SLA's
development.

3
Introduction to Language learning theory

1. Subtopics information
2.1 Subtopic 1: Theories of second language
acquisition . Theory in the second language
classroom Factors influencing academic
performance

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Behaviourism

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The stimulus-response (S-R) theory emerged from behaviorism,

which views language acquisition as a process of forming habits
rather than as a discrete event. As an example, it considers the
linguistic atmosphere and the stimulation it generates. Learning
is a noticeable attitude that is learned through mechanical
repetition of a stimulation and a reaction. In other words, learning

4
Introduction to Language learning theory

a language entail developing the automaticity of one's speech. In

Johnson's view(2004) , behaviorism was based on the idea that
learning was a matter of inferential structure of the model of rule-
governed actions from examples given by the learner's
surrounding. If you're looking for a model to explain SLA, you're
better off looking elsewhere, according to Larsen-Freeman, Long,
and their colleagues. Contrastive analysis, particularly error
analysis with the intervention of first language as the central
objective, was born out of this perspective on language learning.
Because comparisons both first and second language did not
adequately clarify or define how learners' language evolved,
interlanguage studies were born. Other SLA points of view
include interlanguage studies because the focus has been on
grammatical morphemes and specific linguistic forms.
Acculturation.
Schumann has another hypothesis that focuses on the
surroundings. With six learners (two children, two adolescents,
and two adults), Schumann (1978) conducted a long- term study
of some syntactic aspects using questionnaires and observation
of spontaneous conversation over a ten-month period. He
discovered that the subject who learned the least English was the
one who was the most isolated from the TL team in terms of both
social and psychological distance.
Acculturation, defined by him as the emotional - cultural inclusion
of the beginner with the chosen language (TL) group, is what
leads to SLA, in his opinion. To be effective in second language
acquisition, students must be closer in social and psychological
proximity to voices of the second language, according to an
acculturation approach.
Universal Grammar Hypothesis
According to Chomsky's followers, the universal grammar (UG)
theory is a capacity for leadership is inherent foundation that can
be used to explain SLA. Chomsky (1976) is fascinated by

5
Introduction to Language learning theory

language and believes that it serves as a window into the mind of

the speaker. Despite the fact that he is uninterested in SLA, his
work has had an impact on research in our area. Every person is
born with a system of language, according to hisconcept.
According to the UG theory, the contribution from the surrounding
is inadequate to explain how children pick up new languages.
Additionally, if it starts to turn out the L2 learner acquires non-
input-dependent abstract characteristics like grammatical
structures, White says this clearly suggests UG principles limits
L2 interlanguage grammar acquisition, which is similar to the
case of L1 acquisition. Rather than considering the student as a
social being, Mitchel and Myles (2004) inform us that the
universal grammar approach only considers the learner as a
processor of a brain that includes language. An important part of
theory-supported research employs studies that focus on
grammar and acceptability evaluations.

Comprehension Hypothesis

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Krashen (1987), inspired by Chomsky's belief that language is an inborn quality,

developed an impactful proposal that emphasizes the difference between
learning and acquisition to explain SLA. He first referred to it as a monitor model,
then as a theory, and finally as a comprehension assumption, which emphasizes
the role of the mental process in learning. In Krashen's view, the Comprehension
Hypothesis is closely linked with other hypotheses.

6
Introduction to Language learning theory

Not consciously, but subliminally, according to the Comprehension Hypothesis,

people gain knowledge. The occurrence of sentence rules in a predefined
sequence is the result of offering acquirers with understandable input. The parts
of the brain responsible for language acquisition will not receive input if they are
blocked by a motivational filter, such as extreme anxiety.
As a result of this model, Krashen claims that the acquisition of grammatical
structure occurs sequentially, establishing a cause-and-effect relationship among
input and acquisition. Furthermore, his concept does not go far beyond the
obtaining of grammatical structures, as in the other studies described so far.
Krashen's model is based on a lack of research. According to Cook(1993) , it
makes perfect sense in its own aspects but cannot be verified. SLA is a social
practice, then the next three concepts fall under the umbrella of Interactionist SLA
concepts.
Interaction Hypothesis

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Besides Krashen's Input Hypothesis and Hatch's Interaction Hypothesis, there

are several other theories that have been put forth to describe SLA. SLA cannot
be explained solely based on the information provided by the user, according to
Hatch (1978). Theargument put forth by Hatch is that students should first learn
structures before applying them in speech. She mulls over the reversal of
events as an option. It is through this interaction that syntactic frameworks are
developed as one learns to converse and interact verbally

Based on the results of an empirical study, Long (1981) found that in

conversations among both native and non-native speakers, changes in
interaction occur more frequently than changes in the native speakers' input. He
doesn't deny the importance of modified input, but he asserts that effective SLAs
continuously have interactions that have been tweaked. When the NS or more
proficient interlocutor is involved in the negotiation of meaning, it enables
obtaining because it links insight, internal learner aptitudes, notably attention
control, and output in useful ways.

7
 Introduction to Language learning theory

Larsen-Freeman (1991) argue that interactionist views are more effective than
other theories because they activate both instinctive and external variables to
demonstrate language learning. They were the first to see language as more than
just a collection of grammatical rules and rules of syntax. The interactionist
research is based on data gathered from either free or regulated dialogue.

Output hypothesis or Lingualization

Furthermore, Swain (1995) argues in favor of lingualization , an alternate solution
to Krashen's radical view on the role of input. For SLA, she argues, going to
practice the language is important because it allows students to observe their
own production. O output may induce students to take from the semantic, open-
ended non-deterministic, strategic production common in comprehension to the
complete linguistic processing necessary for efficient production. If you can't say
what you're thinking, you'll realize that you don't know what you're talking about.
Besides highlighting the importance of noticing, she theorizes that output serves
two other purposes: inferential analysis and triggering reflection, both of which
© Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI

serve as forms of metalinguistic function. Negotiation is about the relationship

between significance they are attempting to convey and the language form, as
she discusses and learners may produce just to see what tends to work and what
doesn't.

As far as research is more concerned, tests with control groups, pre- and post-
tests have been used in this viewpoint. Also, Swain and Lapkin (1995) used think-
aloud as a means of observing how output affected learners' mental processes

Sociocultural theory

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Language learning according to sociocultural theory (SCT), based on Vygotskian

ideas, is an integrated and interdependent process. Mediating social and
psychological activities is a basic aspect and language is a cultural symbol. Using
a sociological perspective, Mitchell and Myles (2004) argue that children's early

8
Introduction to Language learning theory

language learning is a result of cooperative groups with other members of a

particular culture. Lantof and Thorne (2007) claim that SLA can benefit from some
aspects of social cognition theory (SCT). According to them, it is based on a
perspective that doesn't distinguish the individual from the social, and instead
claims to argue that the person arises from social contact and, as such, is always
essentially a social person. The language learner observes and mimics others'
use of language in the real world. Students progress through the stages of
learning with the help of other social actors.

Scaffolding is a key concept from Vygotsky, and it refers to the help that a learner
receives from another person (such as a teacher, a relative, a fellow student) in
order to complete a learning task. As part of collaborative learning research,
audio and video recordings of classrooms and peer interactions have been used
to gather data on this topic. There are also guidelines for recollection and
discussions used.
Connectionism
The innate scholarship hypothesis is rejected in favor of cognitive models and
data processing as a means of explaining SLA. A common set of behaviors isn't
necessarily a direct reflection of our genes, according to Elman (1996). Neural
networks are used to model all forms of learning. In a Parallel Distributed
Processing (1986), the networks discover which links are stronger and which are
weaker over time. Repeating and preparation of previous experiences are key
components in the process of learning a new language. Our neural apparatus is
extremely dynamic in its initial state, but when it comes to SLA, it is no longer a
plastic system; it is already tailored and dedicated to the L1 at this point. He goes
on to say that in the L2 situation, types of low meaningfulness may be banned by
prior L1 experience and that all the additional contribution in the world may not
outcome in improvement.
Connectionism, in contrast to behaviorism, assumes that some thought
processes can happen concurrently or in parallel, and that understanding is
dispersed among the various connections. As a result, rather than taking place in
this phase, learning takes place in parallel, that is, in various parts of the brain at
the very same time.
Emergentism, a philosophical and scientific tradition inspired by complexity
research, can be used to situate connectionism and other attempts to explain
SLA. Evolving language representations are the result of interactions at all stages
from brain to culture, according to Ellis (1998). A simple learning method, working
in and across the human systems for perception, motor-action, and
comprehension as they are subjected to language data as part of a social
surroundings, suffices to drive the beginnings of complex language depictions,
according to him.

9
Introduction to Language learning theory

To work in class
Video Quiz
Second language theories and perspectives
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WVcNZFzW3EU
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

10
Introduction to Language learning theory

2.2 Subtopic 2: Learning factors in the second

language classroom . Critical period
hypothesis , cognitive processes

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Critical period hypothesis

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What kind of proof would be needed to prove that a certain time period was
critical? Consider the following three definitions that have been presented:
In some cases, specific experiences (or the absence of those experiences) can
have a significant impact on the structure or function in the future if they occur at
the right time in the life cycle according to Bomstein (1989)
Normal growth of an organism necessitates the occurrence of specific external
factors at specific times during its development (Gazaniga,1992).
A maturational change in the capacity to study with a maximum in learning at
some consistently improve definable period and a decrease in the ability to learn,

11
Introduction to Language learning theory

given the same exposure beyond this period of growth and development
(Newport,1991)
When learning a second language, it is important to consider how linguistic and
cognitive factors, as well as age, interact with each other. Before we can play, we
must first understand the rules. What are we attempting to convey here? What
does it mean to be fluent in a foreign language?
During the 1950s, Dizzy Dean, a baseball announcer, used the phrase "He slood
into second base" to describe a variety of plays. In his home state of Arkansas,
dialects like these were the norm, even among native English speakers like Mr.
Dean.
What does it mean to be a native English speaker? Despite how extreme this
situation may appear, it is only a step in a continuum of language variation
Second language acquisition research assumes that the learner is striving for
some stated goal, a basic and ideal model of the language that is exemplified in
the minds of every native speaker. As Chomsky (1957) establish statistical this
idealistic view as linguistic competence, he quickly discounted the probability
that it would ever be generated by real speakers (Chomsky himself included)
because of the sobering reality of performance that inhibits mortal humans from
accomplishing that level of perfection. The argument goes that judgments can
be created purely on competence, whereas performances cannot, which is why
most linguistic research is focused on speaker judgments. The runner has
arrived at second base, but how would Mr. Dean evaluate his own sentence?
It's true that native speakers aren't always 100% accurate when it comes to
making decisions. When we talk about "native-like" aptitude in a
secondlanguage, what do we mean? At all scales, this problem of defining a
standard linguistic form is most apparent in phonology.

Problems with scope and generalizability abound in addition to determining an

appropriate criterion for correctness. A local assessment is used to draw
conclusions about a person's general expertise or proficiency in a particular
language. To what extent can such assertions be substantiated? The hypothesis
being tested plays a large role in this. There should be specific predictions that
can be tested by analyzing linguistic structures based on a theory about second
language acquisition. It is possible to support these theories by a few discrete
language features. Many elements of language proficiency may be necessary to
support a theory of a critical time period.
An inherent conflict exists among both the need to select measures that are solely
focused on theoretical dimensions of interest and the need to use indicators that
are globally applicable and environmentally valid.
Grammatical rules that don't necessitate a formal grammatical theory are another
type of outcome.
There were 12 rule types examined by Johnson and Newport (1989), including
past tense, plurals and the third-person singular verb.

12
Introduction to Language learning theory

Grammar rules were broken by negating the required morpheme, substituting an

inappropriate morpheme for the required morpheme, making an irregular item
regular, or applying a "regular marking" to an irregularly marked item.
Nonlinguistic models based on the cognitive analysis can also discuss these
rules, which are part of an overall theory of abstract grammar. As a result, the
results defined by these rules are ambiguous in terms of the phenomenon's
language selectivity.

Following that, a broad assessment of proficiency will be made. The overall

syntactic proficiency of tape-recorded stories by second language learners was
rated by trained judges, for example, in Patkowski (1980). Fluency was also
assessed by listening to tape- recorded narratives and judging how smoothly they
flowed. Raters' opinions of learners' level of foreign accent have been solicited
by Bongaerts, Planken and Schils (1995). Overall language proficiency is
evaluated in these studies, which is the closest thing we have to a commonsense
description of language proficiency.

Ratings and criteria used to create them can be brought into question for their
scientific authority, but evaluations have high ecological validity. They are
therefore reliable.

Cognitive processes

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And for those intellectuals who regard language as a separate unit, ruled by
domain- specific principles and attained through dedicated methods, it spills over
into the realm of cognition at every turn. To be sure, it was Chomsky (1957) who
turned linguistics into a cognitive problem, igniting what has come to be called as
the "cognitive revolution" in psychological theory. Nevertheless, what role does
cognition play in the debate over whether or not there is a crucial period for
learning a second language?

13
Introduction to Language learning theory

Despite the fact that some aspects of language learning and usage may be
governed by inherent principles, such specialized modules are clearly out of
reach. Literacy, for example, has a lasting effect on children's understanding of
language because of this. Phonological structure is more complex for children
who learn to read in alphabetic script, and all children, regardless of the language
they are learning to read, advance rapidly in metalinguistic concepts as literacy
is formed (Adams, 1990). To the degree that literacy plays a role in second
language acquisition, cognitive rather than linguistic mechanisms must be
considered. Despite the paucity of research, some generalizations can be drawn
about the importance of literacy in second language acquisition. For example,
literate, or older, students can benefit from instructional methods not obtainable
to preliterate or younger students. Distinct methods of teaching could have an
impact on students' proficiency. Language acquisition outcomes may also be
influenced by the literacy level of the learner. Immigration is a common population
for historical studies because of differences in learners' levels of literacy, access
to written texts, and other factors that affect their level of proficiency. If you're a
kid, you'll probably attend school in your host language and learn about literate
grammar forms by reading books. They might not be available to some older
learners, especially those who lack strong literacy cultures. Immigrants who
received education where the target language was taught were likely to
outperform their parents in terms of educational attainment. As a result, simple
age-related differences in ultimate proficiency can't be used to identify the
underlying causes of these differences.

For one thing, differences in performance that can be traced back to different
assessment methods demonstrate cognitive impacts on assessments of second
language proficiency rather than the collection of the data itself. When Johnson
(1992) replicated a study by and Newport (1989), he used written presentation
rather than the original oral format to give the same phrases to the same
attendees. There were fewer structures in which age differences were relevant,
and participants performed at a higher level overall. To put it another way, the
evidence for age-related differences in learning depended not only on which
structures were being examined, but also on the testing mode.

The studies by Bialystok and Miller also found this modality difference, with
written presentations eliciting higher performance levels than presentations
(1998). What could be the reason for this? Literacy may also play a role in the
findings here, as well.
A better understanding of the role played by the testing method is required before
the results can properly attribute the explanatory power of age.
Age-related changes in proficiency can only be explained partly by changes in
general cognitive mechanisms, if second language acquisition is controlled by
cognitive processes that are not unique to language learning modules. In order
to explain the decline in proficiency with age of acquisition, these general

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Introduction to Language learning theory

cognitive mechanisms must also deteriorate in their efficiency or effectiveness.

Studies on lifespan cognition have found evidence of just such a decline (Schaie
& Willis, 19.91).

Compared to younger learners, older learners were more sensitive to timing

factors in the presentation of the material and needed longer intervals to recall
identical pairs (Craik, 1986). They were also more cautious and less likely to
respond if they weren't certain that their answer was correct (Birkhill & Schaie,
1975). Long-term memory encoding also took longer for older students, and they
needed more trials in learning the list (Rabinowitz & Craik, 1986). A decline in the
ability to remember specific details occurs throughout the lifespan, and as
learners get older they tend to remember only the main points (Hultsch & Dixon,
1990). Cognitive decline is something that happens to everyone at some point in
their lives. So the loss of these abilities would have an impact on one's ability to
learn a foreign language. However, these functions are gradually deteriorating
over time. No one has ever proposed that memory and cognition have a window
of opportunity. The decline in ultimate aptitude in a second language should also
be progressive and constant if age-related changes in ultimate language
proficiency are to be attributed to these cognitive changes and not to a specific
language module that is confined by a maturational timeline.
If, on the other hand, age-related changes in ultimate proficiency are a reflection
of a critical period for second language acquisition, competency should show an
inconsistency at a certain point in time, probably around puberty... In order to rule
out the null hypothesis that there is no critical period, a simple discontinuity like
this must be present.
The shape of the function that links expert in a specific to age of language learning
and the role other factors play in this relationship are the empirical issues that
reflect these concerns. A sharp break in the relationship among age of learning
and proficiency occurs if there is a critical period; otherwise, the relationship will
be linear. A critical period will determine how important other factors are, but if
there's no critical period, then other factors will play a key role.

To work in class
Video Quiz
Critical period hypothesis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nac-xpkQLPw
Objective: Consolidate the topic discussed in class and work
Closure: Comments on doubts about the class.

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Introduction to Language learning theory

2. Preguntas de comprensión de
la unidad
1. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 1?

What is behaviorism?
It refers to the theory which understands language as a set of structures and
acquisition as a matter of habit formation

2. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 2?

What is acculturation?
The acculturation model argues that learners will be successful in SLA if there
are fewer social and psychologycal distances between them and the speakers of
the second language.

3. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 3?

What is the UG hypothesis?

Every human being is biologically endowed with a language faculty, the language
acquisition device, which is responsible for the initial state of language
development

4. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 4?

What does the Theory of Lingualization refer to?

It refers to the common practicing of the language helps learners observe their
own production, which is essential to SLA.

5. ¿Pregunta de comprensión Nro. 5?

What does connectionism refer to?

Language learning is understood as the processing of experience and the
repetition of experiences causing the strengthening of the connections

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Introduction to Language learning theory

3. Material complementario
Los siguientes recursos complementarios son sugerencias para que se pueda
ampliar la información sobre el tema trabajado, como parte de su proceso de
aprendizaje autónomo:

Videos de apoyo:
Second language theories and perspectives
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WVcNZFzW3EU

Critical period hypothesis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nac-xpkQLPw

Bibliografía de apoyo:
Nation, I. S. P., Macalister, J. (2010). Language curriculum design. New York,
NY: Routledge.
Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2012). Methodology in language teaching:
An anthology of current practice. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Links de apoyo:

Link 1 https://youtu.be/D_PMVZY2Cz8?si=wxctW2eHTVAHxOHf

Link 2 https://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/tpls/vol02/05/22.pdf

Link 3
https://www.academia.edu/37853031/Factors_influencing_Second_Language_
Acquisition

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Introduction to Language learning theory

4. Bibliografía
» Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. C. (Eds.). (2013). The handbook of bilingualism
and multilingualism (Second edition). Wiley-Blackwell.

» Birdsong, D. (2014). Second language acquisition and the critical period

hypothesis. Routledge.

» Menezes, V. (2013). Second Language Acquisition: Reconciling Theories.

Open Journal of Applied Sciences, 03(07), 404–412.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojapps.2013.37050

» Mitchell, R., Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2013). Second language learning
theories (Third edition). Routledge.

» Richards, J. C., & Renandya, W. A. (2012). Methodology in language

teaching: An anthology of current practice. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

» Saffran, J. R., Senghas, A., & Trueswell, J. C. (2001). The acquisition of

language by children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
98(23), 12874– 12875. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.231498898

» Singleton, N. C., & Shulman, B. B. (Eds.). (2014). Language development:

Foundations, processes, and clinical applications (2nd ed). Jones &
Bartlett Learning.
http://samples.jbpub.com/9781284022070/9781449685041_ch12_printer
.pdf

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