Mass

• Mass is the amount of matter that makes up an object.

• A golf ball and a ping pong ball are the same size, but the golf ball has a lot more matter in it. So the golf ball will have
more mass.
• The mass of an object will not change unless we add or subtract matter from it.
Weight
• Weight is a measure of the force of gravity on an object.
• Your weight can change depending on the force of gravity. The gravity will change depending on the planet you are on.
Volume
• Volume is the amount of space contained in an object.
• We can find the volume of box shapes by the formula Volume = length x width x height
• In this case the units would be cubic centimeters (cm3).
• So a box 2 cm x 3 cm x 5 cm would have a volume of 30 cm3
Liquid Volume
• When the metric system was created, they decided that 1 cm3 of water would equal 1 milliliter of water and the 1 mL
of water will have a mass of one gram.
• 1cm3 water =1 ml of water = 1 gram
Water displacement
• We can use water displacement to find the volume of objects that are not boxed shaped.
• We can put water in a graduated cylinder. If a rock causes the level to rise from 7 to 9 ml, the the rock must have a
volume of 2-mL.
Density
• Density is the amount of matter (mass) compared to the amount of space (volume) the object occupies.
• We will measure mass in grams and volume in ml or cm3
• Density is mass divided by volume.
• Density = mass/volume
Buoyancy is a force
• Buoyancy is a measure of the upward force a fluid exerts on an object that is submerged.
Volume and buoyancy
• The strength of the buoyant force on an object in water depends on the volume of the object that is underwater.
Archimedes’ Principal
• In the third century BC, a Greek mathematician named Archimedes realized that buoyant force is equal to the weight of
fluid displaced by an object.
• A simple experiment can be done to measure the buoyant force on a rock with a spring scale when it is immersed in
water.
Weight and buoyancy
• Weight is a force, like any other pushing or pulling force, and is caused by Earth’s gravity.
• It is easy to confuse mass and weight, but they are not the same.
• Weight is the downward force of gravity acting on mass.
Sinking and floating
• In air the buoyant force on the rock is 29.4 N.
• When the rock was submerged, the scale read 19.6 N.
• The difference is a force of 9.8 N, exactly the amount of force the displaced water exerts.
Buoyancy explains why some objects sink and others float.
• Whether an object sinks or floats depends on how the buoyant force compares with the weight.
• If an object weighs more than the weight of the water it displaces, it will sink. If the object weighs less, it will float
Density and buoyancy
• If you know an object’s density you can quickly predict whether it will sink or float.
• Density and buoyancy
• When they are completely underwater, both balls have the same buoyant force because they displace the same volume
of water.
Boats and apparent density
• Apparent density determines whether an object sinks or floats.
Apparent Density
• An object with an apparent density GREATER than the density of water will sink.
• An object with an apparent density LESS than the density of water will float.
Buoyancy, volume, temperature, and pressure of gases
• A hot-air balloon floats because the air inside is less dense than the air outside.
• The balloon example illustrates an important relationship, known as Charles’s law, discovered by Jacques Charles in
1787.
So how can a ship float?
• A ship can float because it’s constructed with many air-filled chambers.
• Air, as we all know, weighs less than water
 • So, the combined weight of the air and steel of the ship weighs less than the weight of the water displaced by the ship
• So, the ship floats!
What Happened to the Titanic? It was Archimedes’ Principle!
• The “unsinkable ship” was en route to NYC in 1912
• On April 14, it struck an iceberg
• The collision ripped a huge hole in the hull of the ship, causing the air filled pockets to fill with water
• This added weight became greater than the buoyant force supporting the ship, so it sank. Rapidly.
• About 1500 lives were lost
• An object sinks when the weight of the object is greater than the buoyant force that supports it (quarter)
• An object floats when its weight is less than the buoyant force that supports it (Aluminum foil)
• Archimedes’ Principle is that the BF=weight of object in air-weight of object in water or the BF=the weight of liquid
displaced=loss of weight in liquid
• Icebergs float.
• 90% of the iceberg is underwater
• They are made of freshwater not saltwater

What is Pascal’s Principle?

A change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted without loss, to all
points in the fluid. What causes pressure and change in pressure in fluids?
FORCE IS APPLIED TO THE NARROW PISTON AND THE FORCE WILL BE TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE FLUID TO THE OTHER
PISTON. THE FORCE IS ALWAYS MULTIPLIED ON THE LARGER AREA.
What technology uses Pascal’s principle?
 Hydraulic pumps and other devices
 Construction machines
 Car hydraulics
 Car lifts
 Elevators

P = F2
1 (pi) d2^ 2 / 4
F2 (1) = P [ (pi) d2^ 2 / 4 ]
Sqrt 4 F2 = d2
P (pi)

Bernoulli's principle
• Bernoulli's principle has many important applications, including fluid-flow implications in biological systems such as
blood through blood vessels.
Snoring
• A snoring sound occurs when air moving through the narrow opening above the soft palate at the back of the roof of
the mouth has lower pressure than nonmoving air below the palate.
• The normal air pressure below the soft palate, where the air is not moving, pushes the palate closed.
• When airflow stops, the pressures equalize
and the passage reopens.
Bernoulli's equation
• Bernoulli's equation is the quantitative version of
Bernoulli's principle:
Torricelli’s Theorem
 States that the speed at which the fluid comes out is the same as the speed of a
body falling from rest from the height.

Measuring blood pressure

• The air is slowly released from the cuff, decreasing the pressure.
• When the pressure in the cuff is equal to the systolic pressure, blood starts to
squeeze through the artery past the cuff.
• The flow is intermittent and turbulent and causes a sound heard with the stethoscope.
• When the pressure decreases to less than the diastolic pressure, the artery is continually open and blood flow is laminar
and makes no sound.

Poiseuille's law

The pressure difference is related to the resistance of the fluid to the flow and to the net push on the fluid related to the flow
rate Q.

Viscosities of some liquids and gases

Limitations of Poiseuille's law: Reynolds number

Blowing the roof off a house

 Roofs can be blown from houses during tornadoes or hurricanes. How does that happen?
  On a windy day, the air inside the house is not moving, whereas the air outside the house is moving
very rapidly.
 The air pressure inside the house is greater than the air pressure outside, creating a net pressure
against the roof and windows that pushes outward.

Dislodging plaque

 The physical principles of a roof being lifted from a house also explain how plaque can become dislodged from
the inner wall of an artery.
 The plaque may block a considerable portion of the area where blood normally flows. The kinetic
energy density is much greater in the constricted area.
 This pressure differential could cause the plaque to be pulled off the wall and tumble downstream,
causing a blood clot.

Example 11.7

Blood flows through the unobstructed part of a blood vessel at a speed of 0.50 m/s. The blood then flows past a plaque that
constricts the cross-sectional area to one-ninth the normal value. The surface area of the plaque parallel to the direction of
2 –5 2
blood flow is about 0.60 cm = 6.0 x 10 m . Estimate the net force that the fluid exerts on the plaque.

Reynolds number

An equation can be used to decide whether the flow of a fluid past an object is laminar or turbulent:

If the Reynolds number is more than 1, the flow is turbulent and we cannot use Stokes's law.

In the case of turbulent flow, we use this equation:

DRAG COEFFICIENT

SHAPE DRAG COEFFICIENT

SPHERE 0.47
HALF – SPHERE 0.42
CONE 0.50
CUBE 1.05
ANGLED CUBE 0.80
LONG CYLINDER 0.82
SHORT CYLINDER 1.15
STREAMLINED BODY 0.04
STREAMLINED HALF - BODY 0.09

SHAPE EFFECTS ON DRAG

SHAPE Cd
FLAT PLATE 1.28
PRISM 1.14
BULLET .295
SPHERE .07 to .5
AIRFOIL .045
 All objects have the same frontal area

Drag force

Now we focus on solid objects moving through a fluid.

Examples: a swimmer moving through water, a skydiver falling through the air, and a car traveling through air

The fluid in these and in other cases exerts a resistive drag force on the object moving through the fluid.

So far we have been neglecting this force in our mechanics problems.

Laminar drag force and Stokes's law

If an object moves relatively slowly through a fluid, the water flows around the object in streamline laminar flow, with no
turbulence. However, the fluid does exert a drag force on the object.

The equation expressing this relationship is called Stokes's law:

Flow rate and fluid speed

Flow rate is defined as the volume V of fluid that moves through a cross section of a pipe divided by the time interval Δt during
which it moved:

The SI unit of flow rate is m3/s.

Relationship between flow rate and speed of the moving fluid

The darkened volume of fluid passes a cross section of area A along the pipe.

The back part of this fluid volume has, in effect, moved forward to this position.

The fluid flow rate is:

This leads to:

Continuity equation
The flow rate past cross section 1 will equal that past cross section 2.

v1 is the average speed of the fluid passing cross section A1 and v2 is the average speed of the fluid passing cross section A2.

Causes and types of fluid flow

Fluid flow is caused by differences in pressure. When the pressure in one region of the fluid is lower than the pressure in
another region, the fluid tends to flow from the higher-pressure region toward the lower-pressure region.

Streamline flow and turbulent flow

Streamline flow: Every particle of fluid that passes a particular point follows the same path as particles that preceded it.

Turbulent flow: Characterized by agitated, disorderly motion.