Fluid Mechanics

Lecture 07

March 6, 2025
Contents
1. Density and Specific Gravity
2. Pressure
3. Pressure vs. Depth
4. Pascal’s Principle
5. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle
6. Continuity Equation
7. Bernoulli’s Principle
Fluids
• Substances that flow
• Gases and liquids
• ex. water

Almost 60% of the human

body is water, making it
essential for living.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0dHB7lE6SXg

Density of gold > Density of cotton

1. Density and Specific Gravity
𝑚
Density, 𝝆 =
𝑉
▫ A characteristic of a substance, especially in
determining whether it sinks or floats when placed
on top of water
▫ mass (𝑚) per unit volume (𝑉)
𝐤𝐠
▫ SI unit:
𝐦𝟑
g g kg
 1.0 = 1.0 = 1,000
mL cm3 m3

https://lacerdapedro.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/2014-02-27-
density.jpg?w=1200
1. Density and Specific Gravity

http://mrtremblaycambridge.weebly.com/uploads/9/7/8/8/9788395/7116694_orig.png
 Table 12.1 Densities of Various Substances
Substance 𝝆 (kg/m3 ) Substance 𝝆 (kg/m3 ) Substance 𝝆 (kg/m3 )
Solids Liquids Gases
Aluminum 2,700 Water (4℃) 1,000 Air 1.29
Brass 8,440 Blood 1,050 CO2 1.98
Copper (ave) 8,800 Sea water 1,025 CO 1.25
Gold 19,320 Mercury 13,600 Hydrogen 0.09
Iron/steel 7,800 Ethyl alcohol 790 Helium 0.18
Lead 11,300 Petrol 680 Methane 0.72
Polystyrene 100 Glycerin 1,260 Nitrogen 1.25
Tungsten 19,300 Olive oil 920 NO 1.98
Uranium 18,700 Oxygen 1.43
Concrete 3,000 Steam (100℃) 0.60
Cork 240
Ice (0℃) 917
1. Density and Specific Gravity

Example 12.A
A cylindrical container with a diameter of
20.0 cm is filled with liquid to a of height 25 cm.
a. What is the density of the liquid if its mass is
7,222 g?
b. Identify the liquid.
1. Density and Specific Gravity

Example 12.B
A reservoir has a surface area of 50 km2 and
an average depth of 40.0 m. What mass of water is
held behind the dam?
1. Density and Specific Gravity

density of a substance
Specific Gravity =
density of a standard
• Standard for solids and liquids:
kg
▫ water at 4℃ = 1,000 3
m
• Standard for gases:
kg
▫ air at STP (25℃, 1 atm) = 1.29 3
m

Specific Gravity has no units

▫ SG < 1.0 floats
▫ SG > 1.0 sinks
▫ SG = submerged fraction of a
floating object
 https://wallscover.com/images/pressure-wallpaper-17.jpg

𝑭
2. Pressure 𝑷=
𝑨
• Force per unit area
• SI unit: 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 (Pa)
N
▫ 1 Pa = 1
m2
lbf
• English unit: (psi)
in2
• Other units: height or depth of fluid
▫ ex. mm Hg, m H2 O, etc.

http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/images/pressure_cylinder.gif
2. Pressure

Fig. 12.3: Effect of Area on Pressure

2. Pressure

Example 12.C
An astronaut is working outside the
International Space Station where the
atmospheric pressure is essentially zero. The
pressure gauge on her air tank reads 6.90 ×
106 Pa. What force does the air inside the tank
exert on the flat end of the cylindrical tank, which
is a disk 0. 15 m in diameter.
2. Pressure

Fluid Pressure
• Fluids cannot
withstand shearing
(sideways) forces, nor
can they exert
shearing forces
• Fluid pressure has
no direction (a scalar
quantity)
• Forces due to
pressure are always
perpendicular to any
surface
• Pressure is exerted on
all surfaces
2. Pressure

• Pressure is exerted on all sides of the swimmer,

since water flows into the space he occupies if
he were not there.
Fig. 12.5 • The arrows represent the directions and
magnitudes of the forces exerted at various
points on the swimmer.
• The forces are larger underneath, due to greater
depth, giving a net upward (buoyant) force
that is balanced by the weight of the swimmer.
 3. Pressure vs. Depth Relation
Air Water

http://henryaquino.com/the-reason-why-your-ears-pop- http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/graphics/diagrams/forces/spo
when-you-are-in-an-airplane/ uting_can.gif
3. Pressure vs. Depth Relation

The Effect of Change in Pressure

outer middle inner

ear ear ear

external ear
canal Eustachian
ear drum Tube
3. Pressure vs. Depth Relation

Formula derivation:

𝐹 𝑊 𝑚g
𝑃= = =
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝜌𝑉 g 𝜌 𝐴ℎ g
= =
𝐴 𝐴

𝑃 = ℎ𝜌g
▫ Pressure due to the
weight of the fluid
3. Pressure vs. Depth Relation

Example 12.D
A dam is 500 m wide and the
water it contains is 80 m deep.
a. What is the average
pressure on the dam due to
the water?
b. Calculate the force exerted
against the dam and
compare it with the weight
of the water in the dam.
3. Pressure vs. Depth Relation

Atmospheric
Pressure
• Pressure due to the
weight of air above a
given height
• Standard atmospheric
pressure at the earth’s
surface (sea level):
𝑷𝐚𝐭𝐦
= 1 atmosphere atm
N
= 101325 2
m
= 101.325 kPa
3. Pressure vs. Depth Relation

Example 12.E
Calculate the depth below the surface of
water at which the pressure due to the weight of
the water equals 1.0 atm.
 https://i.ytimg.com/vi/Gavh11yN4fw/maxresdefault.jpg

4. Pascal’s Principle

“A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid

is transmitted undiminished to all portions of the
fluid and to the walls of its container.”
4. Pascal’s Principle

Pascal’s Principle
• implies that the total
pressure in a fluid is the
sum of the pressures
from different sources

• the most important

technological application
is in hydraulic systems
(ex. car brakes)
4. Pascal’s Principle

Example 12.F
4. Pascal’s Principle

Example 12.F
Consider the automobile hydraulic system in
Fig. 12.10. A force of 100 N is applied to the break
pedal, which acts on the cylinder – called master
– through a lever. A force of 500 N is exerted on
the master cylinder. Pressure created in the
master cylinder is transmitted to four so-called
slave cylinders. The master cylinder has a
diameter of 0.5 cm, and each slave cylinder has a
diameter of 2.5 cm. Calculate the force 𝐹2 created
at each of the of the slave cylinders.
4. Pascal’s Principle

Conservation of Energy
• a simple hydraulic system can increase force, but
cannot do more work than done on it
• slave cylinders move through smaller distance
than the master cylinder.
• many hydraulic systems (power brakes,
bulldozers) have motorized pump that does most
of the work
• work transfers energy, but work output cannot
exceed work input
5. Buoyancy and
Archimedes’ Principle
• Pressure increases with
depth in a fluid
▫ the upward force on the
bottom of an object in a fluid
is greater than the
downward force on the top
of the object
• Buoyant force (𝑭𝑩 ) is the
net upward force on any
object in a fluid
▫ 𝐹𝐵 > 𝑊𝑜𝑏𝑗 = float
▫ 𝐹𝐵 < 𝑊𝑜𝑏𝑗 = sink
5. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

Fig. 12.11
a. Even objects that sink (ex. anchor) are partly
supported by water when submerged.
b. Submarines have adjustable density (ballast
tanks) so that they may float or sink as desired.
c. Helium-filled balloons tug upward on their strings
due to air’s buoyant effect
5. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

How Do Submarines Work?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yb3e4IegeJ0
5. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

Buoyant Force (𝑭𝑩 ) = net upward force

• 𝐹𝐵 is always present, whether the object floats,
sinks, or is suspended in a fluid
5. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

Archimedes’ Principle: 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑤𝑓𝑙

“The buoyant force (𝐹𝐵 ) on an object equals the
weight of the fluid (𝑤𝑓𝑙 ) it displaces”

Floating and Sinking

• A lump of clay will sink, but clay shaped into a
boat will float.
• The boat shape displaces more water than the
lump and experiences a greater buoyant force.
5. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

Example 12.G
a. Calculate the buoyant force on a 10,000-
metric tons (1 MT = 1 × 103 kg) of solid steel
completely submerged in water, and compare
this with the steel’s weight.
b. What is the maximum buoyant force that water
could exert on this same steel if it were shaped
into a boat that could displace 1 × 105 m3 of
water?
5. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

More Density Measurements

The density of the coin

indicates its authenticity.

An object appears to weight

less when submerged.

apparent weight or mass

loss = weight or mass of
fluid displaced
5. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-archimede/

Archimedes’ Eureka Moment

The local tyrant Hiero contracts
Archimedes to detect fraud in the
manufacture of a golden crown. Hiero
suspects his goldsmith of leaving out some
measure of gold and replacing it with
silver. Archimedes accepts the challenge
and, during a subsequent trip to the public
baths, realizes that the more his body sinks
into the water, the more water is displaced-
-making the displaced water an exact
measure of his volume. Because gold
weighs more than silver, he reasons that a
crown mixed with silver would have to be
bulkier to reach the same weight as one
composed only of gold; therefore it would
displace more water than its pure gold
counterpart. He leaps out of the bath and
rushes home naked crying "Eureka!
Eureka!", which translates to "I've found it!
I've found it!"
https://vignette.wikia.nocookie.net/39clues/images/8/80/Ch
ocolate_card_600dpi.jpg/revision/latest?cb=20130319211527
5. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

Example 12.H
The mass of an ancient Greek coin is
determined in air to be 8.63 g. When the coin is
submerged in water, its apparent mass is 7.8 g.
Calculate its density, given that water has a
g
density of 1.0 3 and that effects caused by the
cm
wire suspending the coin are negligible.
6. Continuity Equation
𝑽
• Flow rate, 𝑸 =
𝒕
▫ the volume (𝑉) of
fluid passing by some
location through an
area during a period
of time (𝑡)
𝐦𝟑
▫ SI unit:
𝐬
6. Continuity Equation

Example 12.I
How many cubic meters of blood does the heart
pump in a 75-year lifetime? Assume the average
L
flow rate is 5.0 and there are 365 days in a
min
year.
6. Continuity Equation

Flow Rate (𝑄) vs. Velocity (𝑣)

• Ex. Rivers
▫ the greater the 𝑣 of the water, the greater the 𝑄 of
the river
▫ Flow rate also depends on the size (area, 𝐴) of the
river

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣ave
6. Continuity Equation

Fig. 12.16 An incompressible fluid (liquid) flowing

along a pipe of decreasing radius

• When a tube narrows, the same volume occupies

a greater length.
• For the same volume to pass points 1 and 2 in a
given time, the speed must be greater at point 2.
• The process is reversible.
6. Continuity Equation

Equation of Continuity
• 𝑄 must be the same at all points along the pipe
• For incompressible fluids:
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
6. Continuity Equation

Example 12.J
A nozzle with a radius of 0.25 cm is attached
to a garden hose with a radius of 0.90 cm. The flow
L
rate through the hose and nozzle is 0.5 . Calculate
s
the speed of the water
a. in the hose
b. in the nozzle
7. Bernoulli’s Principle
• When a fluid flows into a narrower channel, its
speed increases, which means its kinetic energy
also increases.
• Increased kinetic energy comes from
▫ net work done on the fluid to push it into the
channel, and
▫ work done on the fluid by the gravitational force if
the fluid changes vertical position
7. Bernoulli’s Principle

Work-Energy Theorem:
1
𝑊net = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
• There is a pressure difference when the channel
narrows, resulting in a net force on the fluid
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
• Net work increases the fluid’s kinetic energy,
thus pressure drops in a rapidly-moving fluid,
whether or not it is confined in a tube
7. Bernoulli’s Principle

Example of pressure dropping in

rapidly-moving fluids
7. Bernoulli’s Principle

P + KE + PE = energy
conservation for an
Bernoulli’s Equation incompressible fluid in the
absence of friction

• For an incompressible, frictionless fluid

1 2
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌gℎ = constant
2
• 𝑃 = absolute pressure
• 𝜌 = fluid density
• 𝑣 = velocity of the fluid
• ℎ = height above a reference point
• g = acceleration due to gravity
7. Bernoulli’s Principle

Bernoulli’s Equation for

Static Fluids (𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 0)
𝑃1 + 𝜌gℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌gℎ2
• Let ℎ2 = 0 (reference point)
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌gℎ1
• Pressure increases with depth
▫ From point 1 to point 2, depth increases by ℎ1 , and
𝑃2 is greater than 𝑃1 by an amount 𝜌gℎ1
7. Bernoulli’s Principle

Bernoulli’s Equation at
Constant Depth (ℎ1 = ℎ2 )
1 2 1 2
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣2
2 2

• Pressure drops as speed increases in a moving

fluid (If 𝑣2 > 𝑣1 , 𝑃2 < 𝑃1 )
7. Bernoulli’s Principle

Example 12.K
In Example 12.J, it was determined that the
m
speed of water in the hose increased from 1.96
s
m
to 25.5going from the hose to the nozzle.
s
Calculate the pressure in the hose, given that the
5 N
absolute pressure in the nozzle is 1.01325 × 10 2
m
and assuming level, frictionless flow.
7. Bernoulli’s Principle

Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle

• Entrainment – the use of reduced pressure in
high-velocity fluids to move things about

Bunsen burner atomizer aspirator water heater chimney

7. Bernoulli’s Principle

Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle

• Wings and Sails – the pressure on the front of
the wing/sail is lower than that on the back,
resulting in a forward force
end