CHM101 unified lecture note of department of Industrial Chemistry Unilesa.

Suggested textbooks:
i. Chemistry: The Central Science" by Theodore E. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, and Bruce E.
Bursten
ii. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Ralph H. Petrucci, F.
Geoffrey Herring, Jeffry D. Madura, and Carey Bissonnette
iii. Chemistry" by Raymond Chang and Kenneth A. Goldsby
iv. Principles of Modern Chemistry" by David W. Oxtoby, H. P. Gillis, and Alan Campion
v. Inorganic Chemistry" by Catherine Housecroft and Alan G. Sharpe
COURSE OUTLINE
Atoms and Molecules: Introduce the foundational concepts of atoms and molecules.
Modern Electronic Theory of Atoms: Explain the structure of atoms, electron clouds, and
the basics of atomic theory.
Electronic Configuration: Detail how electrons are arranged within atoms.
Periodicity and Building Up of the Periodic Table: Discuss the periodic table, atomic
trends, and how elements are organized.
Chemical Bonding and Intermolecular Forces: Cover types of bonds (ionic, covalent, and
metallic), intermolecular forces, and how they influence properties.
Hybridization and Shapes of Simple Molecules: Explain how atomic orbitals combine and
the resulting molecular shapes.
Valence Forces; Structure of Solids: Discuss valence bond theory and the structural types of
solids (ionic, covalent, metallic, and molecular solids).
Kinetic Theory of Matter: Introduce the kinetic molecular theory, discussing particle
behavior in different states of matter.
Properties of Gases: Discuss the gas laws and the behavior of gases under different
conditions.
Acids, Bases, and Salts: Introduce acid-base theories, pH, and the properties of acids, bases,
and salts.
Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry: Teach how to balance chemical equations and
apply stoichiometric calculations.
Radioactivity: Cover the basics of radioactivity and nuclear reactions.
Elementary Thermochemistry: Introduce the principles of energy changes in chemical
reactions.
Rates of Reaction, Equilibrium, and Thermodynamics: Discuss reaction kinetics, dynamic
equilibrium, and basic thermodynamics.
Redox Reactions and Introduction to Electrochemistry: Teach oxidation-reduction
reactions and basic electrochemical concepts.
 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURE
Chemistry is the branch of science that studies matter, its composition, properties, and the
changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. It explores the substances that make up the
universe and how they interact with each other. As a central science, chemistry connects
physics with other natural sciences, such as biology and geology, making it fundamental for
understanding various scientific concepts.
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It encompasses all physical substances
that we can see, touch, or otherwise perceive. Matter is fundamental to the physical universe
and is characterized by its various forms and properties. Matter has two essential properties:
i. Mass: The amount of matter in an object.
ii. Volume: The amount of space an object occupies. Matter can exist in different physical
states and exhibit various characteristics, depending on its nature and the conditions under
which it is studied.
Matter can be classified based on its physical state and its composition. The classification is
as follows:
i. Classification by Physical State
Matter can exist in one of four primary states:
Solids: Have a definite shape and volume. The particles are closely packed and vibrate in
fixed positions, giving solids a rigid structure. Examples include metals like iron (Fe) and
non-metals like sulfur (S).
Liquids: Have a definite volume but no fixed shape; they take the shape of their container.
Particles in liquids are less tightly packed than in solids and can move past each other,
allowing liquids to flow. Examples include water (H2O) and oil.
Gases: Have neither a definite shape nor a fixed volume. The particles are far apart and move
freely, filling any container they occupy. Examples include oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2).
Plasma: A high-energy state of matter where electrons are stripped from atoms, creating a
mixture of charged particles. Plasma is found in stars, including the sun, and in phenomena
such as lightning.
ii. Classification by Composition
Matter can also be classified based on its composition:
Pure Substances: These have a uniform and definite composition. They are made up of a
single type of particle and can be further divided into:
ELEMENTS: Element is a simple pure substance which cannot be made simpler using
chemical means. A pure substance is a form of matter that has the same composition
throughout. Elements are the building blocks of matter. Everything around us is made up of
an element or elements.
All the known elements are listed in a special table called the Periodic Table. There are 115
known elements. 92 of these elements occur naturally. Of the 92 naturally occurring elements
there are:
* 11 gases (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon & radon);
* 2 liquids (mercury and bromine);
* 79 solids (mostly metals).
You will need to learn some of the symbols given on the Periodic Table. An element is made
up atoms joined together. The atoms are all the same for a particular element. For example,
copper is made up of copper atoms, iron is made up of iron atoms etc.
The most common element on Earth is oxygen (about 50%);
The least common naturally occurring element is Astatine;
The most recently discovered element was Ununoctium - it was produced artificially.
Scientists believe that all matter in the universe is composed of the same elements that are
present on Earth.

Substances that consist of only one type of atom. Elements cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical means. Examples include hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and gold
(Au).
Classification by Position in the Periodic Table
The periodic table organizes elements based on their atomic number and chemical properties,
leading to several classifications:
Groups (Families)
Vertical Columns: The periodic table has 18 vertical columns known as groups. Elements in
the same group share similar chemical properties because they have the same number of
valence electrons.
Important Groups:
i. Group 1 (Alkali Metals): Highly reactive metals (e.g., lithium (Li), sodium (Na)).
ii. Group 2 (Alkaline Earth Metals): Reactive metals, though less so than Group 1 (e.g.,
magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca)).
iii. Group 17 (Halogens): Highly reactive non-metals (e.g., fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl)).
iv. Group 18 (Noble Gases): Inert gases with very low reactivity (e.g., helium (He), neon
(Ne)).
Periods
i. Horizontal Rows: The periodic table consists of 7 horizontal rows called periods. Elements
in the same period have the same number of electron shells but differ in chemical properties
as you move from left to right.
Block Classification of element
s-Block Elements: Include Groups 1 and 2, characterized by the filling of the s orbital (e.g.,
hydrogen (H), beryllium (Be)).
p-Block Elements: Include Groups 13 to 18, characterized by the filling of the p orbital (e.g.,
carbon (C), nitrogen (N)).
d-Block Elements: Known as transition metals, located in the center of the periodic table
(e.g., iron (Fe), copper (Cu)).
f-Block Elements: Comprising the lanthanides and actinides, found below the main table
(e.g., cerium (Ce), uranium (U)).
COMPOUNDS: A compound is a pure substance that consists of atoms of two or more
elements joined together. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements react
together. Compounds can be decomposed into elements using chemical means. Most pure
substances are compounds.
Compounds have a chemical formula. The chemical formula is made up from the symbols of
the elements in the compound. It also indicates the number of atoms of each element in the
compound. An example of a very important compound is water. Water is made up of two
elements- hydrogen and oxygen
Substances formed when two or more elements are chemically combined in fixed proportions.
Compounds have different properties from the elements that compose them. For example,
water (H2O) is made from hydrogen and oxygen, and sodium chloride (NaCl) is made from
sodium and chlorine.
Classification of Compounds
i. Classification by Type of Chemical Bonding
ii. Covalent (Molecular) Compounds
iii. Metallic Compounds
iv. Coordinate (Dative Covalent) Compounds
v. Classification by Chemical Composition
vi. Organic Compounds
vii Inorganic Compounds
viii. Classification by Acidity and Basicity
ix. Compounds can be classified as acids, bases, or salts based on their behavior in water:
x. Classification by Reactivity (All these would be taught in detail later in this course)
Mixtures: Composed of two or more substances physically combined. Mixtures do not have a
definite composition and can be separated by physical means. They are categorized as:
Homogeneous Mixtures (Solutions): These have a uniform composition throughout. The
components are evenly distributed, and individual particles cannot be seen. Examples include
saltwater and air. Have particles that are so evenly mixed that they appear as a single phase.
These mixtures have consistent properties throughout. Examples include:
Solutions: Salt dissolved in water forms a solution where the salt is uniformly distributed.
Alloys: A mixture of metals (e.g., brass, which is made from copper and zinc)
Heterogeneous Mixtures: These have a non-uniform composition, and the different
components can be easily identified. Examples include salad, trail mix, and sand with iron
filings. In heterogeneous mixtures, the different substances remain distinct and can often be
separated by physical means such as filtration or decanting. Examples include:
Suspensions: Mixtures where large particles are suspended temporarily in a fluid (e.g.,
muddy water).
Colloids: Mixtures with intermediate-sized particles that do not settle out (e.g., milk, gelatin).
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A chemical change or chemical reaction is a process in which one or more pure substances are
converted into one or more different pure substances. Chemical changes lead to the formation of substances
that help grow our food, make our lives more productive, cure our heartburn, and much, much more.
For example, nitric acid, HNO3, which is used to make fertilizers and explosives, is formed in the
chemical reaction of the gases ammonia, NH3, and oxygen, O2. Silicon dioxide, SiO2, reacts with
carbon, C, at high temperature to yield silicon, Si—which can be used to make computers—and
carbon monoxide, CO. An antacid tablet might contain calcium carbonate, CaCO 3, which combines

with the hydrochloric acid in your stomach to yield calcium chloride, CaCl2, water, and carbon dioxide.
The chemical equations for these three chemical reactions are below.
In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged and regrouped through the breaking and making of
chemical bonds. DETAILS LATER

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER (concept of atoms, molecules and ions)

The particulate nature of matter refers to the idea that all matter is made up of tiny, discrete
particles. This concept includes atoms, molecules, and ions, each of which plays a
fundamental role in the composition and behavior of different substances
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains the properties of that element. Atoms
consist of a nucleus (containing protons and neutrons) and electrons that orbit the nucleus.
Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, known as the atomic number,
which defines the element.
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms bonded together. Molecules can consist of atoms
of the same element (e.g., O₂) or different elements (e.g., H₂O). The chemical bonds between
atoms in a molecule can be covalent (sharing of electrons) or ionic (transfer of electrons). The
number of atoms present in one molecule of a substance is called atomicity.
An ion is an atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a
positive or negative charge. The positive and negative ions are called cations and anions
respectively. Sodium ion (Na⁺) is a positively charged ion, while chloride ion (Cl⁻) is
negatively charged. Together, they form sodium chloride (NaCl), a common salt.
Early Concepts of Atoms Ancient Greek Philosophy: Around 400 BCE, the Greek
philosopher Democritus proposed that matter is made of tiny, indivisible particles he called
"atomos" (meaning "uncuttable" or "indivisible").
Aristotle, another Greek philosopher, rejected this idea and believed matter was continuous,
composed of four elements (earth, water, fire, and air). His view prevailed for centuries.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1803) John Dalton, an English scientist, developed the first
scientific atomic theory, which revived the concept of atoms based on experiments and
observations.
POSTULATES OF DALTON’S THEORY
i. Indivisibility of Atoms: Atoms are the smallest indivisible particles of matter (though this
was later modified).
ii. Identical Atoms in an Element: All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and
properties.
iiii. Different Atoms in Different Elements: Atoms of different elements differ in mass and
properties.
iv. Compounds Formation: Compounds are formed by the combination of atoms of different
elements in simple whole-number ratios.
v. Conservation of Atoms: In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged, but they are neither
created nor destroyed.
Dalton’s theory laid the foundation for modern chemistry by establishing that atoms are real
and specific to elements.
DISCOVERY OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Electron: In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through his experiments with cathode
rays, showing that atoms are divisible and contain negatively charged particles.
Proton: In 1911, Ernest Rutherford discovered the proton, a positively charged particle
located in the atom’s nucleus.
Neutron: In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron, a neutral particle also located in
the nucleus. These discoveries revealed that atoms have a complex internal structure and are
composed of even smaller particles: electrons, protons, and neutrons.
Rutherford’s Nuclear Model (1911)
i. Gold Foil Experiment: Rutherford directed alpha particles at a thin gold foil. He observed
that most particles passed through, but some were deflected, leading him to conclude that
atoms have a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by mostly empty space.
ii. Nucleus and Electrons: Rutherford’s model proposed that electrons move around a central
nucleus, which contains protons and neutrons.
Bohr Model (1913) Quantized Energy Levels: Niels Bohr modified Rutherford’s model by
introducing the concept of quantized energy levels. Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific
energy levels or shells.
Electron Transitions: Electrons can jump between energy levels by absorbing or releasing
energy, explaining the emission spectra of atoms.
THE MODERN ELECTRONIC THEORY OF ATOMS
The Modern Electronic Theory of Atoms is called Quantum Mechanical Model of the
Atom, is a theory that describes the behavior and arrangement of electrons within atoms. This
model is based on principles of quantum mechanics and provides a more accurate
representation of atomic structure than earlier models like the Bohr model. The theory
includes:
Wave-Particle Duality: Electrons have both particle-like and wave-like properties. This
duality was first suggested by Louis de Broglie, who proposed that electrons could be
described as waves with specific wavelengths. Instead of moving in fixed orbits (as in the
Bohr model), electrons exist in regions of space where they have a high probability of being
found.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: Formulated by Werner Heisenberg, this principle states that
it is impossible to simultaneously determine both the exact position and momentum of an
electron with absolute precision. This principle tells about the probability of finding an
electron in a particular location, leading to the development of the concept of atomic orbitals.
Schrödinger Equation: Erwin Schrödinger developed a mathematical equation that describes
the behavior of electrons in atoms as wave functions. The solutions to Schrödinger’s equation
provide probability distributions, which describe where electrons are likely to be found in an
atom. These solutions are visualized as atomic orbitals (s, p d f)
Atomic Orbitals: An orbital is a region in space around the nucleus where there is a high
probability of finding an electron. Orbitals are designated by letters (s, p, d, and f) that
represent different shapes and orientations. Electrons are distributed in these orbitals
according to a specific order, filling from lower to higher energy levels. Each orbital can hold
a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins.
Quantum Numbers: Quantum numbers are values that describe the properties of electrons in
orbitals. These include:
i. Principal quantum number (n) - indicates the main energy level.
ii. Angular momentum quantum number (l) - determines the shape of the orbital.
iii. Magnetic quantum number (mₗ) - specifies the orientation of the orbital in space.
iii. Spin quantum number (ms) - indicates the spin of the electron (either +½ or -½).
These quantum numbers provide a unique "address" for each electron in an atom, describing
its energy, shape, orientation, and spin.
Pauli Exclusion Principle: Proposed by Wolfgang Pauli, this principle states that no two
electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. This principle explains
the unique arrangement of electrons in different orbitals and limits each orbital to two
electrons with opposite spins.
Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule
(a) Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill orbitals starting from the lowest available energy level.
(b) Hund's Rule: Electrons will fill orbitals singly with parallel spins as much as possible
before pairing up in the same orbital.
Both Aufbau and Hund’s rule dictate the electron configuration in atoms, which determines
the chemical properties of element
The electronic configuration of an atom describes the arrangement of electrons in its atomic
orbitals. Understanding this configuration is vital because it determines the chemical
properties and reactivity of elements. The arrangement follows specific principles and rules
based on energy levels, subshells, and the behavior of electrons
1. Basic Structure of Electron Shells and Subshells
Shells (Energy Levels): Electrons occupy different energy levels, or shells, around the
nucleus. These levels are represented by the principal quantum number n (e.g., n=1,2,3, …).
Subshells: Each shell is divided into subshells designated by letters (s, p, d, f) based on the
angular momentum quantum number l.
s-subshell: Occupies maximum of 2 electrons
p-subshell: Occupies maximum of 6 electrons
d-subshell: Occupies maximum of 10 electrons
f-subshell: Occupies maximum of 14 electrons. The number of subshells within a shell
equals the principal quantum number (e.g., n=3 has s, p, and d subshells).
2. Electron Filling Order
Electrons fill orbitals in a specific order determined by their energy levels. The Aufbau
Principle states that electrons occupy the lowest-energy orbital available. The filling order
generally follows the sequence:
1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s
2p, 3p, 4p, 5p
4d, 5d
4f. This order is often visualized using the diagonal rule or an Aufbau
diagram.
Pauli Exclusion Principle: this principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can
have identical sets of quantum numbers. Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons
with opposite spins, denoted by (either +½ or -½).
Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity: states that when electrons fill orbitals within the
same subshell (e.g., the three p orbitals in the p-subshell), they occupy them singly with
parallel spins as much as possible before pairing up. This minimizes electron repulsion and
stabilizes the atom’s structure by maximizing the number of unpaired electrons.
Notation for Electron Configuration: Electron configurations are written by denoting the
subshell and the number of electrons in each subshell as a superscript. For example: The
electron configuration for oxygen (with 8 electrons) is 1s22s22p4
Noble Gas Shortcut Notation: For elements with many electrons, the electron configuration
can be simplified using the noble gas configuration of the previous row.
Example: Sodium (11 electrons) can be written as [Ne]3s1, where [Ne] represents the
configuration 1s22s22p6.
Special Cases and Anomalies: Some elements, particularly transition metals, have slight
variations in their configurations due to additional stability when subshells are half-filled or
fully filled. Example: Chromium (24 electrons) is [Ar]3d54s1 rather than the expected
[Ar]3d44s2, as this arrangement provides greater stability.
INTRODUCTION TO THE PERIODIC TABLE
The Periodic Table is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements, organized by their atomic
number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties. Elements in the same
column (group) often have similar chemical properties due to their similar valence electron
configurations.
Early Attempts to Classify Elements
Before the modern periodic table was developed, scientists tried to find patterns among the
known elements. Some of these early attempts include:
Johann Döbereiner (1829): He identified patterns in groups of three elements, known as
Döbereiner’s Triads. The elements in a triad had similar chemical properties, and the atomic
weight of the middle element was roughly the average of the other two.
John Newlands (1864): Newlands proposed the Law of Octaves, where elements were
arranged in order of increasing atomic weights, and every eighth element had similar
properties. This was an early attempt at periodicity, though it failed to account for all known
elements.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table: The major breakthrough in classifying elements came from
Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869.
- He arranged the 63 known elements in order of increasing atomic weight.
 - Mendeleev left gaps in his table, predicting the existence and properties of undiscovered
elements, such as gallium, scandium, and germanium, which were later discovered and fit his
predictions.
- His periodic law stated that "the properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic weights."
However, Mendeleev’s table had some anomalies, as a few elements did not fit perfectly
when ordered strictly by atomic weight.
Modern Periodic Table
With the discovery of the atomic structure, it became clear that atomic number (the number of
protons in an atom's nucleus) is a better basis for organizing elements than atomic weight.
Henry Moseley (1913): Moseley discovered that the atomic number, not atomic weight, was
the key organizing principle. His work led to the modern formulation of the Periodic Law,
which states that the properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number.
This resolved Mendeleev’s anomalies, as elements like iodine and tellurium were properly
placed when ordered by atomic number.

PROPERTIES AND TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

PERIODICITY
Periodicity is the recurrence of similar phenomena at regular intervals. With respect to the
Periodic Table, periodicity is the variation of the properties of the elements in a regular
pattern both down the groups and across the periods. The important properties include:
Melting and boiling points
Electrical and thermal conductivity
Atomic radii
Ionic radii
Ionization energies
Electron affinity and
Electronegativity
Melting and boiling points: Elements in Groups I, II and III have strong metallic bonds
which increase in strength from Group I to Group III across each Period. The energy required
to break this bond also increases accordingly. In Group IV, the elements possess strong
covalent bond that links the atoms together forming giant three-dimensional lattice e.g.
diamond. Very high temperature is needed to break this bond too. However, Groups V, VI,
VII and 0 show low melting and boiling points because the elements in these Groups exist as
simple covalent molecules that are held together by weak intermolecular forces. These bonds
are easily broken.
Generally, within a period, the melting and boiling points of metallic elements increase from
left to right while those of non-metals decrease. Within a Group, the melting and boiling
points of metallic elements decreases down the Group while those of non-metallic elements
increase.

Electrical and thermal conductivity: These properties of elements decrease across the
Period but increase down the Group, since metals are good conductors while non-metals are
poor conductors of heat and electricity.

Atomic radii: The atomic radius is generally taken to be one-half the distance of closest
approach between the nuclei of atoms in the elemental substance. The atomic radii of
elements increase down the Group but decrease across a Period. The increase down the
Group is due to the screening (or shielding) effect of the core electron shells on the valence
electron shells as more electron shells are added down the Group. The decrease across a
Period is due to the progressive increase in the nuclear charge which makes the attraction of
the nucleus on the valence electrons stronger from left to right across the Period.

Ionic radii: Like the atomic radii, ionic radii increase down a group but decrease across a
period. The increase down the group is as a result of the progressive increase in the number of
electron shells and the screening effect of the core electron shells on the valence electron
shell. Across the period, the ionic radii of the cations decrease because of the increase
attraction of the positive nucleus on the valence electrons while for anions, the larger the
number of electrons taken in by the atom, the stronger the screening effect of the inner
electrons compare to the attraction. Hence, the more negative the anion, the bigger its size.
Note: a species of atoms or ions that have the same number of electrons are called
isoelectronic series. E.g. Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+. A cation is smaller in size than the
corresponding atom while an anion is bigger in size than the corresponding atom.
Ionization energy: This is the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or
from an ion. Ionization energy decreases down a group and increases across a period. Moving
down a Group, the attractive force of the nucleus on the valence electron decreases, this
makes it easier to remove the valence electrons. On the other hand, going across a period
from left to right, the nuclear attraction on the valence electrons increases while the screening
effect gets weaker, hence it becomes harder to remove the valence electrons.
The following factors affect the ionization energy:
the distance of the valence electron from the nucleus
the screening effect of the electrons
the number of protons in the nucleus
Ionization potential of an element is the minimum potential (measure in volts) required to
effect electron removal. It is numerically equal to the ionization energy measured in electron
volts (eV).
Exemptions:
In Period 2, the ionization energy of boron is lower than that of beryllium. This is because the
fully filled s-orbital in beryllium (1s2 2s2) provides greater stability than the partially filled p-
orbital in boron (1s2 2s2 2p1). It is easier to remove the p electron from boron than to remove
one of the s electrons from beryllium.
Still in Period 2, the half filled p orbital in nitrogen (1s2 2s2 2p 1 2p 1 2p 1
x ) makes
y it more
z
stable than oxygen which has four p electrons (1s2 2s2 2p 2 2p 1x2p 1).y The fourth p electron
z
can be removed more easily.
Electron affinity: This is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to the
outer electron shell of a neutral gaseous atom e.g. Cl(g) + e Cl-(g); EA = -349KJ
While ionization energy involves losing of electrons, electron affinity involves gaining of
electrons. Generally, electron affinity decreases down a Group and increases across a Period
from Group I to VII. This is because atoms with smaller atomic radii tend to have a stronger
attraction for electrons and so form negative ion readily. Elements in Group 0 have electron
affinity of zero because of their stability.

Electronegativity: This is the power of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons.

Electronegativity increases across a Period but decreases down a Group. The most
electronegative elements are the reactive non-metals (e.g. Fluorine) in the top right hand
corner of the Periodic Table while the least electronegative elements are the reactive metals
(e.g Caesium) at the bottom-left hand corner of the Periodic Table.
SUMMARY
Periodicity of Down the Group Across a Period
Atomic radius Increase Decrease
Ionic radius Increase Decrease for cations from Group
I to III and for anions from group
V to VII
Ionization energy Decrease Increase
Electron affinity Decrease Increase
Electronegativity Decrease Increase
Electrical and thermal Increase Decrease
conductivity

Period 3 elements and their compounds: The elements clearly show progressive change in
properties from left to right. On the left are sodium, magnesium and aluminium – typical
metals that form mainly ionic compounds and basic oxides. On the right are non-metals –
phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine, which form covalent compounds and acidic oxides.

CHEMICAL BONDING, TYPES AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Chemical bonds are the forces that hold atoms together to form compounds or molecules.
These bonds vary in strength and nature depending on how atoms share or transfer electrons.
The main types of chemical bonding include ionic, covalent, hydrogen, metallic bonding,
and Van der Waals forces.
1. Ionic/Electrovalent Bonding: Ionic bonds form when one atom transfers electrons to
another atom, resulting in a positive ion (cation) and a negative ion (anion). The electrostatic
attraction between these oppositely charged ions creates the bond. Example: Sodium chloride
(NaCl): Sodium (Na) loses one electron to become Na⁺, and chlorine (Cl) gains that electron
to become Cl⁻. The Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions are held together by strong ionic bonds.
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
They have high melting and boiling Points due to presence of strong electrostatic forces
between the molecules.
They are solid at room temperature
They are good conductor of heat and electricity. When molten or dissolved in water, ionic
compounds conduct electricity due to the movement of free ions.
Many ionic compounds dissolve in polar solvents like water due to ion-dipole interactions.
2. Covalent Bonding: Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
This type of bond forms when atoms with similar electronegativities share electrons to
achieve stability. Example:
Water (H₂O): Each hydrogen atom shares one electron with oxygen, forming a covalent
bond. Oxygen shares two pairs of electrons with hydrogen atoms.
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS:
Low Melting and Boiling Points: Many covalent molecules, especially those with weak
intermolecular forces, have relatively low melting and boiling points.
Poor Conductors of Electricity: Covalent compounds generally do not conduct electricity,
as they lack free-moving ions or electrons.
Flexible Structures: Covalent compounds can exist in various forms, from gases (e.g.,
methane, CH₄) to solids (e.g., diamond).
3. Hydrogen Bonding: Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that
occurs when hydrogen is bonded to highly electronegative atoms such as nitrogen, oxygen, or
fluorine. The hydrogen atom carries a partial positive charge and interacts with the lone pairs
on nearby electronegative atoms.
Example: Water (H₂O): The hydrogen atoms of one water molecule form hydrogen bonds
with the oxygen atoms of adjacent water molecules.
PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN BONDING:
Higher Boiling Points: Substances with hydrogen bonds (e.g., water) have higher boiling
points compared to similar molecules without hydrogen bonds.
Increased Solubility: Hydrogen bonding increases the solubility of polar compounds in
water.
Structure and Stability: Hydrogen bonds play a critical role in stabilizing the 3D structures
of biological molecules like proteins and DNA.
4. Metallic Bonding: Metallic bonds arise from the attraction between positively charged
metal ions and a "sea of electrons" that move freely through the lattice. This delocalization of
electrons gives metals their characteristic properties. Example: Copper (Cu): Copper atoms
share free electrons in a lattice, allowing the metal to conduct electricity and heat efficiently.
PROPERTIES OF METALLIC COMPOUNDS
Good Electrical and Thermal Conductivity: The free electrons in metallic bonds allow
metals to conduct electricity and heat effectively.
Malleability and Ductility: Metals can be hammered into sheets (malleability) or drawn into
wires (ductility) without breaking due to the flexibility of the metallic bond.
Luster: The free electrons reflect light, giving metals their shiny appearance.
5. Van der Waals Forces
Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular forces that include attractions between dipoles,
induced dipoles, and temporary dipoles in molecules. Example: Noble Gases (e.g., Argon,
Ar): Van der Waals forces are the only forces present between noble gas atoms, which are
non-polar.
PROPERTIES OF VAN DER WAALS FORCES
Weak Attraction: These forces are weaker than ionic, covalent, or hydrogen bonds, so
substances held together by Van der Waals forces (e.g., molecular gases like oxygen, O₂)
tend to have low boiling points.
Important for Large Molecules: In large molecules like polymers, Van der Waals forces can
collectively contribute to stability, even if each individual force is weak.
6. Dipole-Dipole Interactions: Dipole-dipole interactions occur between polar molecules,
where the positive end of one molecule is attracted to the negative end of another. Example:
Hydrogen chloride (HCl): The positive pole of hydrogen is attracted to the negative pole of
chlorine in neighboring molecules.
Properties of Dipole-Dipole Interactions:
Moderate Strength: These forces are stronger than Van der Waals forces but weaker than
hydrogen bonds.
Increased Boiling and Melting Points: Molecules with dipole-dipole interactions tend to
have higher melting and boiling points than non-polar molecules of similar size.
7. Coordinate (Dative) Bond: A coordinate bond, also known as a dative covalent bond, is
a type of covalent bond in which both of the shared electrons come from the same atom. This
differs from a regular covalent bond, where each atom contributes one electron to the bond.
In a coordinate bond, one atom donates a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with another
atom or ion that has an empty orbital. Once formed, a coordinate bond is identical to a normal
covalent bond in terms of its strength and properties. Examples of Coordinate Bonding
Ammonium Ion (NH₄⁺)
The ammonium ion forms when ammonia (NH₃) reacts with a proton (H⁺). In this case, the
nitrogen atom in ammonia has a lone pair of electrons and donates this pair to bond with the
hydrogen ion (H⁺), which has an empty orbital.
The resulting bond between nitrogen and the hydrogen ion is a coordinate bond.
Reaction: NH₃ + H⁺ → NH₄⁺
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
In the carbon monoxide molecule, both carbon and oxygen are bonded by a triple bond. Two
of the bonds are standard covalent bonds, while the third is a coordinate bond. Oxygen
donates a lone pair of electrons to carbon to complete the bond.
This gives carbon monoxide its unique bonding structure, with both atoms sharing electrons
unevenly.
Metal Complexes (e.g., [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺)
In coordination complexes, a metal ion forms coordinate bonds with surrounding molecules
(ligands), which donate electron pairs to the empty orbitals of the metal ion.
In [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺, the nitrogen atoms in ammonia donate their lone pairs to the central copper
ion (Cu²⁺), forming coordinate bonds.
PROPERTIES OF COORDINATE BONDS
Strength: Coordinate bonds are as strong as regular covalent bonds once formed.
Electron Pair Donor and Acceptor: The atom that donates the electron pair is called the
donor, and the atom or ion that accepts the pair is the acceptor.
Behavior in Complex Ions: Coordinate bonds play a crucial role in the formation of complex
ions and coordination compounds, especially in transition metals.
HYBRIDIZATION AND SHAPES OF SIMPLE MOLECULES
Hybridization defined as the combination or mixing of different atomic orbitals (s, p, d, f) on
the same atom to produce a new set of equivalent hybrid orbitals. These hybrid orbitals have
different energies and shapes compared to the original atomic orbitals and are used in forming
covalent bonds with other atoms. The resulting hybrid orbitals help explain the geometry and
bonding patterns of molecules, leading to more accurate predictions of molecular shapes.
sp Hybridization
sp hybridization occurs when one s orbital and one p orbital from the same atom mix to form
two equivalent sp hybrid orbitals. This type of hybridization results in a linear arrangement of
bonds around the central atom, with a bond angle of 180°.
Formation of sp Hybridization
Step 1: An atom in its ground state has separate s and p orbitals. For example, in the carbon
atom, the electronic configuration in the ground state is 1s² 2s² 2p².
Step 2: To form sp hybridization, one s orbital and one p orbital combine to form two sp
hybrid orbitals. The remaining two p orbitals remain unhybridized and can participate in
forming π bonds.
Result: Two sp hybrid orbitals are generated that are oriented 180° apart, resulting in a linear
geometry. Each sp hybrid orbital has 50% s character and 50% p character.
Examples of sp Hybridization molecules include Alkyne, Alkyne-type, BeCl2 et.c
Note: sp Hybridization molecules possess:
Geometry: Linear
Bond Angle: 180°
Number of Hybrid Orbitals: 2 sp hybrid orbitals
Percentage of s and p Character: 50% s character and 50% p character
sp² Hybridization
sp² hybridization occurs when one s orbital and two p orbitals from the same atom mix to
form three equivalent sp² hybrid orbitals. This type of hybridization results in a trigonal planar
arrangement around the central atom, with bond angles of approximately 120°.
Formation of sp² Hybridization
Step 1: An atom in its ground state has separate s and p orbitals. For example, a carbon atom
has the electronic configuration 1s² 2s² 2p².
Step 2: During hybridization, one s orbital and two p orbitals combine to form three sp²
hybrid orbitals. The remaining p orbital stays unhybridized and can participate in forming π
bonds.
Result: The three sp² hybrid orbitals are arranged in a plane at 120° angles relative to each
other, resulting in a trigonal planar geometry. Each sp² hybrid orbital has 33.3% s character
and 66.7% p character.
Characteristics of sp² Hybridization
Geometry: Trigonal planar
Bond Angle: 120°
Number of Hybrid Orbitals: 3 sp² hybrid orbitals
Percentage of s and p Character: Approximately 33.3% s character and 66.7% p character
Examples of sp² Hybridization molecules include: Alkene, aromatic, aromatic derivatives,
Boron Trifluoride (BF₃) et.c
sp³ Hybridization
sp³ hybridization occurs when one s orbital and three p orbitals from the same atom mix to
form four equivalent sp³ hybrid orbitals. This type of hybridization leads to a tetrahedral
arrangement around the central atom, with bond angles of approximately 109.5°.
Formation of sp³ Hybridization
Step 1: In the ground state, an atom has separate s and p orbitals. For example, a carbon atom
has the electronic configuration 1s² 2s² 2p².
Step 2: During hybridization, one s orbital and three p orbitals combine to form four
equivalent sp³ hybrid orbitals.
Result: These four sp³ hybrid orbitals are arranged in a tetrahedral geometry, with bond angles
of about 109.5°. Each sp³ hybrid orbital contains 25% s character and 75% p character.
Characteristics of sp³ Hybridization
Geometry: Tetrahedral
Bond Angle: 109.5°
Number of Hybrid Orbitals: 4 sp³ hybrid orbitals
Percentage of s and p Character: 25% s character and 75% p character
Examples of sp³ Hybridization include alkanes, haloalkanes, Methane Ammonia (NH₃),
Water (H₂O) et.c
dsp² Hybridization
dsp² hybridization occurs when one d orbital, one s orbital, and two p orbitals from the same
atom mix to form four equivalent dsp² hybrid orbitals. This type of hybridization results in a
square planar arrangement around the central atom, with bond angles of 90°.
Formation of dsp² Hybridization
Step 1: An atom in its ground state has separate s, p, and d orbitals.
Step 2: During hybridization, one d orbital (typically from the (n-1)d subshell), one s orbital,
and two p orbitals combine to form four dsp² hybrid orbitals.
Result: These four dsp² hybrid orbitals are arranged in a square planar geometry, with bond
angles of 90°. Each dsp² hybrid orbital has contributions from the d, s, and p orbitals.
Characteristics of dsp² Hybridization
Geometry: Square planar
Bond Angle: 90°
Number of Hybrid Orbitals: 4 dsp² hybrid orbitals
Orbital Composition: Involves one d orbital, one s orbital, and two p orbitals
Examples of dsp² Hybridization include: Nickel (II) Cyanide [Ni(CN)₄]²⁻, Platinum(II)
Chloride (PtCl₄)²⁻
Significance of dsp² Hybridization
dsp² hybridization is commonly observed in coordination compounds, particularly in
transition metal complexes with square planar geometry.
It helps explain the square planar structure seen in certain metal complexes, which influences
their chemical reactivity, magnetic properties, and bonding characteristics.
dsp² hybridization is crucial for explaining the bonding and geometry of square planar
complexes, particularly those involving transition metals such as nickel(II) and platinum(II).
Understanding this type of hybridization provides insights into the structure and properties of
coordination compounds, which play a significant role in various chemical processes and
industrial applications.

d²sp³ Hybridization
d²sp³ hybridization occurs when two d orbitals, one s orbital, and three p orbitals from the
same atom mix to form six equivalent d²sp³ hybrid orbitals. This type of hybridization leads to
an octahedral arrangement around the central atom, with bond angles of 90°.
Formation of d²sp³ Hybridization
Step 1: An atom in its ground state has separate s, p, and d orbitals. Typically, the central
atom is a transition metal with available d orbitals.
Step 2: During hybridization, two d orbitals (from the (n-1)d subshell), one s orbital, and three
p orbitals combine to form six equivalent d²sp³ hybrid orbitals.
Result: The six d²sp³ hybrid orbitals are arranged symmetrically around the central atom in an
octahedral geometry, with bond angles of 90°. Each d²sp³ hybrid orbital has contributions
from the d, s, and p orbitals.
Characteristics of d²sp³ Hybridization
Geometry: Octahedral
Bond Angle: 90°
Number of Hybrid Orbitals: 6 d²sp³ hybrid orbitals
Orbital Composition: Involves two d orbitals, one s orbital, and three p orbitals
Examples of d²sp³ Hybridization: Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF₆), Hexafluorophosphate Ion
(PF₆⁻), [Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻ et.c
d²sp³ hybridization is essential in explaining the octahedral geometry observed in many
coordination compounds, particularly in transition metal complexes.
It helps understand the bonding patterns, coordination number, and geometric arrangement of
atoms or ligands around a central metal atom.
VSEPR Theory (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory)
The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a model used to predict the
shape of individual molecules based on the repulsion between electron pairs around a central
atom. According to this theory, electron pairs (bonding and lone pairs) arrange themselves as
far apart as possible to minimize repulsion, determining the molecular geometry.
Basic Principles of VSEPR Theory
Electron Pairs Repel Each Other: Both bonding pairs (shared between atoms) and lone
pairs (non-bonding) of electrons repel one another.
Minimizing Repulsion: Electron pairs arrange themselves around the central atom to
minimize repulsion, leading to specific molecular shapes.
Lone Pairs vs. Bonding Pairs: Lone pairs of electrons repel more strongly than bonding
pairs, influencing bond angles and molecular geometry.
Multiple Bonds: Double and triple bonds are treated as single regions of electron density in
determining molecular shape.
STEPS FOR PREDICTING MOLECULAR SHAPES USING VSEPR THEORY
Determine the Lewis Structure: Draw the molecule's Lewis structure to identify the number
of bonding pairs and lone pairs around the central atom.
Count Electron Density Regions: Identify regions of electron density (bonding pairs and
lone pairs) around the central atom.
Predict Electron Pair Geometry: Determine the arrangement of electron pairs around the
central atom based on the number of regions of electron density.
Determine Molecular Geometry: Adjust for the presence of lone pairs to predict the final
shape of the molecule.

ELECTRON PAIR AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRIES BASED ON VSEPR

THEORY
Number of Electron Electron Pair Molecular Geometry (Example)
Pairs Geometry
2 Linear Linear (e.g., CO₂)
3 Trigonal Planar Trigonal Planar (e.g., BF₃)
3 Trigonal Planar Bent (e.g., SO₂, with 1 lone pair)
4 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral (e.g., CH₄)
4 Tetrahedral Trigonal Pyramidal (e.g., NH₃, with 1 lone
pair)
4 Tetrahedral Bent (e.g., H₂O, with 2 lone pairs)
5 Trigonal Bipyramidal Trigonal Bipyramidal (e.g., PCl₅)
5 Trigonal Bipyramidal See-saw (e.g., SF₄, with 1 lone pair)
5 Trigonal Bipyramidal T-shaped (e.g., ClF₃, with 2 lone pairs)
5 Trigonal Bipyramidal Linear (e.g., XeF₂, with 3 lone pairs)
6 Octahedral Octahedral (e.g., SF₆)
6 Octahedral Square Pyramidal (e.g., BrF₅, with 1 lone
pair)
6 Octahedral Square Planar (e.g., XeF₄, with 2 lone
pairs)

SIGNIFICANCE OF VSPER
Predicting Molecular Shapes: VSEPR theory provides a straightforward way to predict the
3D shapes of molecules, which is essential for understanding chemical properties, reactivity,
and polarity.
Bond Angles: The theory helps explain the variations in bond angles due to the presence of
lone pairs and differences in electron pair repulsion.
Understanding Polarity: The molecular shape determined by VSEPR theory helps in
predicting whether a molecule will be polar or nonpolar.
VALENCE FORCES
Definition and Significance
Valence forces refer to the attractive and repulsive interactions between atoms in a molecule
that govern the formation and stability of chemical bonds. These forces arise from the
interactions of valence electrons, which are the outermost electrons involved in bonding.
Understanding valence forces is crucial for several reasons: Stability and Structure, Chemical
Reactivity, Material Properties, Biological Systems and Applications in Technology
STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS
Solid Structures and Their Properties
Solids can be broadly classified into crystalline and amorphous based on their atomic
arrangement. The distinction between these structures has profound effects on their properties,
such as melting points, mechanical strength, and thermal conductivity.
1. Crystalline Solids
Crystalline solids have a well-ordered, repeating arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules.
This long-range order gives rise to distinct geometrical shapes and sharply defined physical
properties. Examples of Crystalline Solids: Sodium chloride (NaCl), Diamond, Quartz
(SiO₂): Silicon and oxygen atoms form a tetrahedral structure with repeating units.
Properties of Crystalline Solids:
Definite Melting Point: Crystalline solids have sharp melting points as all bonds break
uniformly.
Anisotropy: The physical properties (e.g., electrical conductivity, refractive index) vary
depending on the direction of measurement due to the ordered structure.
Mechanical Strength: They tend to be mechanically strong but brittle.
High Thermal and Electrical Conductivity: Many metals (e.g., copper, silver) exhibit good
electrical and thermal conductivity due to their orderly atomic structure and free electrons.
2. Amorphous Solids
Amorphous solids, on the other hand, lack a regular repeating arrangement. They resemble
liquids in atomic randomness, though they are rigid like solids. Examples of Amorphous
Solids: Glass, Rubber, Plastic (Polyethylene) et.c
Properties of Amorphous Solids:
No Definite Melting Point: These solids soften gradually over a range of temperatures, rather
than melting sharply.
Isotropy: The physical properties are identical in all directions because of the random atomic
structure.
Mechanical Flexibility: Amorphous solids tend to be softer and more flexible than crystalline
solids.
Poor Conductors: Amorphous materials generally have lower thermal and electrical
conductivities compared to crystalline solids due to the lack of free electrons and ordered
structure.
Comparison of Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
Property Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids
Atomic Long-range, regular, and Short-range, irregular, and random
Arrangement repeating order order
Melting Point Sharp, well-defined melting Gradual softening over a range of
point temperatures
Shape Have definite, distinct Do not have a well-defined shape
geometrical shapes
Anisotropy/Isotropy Anisotropic (properties vary Isotropic (properties same in all
with direction) directions)
Heat of Fusion Definite and fixed value No definite heat of fusion
Cleavage Breaks along specific planes Breaks irregularly without specific
patterns
Mechanical Strength Hard and brittle Generally softer and may be
flexible
Example Salt (NaCl), Diamond, Quartz Glass, Rubber, Plastic

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER

The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter explains that matter is composed of particles (atoms,
molecules, or ions) that are in constant motion. The theory describes the behavior of particles
across different states of matter (solid, liquid, and gas) and explains how temperature,
pressure, and volume relate to particle movement.
PRINCIPLES OF THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
1. Particle Composition: Matter consists of small particles that have mass and occupy space.
2. Constant Motion: Particles are always in motion, with the speed and nature of their
movement varying by state.
3. Energy and Temperature Relationship: The kinetic energy of particles increases with
temperature, meaning particles move faster at higher temperatures.
Particle Behavior in Different States of Matter
Solids: Particles are closely packed in fixed positions, only vibrating around their fixed points.
This gives solids a definite shape and volume.
Liquids: Particles are closely spaced but can move past each other. This allows liquids to take
the shape of their container while maintaining a fixed volume.
Gases: Particles are far apart and move freely at high speeds in all directions. They fill the
container they’re in, having no fixed shape or volume.
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
The kinetic theory of gases describes the behavior of an ideal or perfect gas. The postulates of
this theory are:
1. Gas molecules are in constant rapid, straight motion and collide with one another and with
the walls of the container.
2. The collision of the gas molecules is perfectly elastic i.e. the gas particles do not lose
kinetic energy after each collision.
3. Gases consist of molecules widely separated in space.
4. The cohesive forces of attraction between the gas molecules are negligible.
5. The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is a measure of the temperature of the gas
molecules.
Ideal gases (or perfect gases) fulfil the kinetic theory postulates but real gases like N2, O2, H2
and CO2 show deviation at low temperature and high pressure. Under these conditions the
molecules are close together and intermolecular attraction becomes appreciable.
Pressure exerted by gases
The particles of a gas contained in a vessel move randomly at high speeds colliding with one
another and with the wall of the container. This collision results in exertion of force on the
wall of the container. The force exerted by the gas particles per unit area (of the container’s
wall) is known as the gas pressure. Gas pressure is commonly measured in atmosphere (atm)
other units are millimetre Mercury (mmHg) and Newton per square metre (Nm-2). The
relationship between them is as follows:
1 atm = 760mmHg = 101325Nm-2.
The Gas Laws describe the behavior of gases in terms of their relationships among pressure,
volume, temperature, and the amount of gas. These laws are based on the Kinetic Molecular
Theory and are essential for understanding how gases respond to changes in physical
conditions.
1. Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relationship): At constant temperature, the volume of a gas
is inversely proportional to its pressure. This is known as Isothermal process P1 V 1=P2 V 2

2. Charles's Law (Temperature-Volume Relationship): At constant pressure, the volume of a

gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (in Kelvin). This is known as Isobaric
V1 V2
process. =
T1 T2
3. Gay-Lussac's Law (Pressure-Temperature Relationship): At constant volume, the pressure
of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. This is known as Isochoric
P1 P2
process. =
T1 T 2
4. Avogadro's Law (Volume-Amount Relationship): At constant temperature and pressure, the
volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present. This is known
V1 V2
as isothermal-isobaric process =
n1 n2
5. Combined Gas Law: Combines Boyle's, Charles's, and Gay-Lussac's laws into a single
P1V 1 P2V 2
relationship for situations where pressure, volume, and temperature all change. =
T1 T2
6. Ideal Gas Law: Relates pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of gas in one formula,
assuming ideal behavior. PV= nRT, if P = 1 atm, n = 1 mole, T = 273K, V= 22.4dm3 R =
ideal gas constant (0.0821 L atm/mol K)
7. Dalton law (1801) is concerned about the partial pressure exerted by gases in a mixture.
The law states that for a mixture of gases which do not react chemically, the total pressure of
the gas is the sum of the partial pressures exerted by the individual gases in the mixture. This
implies that if a component of gases mixture is labeled as A, B, C, D.......N, then the total
pressure of the gas will be expressed as: Ptotal = PA+ PB+ PC+ PD +….
8. Van der Waal equation of state: In 1974, J. D. Van der Waals derived an equation of state
that can be used to interpret the behavior of real gases. This was necessary because real gases
do not obey the ideal gas equation and at high pressures or low temperatures. Therefore, van
der Waal equation is a modification of the real gas equation and can be written as,

From the above, the pressure term is corrected by a/V2 while the volume term is corrected by
‗b‘. This equation expects that for a real gas, the pressure will increase by a factor of a/V2
while the volume will decrease by ‗b‘, compared to an ideal gas.

1. If the density of ethane is 1.264 g/dm3 at 20oC, calculate the molar mass of ethane. Given
that H= 1.00794 and C = 12.0107 compare the result obtained from your calculation with the
actual molecular mass. Account for any difference, if it exists.
2. (a) A mixture of 6.5 mol of hydrogen gas and 3.5 mol of oxygen gas was placed in a 3 m3
container at 273 K. Calculate the partial pressures of the individual gases.
(b) Also calculate the total pressure of the gas mixture
3. (a) In an automobile combustion cylinder, fuel-air mixture in a cylinder of 1000 cm3
capacity experiences a temperature rises from 25 to 200oC before and after combustion.
Calculate the peak pressure given that normal atmospheric pressure is 101325 Pa.
(b) If the initial air fuel volume was 500 cm3 in the above problem, calculate the new pressure,
4. (a) 300 cm3 of air at a pressure of 100 kPa is compressed to a volume of 200 cm3. What will
be the pressure of the compressed air?
(b) What will be the volume that will be required to store 20 cm3 of butane gas if it is to be
compressed from 1.5 atm to 10 atm pressure?
(c) A 100 cm3 gas syringe contains 80 cm3 of gas that was compressed to 50 cm3. If the
atmospheric pressure is 101325 Pa, calculate the pressure of the gas in the syringe after
compression.
6. Calculate the volume of 1 mole of an ideal gas at 1 atm pressure and at 0 C. Comment on
your results, with respect to the expectation for all ideal gases

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Concepts of Acids and Bases
Arrhenius concepts:
Acid: Arrhenius concepts of acid states that an acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ion
(H+) in aqueous solution as the only positive ion. Any substance which when dissolve in water
increases the concentration of hydrogen ion is an acid. For example, HCL, H2SO4, HNO3 etc
HCl(aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
H2SO4→2H+ + SO42-
Base: Arrhenius concepts of base states that a base is a substance that produces hydroxide ion
(OH-) in aqueous solution as the only negative ion. Any substances which when dissolved in
water, increases the concentration of OH- is a base. For example, NaOH, KOH etc
NaOH(aq) →Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
KOH (aq) →K+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Limitations of Arrhenius Concept

The presence of water is absolutely necessary for acids and bases. Dry HCl can’t act as an acid.
HCl acts as an acid in water only and not any other solvent.
The concept does not explain the acidic and basic character of substances in non-aqueous
solvents.
The neutralization process is only possible for reactions which can occur in aqueous solutions,
although reactions involving salt formation can occur in the absence of a solvent.
The acidic character of some salts such as AlCl3 in aqueous solution can’t be explained.
An extended as well as artificial explanation is needed to define the basic nature of NH3.
Bronsted Lowry concepts
Acid: Bronsted-Lowry concepts of acid states that an acid is a proton donor species
(molecules or ion) that donates a proton to another species e.g HCl is an acid because in
solution it donates a proton to water.
HCl (aq) + H2O→H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Base: Bronsted-Lowry concepts of base states that a base is a proton acceptor. The species
(molecule or ion) that accepts a proton from another species is a base.
For example, NH3 is a base because it accepts a proton from water
NH3(aq) + H2O→ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Also, NH3 is a base in the reaction below because NH3 accepts a proton from HCl
HCl (aq) + NH3(aq) →NH(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Limitations of Bronsted Lowry Concept
Bronsted Lowry could not explain the reaction occurring in the non-protonic solvent like
COCl3, SO2, N2O4, etc.
Substances like BF3, AlCl3 etc, do not contain hydrogen which means they can’t donate a
proton, still they behave as acids.

Lewis Concept
According to Lewis concepts of acids and bases, a Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor and
a Lewis base is an electron pair donor.
Lewis acids: H+, Ag+, Fe2+, AlCl3, BF3, BCl3, BeCl2
Lewis bases: Cl-, CN-, OH-, NH-, SH-, ,
An acid base reaction is the sharing of an electron pair with an acid by a base. This process is
simply defined as coordinator or neutralization
Limitations of Lewis Concept
Lewis concept gave a generalized idea including all coordination reactions and compounds.
This is not true always.
An idea about the relative strength of acids and bases is not provided by Lewis concept.
Lewis concept is not in line with the acid-base reaction concept.
Lewis concept has not discussed the behaviour of protonic acids like HCl.

Acid Strength
A strong acid is an acid that ionizes completely in water
HCl +H2O→H3O+ + Cl-
A weak acid is an acid that only ionizes partially in water
CH3COOH + H2O →CH3COO- + H3O+
A strong base is a base that ionizes completely in water
KOH→K+ + OH-
A weak base is a base which is partially ionized in water
NH3 + H2O →K+ + OH-
Auto ionization of water
Water acts as a base when it reacts with an acid and it acts as an acid when it reacts with a
base.
As a base
HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-
Water acting as a base.
As an acid
NH3 + H2O →NH4+ + OH-
Water can act both as an acid and a base with self through a process known as auto Ionization.
The auto ionization can be written as
H2O →H+ + OH-
A soluble base is known as an alkali.
pH Scale
pH scale is used to measure the basicity and acidity of a solution. It gives the strength of
any solution. pH is determined by the amount of hydrogen ion concentration in the solution.
It is calculated using the formula,
pH = -log[H+] or pH = -log[H3O+]
For an acid, pH ranges from 0 to 7 whereas for a base it ranges between 7 and 14. The lower
the pH higher is the strength of the acid and the higher the pH higher the strength of the
base.
Note: pH ranges of acids and bases.
0 < Acid < 7
7 < Base< 14

Physical Properties of Acids

Acids are chemical substances that have unique physical and chemical properties. Here are
some of the physical properties of acids:
Acids have a sour taste: Most acids have a distinctly sour taste, such as lemon juice and
vinegar.
Acids change the color of indicators: Acids change the color of certain indicators, such as
litmus paper, which turns red in the presence of an acid.
Acids are corrosive: Many acids are corrosive and can cause damage to living tissue or
corrode metal and other materials.
Acids have a low pH: The pH scale measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, with a
pH of 7 being neutral, and lower pH values indicating greater acidity. Acids typically have a
pH of less than 7.
Acids react with bases to form salts and water: When an acid reacts with a base, the two
substances neutralize each other, forming a salt and water.
Acids have a higher boiling point than water: Acids generally have a higher boiling point
than water, which means that they require more energy to boil than water.
Acids are good conductors of electricity: In a solution, acids can conduct electricity
because they contain charged particles known as ions.
Chemical Properties of Acid
Acid has various chemical properties few of the following chemical properties of acids
include,
Reaction of acids with metal: When an acid reacts with a metal, it produces hydrogen gas
and the corresponding salt.
Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
Example: When hydrochloride acid combines with zinc metal, it produces hydrogen gas
and zinc chloride.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Reaction of acids with metal carbonate: When acids react with metal carbonates, they
produce carbon dioxide gas and salts as well as water.
Metal carbonate + Acid → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
Example: When hydrochloric acid combines with sodium carbonate, it produces carbon
dioxide gas, sodium chloride, and water.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H 2O + CO2
Reaction of acid with hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates): When acids react with metal
hydrogen carbonates, they produce carbon dioxide gas, salt, and water.
Acid + Metal hydrogen carbonate → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
Example: Sulfuric acid gives sodium sulfate, Carbon dioxide gas and water when it reacts
with sodium bicarbonate.
2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O
Uses of Acids
Acids have various uses some of the important uses of acid are,
Vinegar is a diluted solution of acetic acid that has a variety of uses in the home. It’s mostly
utilized in the food industry as a preservative.
Orange and lemon juice contain a significant amount of citric acid. It can also be used for
food preservation.
In batteries, sulfuric acid is commonly utilized. This acid is typically found in the batteries
used to start vehicle motors.
Sulfuric and nitric acid is used in the industrial production of dyes, explosives, paints, and
fertilizers.
Many soft drinks contain phosphoric acid as the main ingredient.
Physical Properties of Base
Bases have specific physical properties and they can easily be distinguished by their
physical properties. Some physical properties of bases are:
Base has a bitter taste
Bases are soapy to touch
Base change red litmus to blue
Aqueous solution of base conducts electricity
Chemical Properties of Base
Bases have various chemical properties few of the following chemical properties of bases
are,
Reaction of Base with Metals: When alkali (base) reacts with metal, salt and hydrogen gas
is produced.
Alkali + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
Example: When sodium hydroxide interacts with aluminum metal, sodium aluminate and
hydrogen gas are generated.
2NaOH + 2Al + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 2H2
Reaction of Non-Metallic Oxides with Base: Salt and water are formed when non-metallic
oxides react with a base.
Non-metallic oxide + Base → Salt + Water
Example: When calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide calcium carbonate is formed
along with water.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
Action of Alkalis/Base with Ammonium Salts: Ammonia is produced when alkalis react
with ammonium salts.
Alkali + Ammonium salt → Salt + Water + Ammonia
Example: When calcium hydroxide reacts with ammonium chloride, calcium chloride,
water, and ammonia are produced.
Ca(OH)2 + NH4Cl → CaCl2 + H2O + NH3
Uses of Bases
Base has various uses some of the important uses of the base are,
Sodium hydroxide is used in the making of paper and soap.
Bleaching powder is made from Ca(OH) 2, commonly known as calcium hydroxide or slaked
lime.
Calcium hydroxide is used to create dry mixtures for painting and decorating.
Magnesium hydroxide, popularly known as milk of magnesia, is a laxative that is
extensively used. It is also used as an antacid since it decreases excess acidity in the human
stomach.
In laboratories, ammonium hydroxide is a critical reagent.
Slaked lime can be used to neutralize any excess acidity in soils.
SALT
A salt is a chemical compound formed by replacing the hydrogen ion in an acid with metallic
and ammonium ions. Or A salt is the compound formed when all or part of the ionizable
hydrogen of an acid is replaced by metallic or ammonium ions.
TYPES OF SALTS
1. Normal salts: they are formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions in the acid have been
completely replaced by metallic ions e.g
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
H2SO4(aq) +ZnO(s) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Normal salts are neutral to litmus paper
2. Acidic salts: they are formed when the replaceable hydrogen ions in acids are only partially
replaced by a metal. They are produced by acids having two or more replaceable hydrogen
ions
e.g H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) KHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Acid salts turn blue litmus paper red. When reacted with excess alkali, acid salts form normal
salts e.g KHSO4(aq) + KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
They are formed when there is insufficient acid to neutralize a base /alkali. Basic salts contain
hydroxide ion, OH-. They turn red litmus paper blue. With excess acid, basic acids form
normal salt and water e.g
Ca(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) Ca(OH)Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)Cl(aq) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Other examples of basic salts are Zn(OH)Cl and Mg(OH)NO3
3. Double salts: they are salts which ionize to produce three different types of ions in solution.
Two of the ions are positively charged while the third one is negatively charged. They are
formed when a mixture of two simple salts (ions) crystallize together out of a solution. The
simple salts give a compound of two salts. The crystals have definite compositions and
structures which are different from those of the constituent salts. Examples of double salts
are:
a. Ammonium iron tetraoxosulphate (VI) hexahydrate – (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6H2O
b. Potassium magnesium chloride hexahydrate – KCl.MgCl2.6H2O
c. Potash alum (i.e. alluminum potassium tetraoxosulphate (VI) duodehydrate –
KAl(SO4)2.12H2O etc
d. Complex salts: they are formed by mixing two simple salts together e.g tetramine copper
(II) ion – [Cu(NH4)4]2+ is formed when aqueous ammonia is added to CuSO4.

Deep blue solution of tetra amine copper (II) ion

The surrounding NH3 ions or molecules are called ligands. Other examples of complex salts
are: Potassium hexafluoroaluminate (III) – K3AlF6 and Potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) –
K4Fe(CN)6
Uses of salts
1. NH4Cl – used in washing powder and as electrolyte in dry cells
2. CaCO3 – used as a medicine to neutralize stomach acidity
3. CaCl2 – Used as an anti-freeze
4. Fused CaCl2 – use as a drying agent
5. CaSO4 – used for making plaster of Paris
6. CuSO4 – used in dyeing and calico printing
7. MgSO4 – used as a laxative
8. KNO3 – used for making gun powder and matches and as soil fertilizer
9. ZnCl2 – used in petroleum refining
Solubility of salts
Although salts are ionic compounds, not all salts are soluble in water. The table below shows
the soluble and insoluble salts.

Soluble salts Insoluble salts

All sodium salts All potassium salts
All ammonium salts
All trioxonitrate (V) salts
All chlorides EXCEPT Silver chloride and lead (II) chloride. Lead (II)
chloride is soluble in hot water
All tetraoxosulphate (VI) EXCEPT Barium and lead (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI).
Calcium tetraoxosulphate (VI) is only slightly
soluble in
water
Trioxocarbonate (IV) of Na, K, and NH4 All other trioxocarbonate (IV)
PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS
Salts that are soluble in water may be prepared by various methods. The salts formed are in
aqueous solution and must be recovered from the solution by evaporation and
crystallization. The methods of preparing soluble salts include:
1. Reaction of dilute acids and metals – when a metal that is more reactive than hydrogen
reacts with a dilute acid, the metal displaces hydrogen from the dilute acid and a salt is
formed e.g Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2. Reaction of alkali and acid – titrating an alkali against an appropriate acid using a suitable
indicator produces soluble salts e.g
KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
3. Dilute acid and insoluble base – the dilute acid is heated and the insoluble base is added a
little at a time until no base can dissolve. The excess base is filtered off, leaving the salt
formed in the solution.
H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
4. Dilute acid and trioxocarbonate (IV) – an acid reacts with trioxocarbonate (IV) to produce a
salt, water and carbon(IV) oxide
H2SO4(aq) + CuCO3(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
If the trioxocarbonate (IV) is insoluble, then follow the method described in number 3 above.
PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS
❑
1. Double decomposition – two soluble ❑ compounds, one containing the radical and the

other containing the acidic radical of the required insoluble salt are mixed together. An
exchange of ionic radical occurs, resulting in the precipitation of the required salt which is the
obtained by filtration e.g.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Other salts prepared by this method include; BaCl2, PbCl2, PbI2 and CaCO3
2. Combination of constituent elements – this method is used for binary compounds such as
chlorides and sulphides of some metals e.g
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
SALT HYDROLYSIS
Hydrolysis is the reaction of a salt with water to form a solution which is either acidic or
basic. Generally, when normal salts dissolve in water, the solution formed is expected to be
neutral to litmus paper. NaCl and KNO3 behave in this way because they are formed from
strong acids and strong bases. However, when we dissolve other salts in water, they produce
either acidic or alkaline solution.
In general, salts formed from strong acids and weak bases dissolve in water to form acidic
solution e.g 2AlCl3(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2Al(OH)3(aq) + 6HCl(aq)
NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
Such acidic solution turns blue litmus paper red
On the other hand, salts formed from weak acids and strong bases hydrolyze in water to form
alkaline solution e.g. Na2CO3(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2CO3
K2CO3(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
Acidic solution turns blue litmus red while basic solution turns red litmus blue.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND STOICHIOMETRY

CHEMICAL EQUATION
CONCEPT ONE: ATOMIC MASSES
INTRODUCTION
One of the postulates of the Dalton’s atomic theory is that:
 all atoms of a particular element share identical properties, including weight.
However, with the discovery of the MASS SPECTROMETER, it has been established that it
is possible for two or more atoms of the same element to be different from one another,
especially in terms of their weight (mass) due to difference in the number of neutrons (mass
number) in their nucleus, which of course, will lead to difference in their mass number – this
phenomenon is known as ISOTOPY.
The most accurate method currently available for comparing the masses of atoms involves the
use of the mass spectrometer. This equipment measured accurately the mass of C-12 isotope
and obtained a value of exactly 12 atomic mass unit.
The masses of all other atoms are given relative to this standard.
For an isotopic element (with two or more different atoms of the same element), the average
relative atomic weight (mass) is given as:
n

Average atomic weight   fi mi

i1

 f1m1  f2m2  ..........  fnmn

fi  fractional abundance of the ith isotope

mi  mass of the ith isotope

Illustration:
1. Naturally occurring chlorine has two isotopes, 35Cl (atomic mass = 34.9689) and 37Cl
(atomic mass = 36.9659). If the relative abundance of the lighter isotope is 75%.
Calculate the average atomic weight of naturally occurring chlorine
SOLUTION:
Given that 35Cl is 75% relative abundance, it means that the relative abundance of 37Cl is
25%. With this information:

Average atomic weight  f1m1  f2m2

75 25
 x 34.9689 ¿  x 36.9659 ¿
100 100
 26.2267  9.2415
 35.4682
35.5 amu
2. The element europium exists in nature as two isotopes: 151Eu has a mass of 150.9196
amu, and 153Eu has a mass of 152.9209 amu. The average atomic mass of europium is
151.96 amu. Calculate the relative abundance of the two europium isotopes.
SOLUTION
Let the relative abundance of the lighter isotope be X%, it means that the relative
abundance of the heavier isotope is (100-X) %. Therefore,
Average atomic weight 
f1m1  f2m2
X 100−X
 x 150.9196 ¿  x 152.9209 ¿
100 100
 1.509196 X 1.529209 100  X 
 1.509196 X 152.9209 1.52909 X
 1.529209 X 1.509196 X   152.9209 151.96
 0.020013X  0.9609

 X  0.9609
 48.01%
0.020013
 100  X
 The relative abundance of the heavier isotope is  100  48.01
 51.99%

CAN YOU TRY THESE???

1. The element rhenium (Re) has two naturally occurring isotopes, 185Re and 187Re, with
an average atomic mass of 186.207 amu. Rhenium is 62.60% 187Re, and the atomic
mass of 187Re is 186.956 amu. Calculate the mass of 185Re

2. The element silver (Ag) has two naturally occurring isotopes: 109Ag and 107Ag with a
mass of 106.905 amu. Silver consists of 51.82% 107Ag and has an average atomic
mass of 107.868 amu. Calculate the mass of 109Ag.

CONCEPT 2 – THE MOLE CONCEPT

INTRODUCTION
Samples of matter typically contain so many atoms, a unit of measure called the mole has
been established for use in counting atoms.
The mole is therefore defined as the number of elementary particles such as atoms, molecules,
ions, or any such entities present in a substance as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure
12C.

Modern techniques that allow us to count atoms very precisely have been used to determine
this number as 6.022 × 1023. This number is called Avogadro’s number to honour his
contributions to chemistry.
One mole (abbreviated as mol) of something consists of 6.022 × 1023 units of the substance.
For example, a mole of glucose C6H12O6 weighs 180 g and contains 6.02 × 1023 C6H12O6
units (molecules). But each formula unit of C6H12O6 contains six C atoms, twelve H atoms,
and six O atoms
Therefore, one mole of glucose (C6H12O6) also contains 6 × 6.02 × 1023 C atoms, 12 × 6.02 ×
1023 H atoms and 6 × 6.02 × 1023 O atoms.

Illustration
1. Calculate the number of glucose molecules in 45 g of glucose. Also,
2. Determine the number of carbon atoms in 45 g of glucose
SOLUTION:
1. The mass of 1 mole of glucose C6H12O6 = 6×12 + 12×1 + 6×16 = 180 g
i.e.180 g of C6 H12O 6  6.022×1023 molecules

 45 g of 45
 ×6.022×1023 molecules of glucose
C6H12O6
180
=1.5055×1023 molecules

2. Mole of glucose in 45 g of glucose  45 g

= 0.25 mol
-1
180 g mol
 1 mole of C6H12O6 contains 6 mol of C = 6×6.022×1023 carbon atoms
0.25 mol C6H12O6  0.25×6×6.022×1023 atoms of carbon
= 9.033×1023 atoms of C

How many chloride ions are there in 11.1 g of CaCl2?

SOLUTION:
Molar mass of CaCl2 = 40 + 2(35.5) = 111 g
CaCl2 ionizes as: CaCl2  aq   Ca  aq   2Cl  aq
2

 1mole of CaCl  2 moles of Cl- = 2×6.022×1023 chloride ions i.e.111g

2
CaCl  1.2044×1024 chloride ions
2

11.1g CaCl2  11.1×1.2044×1024 chloride ions 111

= 1.2044×1023 chloride ions
TRY THE FOLLOWING:
1.
How many fluorine atoms are in 135 g of CF2Cl2?
2.
Chloral hydrate (C2H3Cl3O2) is a drug formerly used as a sedative and hypnotic. It is
the compound used to make “Mickey Finns” in detective stories.
a. Calculate the molar mass of chloral hydrate.
b. How many moles of C2H3Cl3O2 molecules are in 500.0 g of chloral hydrate?
c. What is the mass in grams of 2.0 ×10-2 mol chloral hydrate?
d. How many chlorine atoms are in 5.0 g chloral hydrate?
e. What mass of chloral hydrate would contain 1.0 g Cl?
f. What is the mass of exactly 500 molecules of chloral hydrate?

CONCEPT THREE – PERCENT COMPOSITION, EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR

FORMULAS
INTRODUCTION:
The composition of compound in terms of the numbers of its constituent atoms have been
discussed in CONCEPT TWO. It is often useful to know a compound’s composition in terms
of the masses of its elements. This can be done by comparing the mass of each element
present in 1 mole of the compound with the total mass of 1 mole of the compound.
A. PERCENT COMPOSITION
For example, consider calcium carbonate, which has the formula CaCO3. The mass of each
element present and the molar mass are obtained through the following procedure:
Mass of Ca = 1 mol × 40.08 g/mol = 40.08 g
Mass of C = 1 mol × 12.01 g/mol = 12.01 g
Mass of O = 3 mol × 16.00 g/mol = 48.00 g
The mass percent (often called the weight percent) of calcium, carbon, and oxygen in
calcium carbonate can be computed by comparing the mass of each element in 1 mole of
calcium carbonate with the total mass of 1 mole of calcium carbonate and multiplying the
result by 100%:
CaCO3  Ca + C + 3(O)
40.08 g/mol 12.01 g/mol 316.00 g/mol
mass of Ca in 1 mol CaCO3
Mass percent of Ca = 100 %
mass of 1 mol CaCO3

40.08 g
 100.09 g 100 %
 40.04 %

Mass percent of C mass of C in 1 mol CaCO3

100 %
=
mass of 1 mol CaCO3

12.01 g
 100.09 g 100 %
 12.00 %
mass of O in 1 mol CaCO3
Mass percent of O = 100 %
mass of 1 mol CaCO3

48.00 g
 100.09 g  100 %
 47.96 %
For further illustration, consider the following question:
Anabolic steroids are performance enhancement drugs whose use has been banned from most
major sporting activities. One anabolic steroid is fluoxymesterone (C 20H29FO3). Calculate the
percent composition by mass of fluoxymesterone.
The molar mass of fluoxymesterone is computed as follows:
C: 20 mol × 12.01 g/mol = 240.20 g

H: 29 mol × 1.008 g/mol = 29.23 g

F: 1 mol × 19.00 g/mol = 19.00 g

O: 3 mol × 16.00 g/mol = 48.00 g

Mass of 1 mol of C20H29FO3 = (240.20 g + 29.23 g + 19.00 g + 48 g) = 336.43 g

Notice that in solving for the molar mass of fluoxymesterone, we also solved for the mass of
each element in 1 mole of the compound. With these masses we can determine the mass
percent of each element:

Mass percent of C 240.20

× 100 %
= g
336.43 g
= 71.40 %

Mass percent of H 29.23 g

= × 100 %
336.43 g
= 8.69 %

Mass percent of F 19.00 g

= × 100 %
336.43 g
= 5.65 %

Mass percent of O 48.00 g

= × 100 %
336.43 g
= 14.27 %

B. DETERMINING THE FORMULA OF A COMPOUND - Empirical Formula

(EF)
and Molecular Formula (MF)
The empirical formula represents the simplest whole-number ratio of the various types of
atoms in a compound.
Any molecule can be represented as (EF)n, where n is an integer. To be able to specify the
exact formula of the molecule involved, the molecular formula, we must know the molar
mass.
 Molecular formula = integral multiple of the empirical formula
i.e. MF = EF n, where n = 1,2,3,4...........
For Illustration:
1. A white powder is analyzed and found to contain 43.64% phosphorus and
56.36% oxygen by mass. The compound has a molar mass of 283.88 g. What
are the compound’s empirical and molecular formulas?

SOLUTION:
Mole of P  43.64 g
 1.409 mol
30.97 g / mol
56.36 g
Mole of O   3.523 mol
16.00 g / mol
Find the simplest whole number ratio by dividing each mole above with the smaller:
1.409
For P: 1
1.409
For O: 3.523 5
1.409  2.5  2
 This yields P2O5 as the empirical formula
To obtain the molecular formula, we must compare the empirical formula mass with the molar
mass. Thus:

MF = EF n
283.88   P2O5  n
 2  30.97  516.00 n
 141.94n
283.88
 n  141.94 2
Hence, the molecular formula   P2O5  2
 P4O10

2. Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, tea, chocolate, and some medications, contains
49.48% carbon, 5.15% hydrogen, 28.87% nitrogen, and 16.49% oxygen by mass
and has a molar mass of 194.2. Determine the molecular formula of caffeine.

A chemical change or chemical reaction is a process in which one or more pure substances are
converted into one or more different pure substances. Chemical changes lead to the formation of
substances that help grow our food, make our lives more productive, cure our heartburn, and
much, much more.
For example, nitric acid, HNO3, which is used to make fertilizers and explosives, is formed in the
chemical reaction of the gases ammonia, NH3, and oxygen, O2. Silicon dioxide, SiO2, reacts with
carbon, C, at high temperature to yield silicon, Si—which can be used to make computers—and

carbon monoxide, CO. An antacid tablet might contain calcium carbonate, CaCO 3, which
combines with the hydrochloric acid in your stomach to yield calcium chloride, CaCl2, water, and
carbon dioxide. The chemical equations for these three chemical reactions are below.
Once you know how to read these chemical equations, they will tell you many details about the
reactions that take place.
Interpreting a Chemical Equation
In chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged and regrouped through the breaking and making of
chemical bonds. For example, when hydrogen gas, H2( g ), is burned in the presence of gaseous
oxygen, O2( g ), a new substance, liquid water, H2O(l ), forms. The covalent bonds within the H2

molecules and O2 molecules break, and new covalent bonds form between oxygen atoms and
hydrogen atoms

A chemical equation is a shorthand description of a chemical reaction. The following equation

describes the burning of hydrogen gas to form liquid water.

2H2( g ) + O2( g ) →2H2O(l )

Chemical equations give the following information about chemical reactions.

i. Chemical equations show the formulas for the substances that take part in the reaction. The
formulas on the left side of the arrow represent the reactants, the substances that change in the
reaction. The formulas on the right side of the arrow represent the products, the substances that
are formed in the reaction. If there are more than one reactant or more than one product, they are
separated by plus signs. The arrow separating the reactants from the products can be read as
“goes to” or “yields” or “produces.”

ii. The physical states of the reactants and products are provided in the equation. A ( g ) following a
formula tells us the substance is a gas. Solids are described with
(s). Liquids are described with (l ). When a substance is dissolved in water, it is described with (aq)
for aqueous, which means “mixed with water.”
iii. The relative numbers of particles of each reactant and product are indicated by numbers
placed in front of the formulas. These numbers are called coefficients. An equation containing
correct coefficients is called a balanced equation. For example, the 2’s in front of H2 and H2O
in the equation we saw above are coefficients. If a formula in a balanced equation has no
stated coefficient, its coefficient is understood to be 1, as is the case for oxygen in the equation
above (Figure 2).

iv. If special conditions are necessary for a reaction to take place, they are often specified above the
arrow. Some examples of special conditions are electric current, high temperature, high pressure,
and light.
The burning of hydrogen gas must be started with a small flame or a spark, but that
is not considered a special condition. There is no need to indicate it above the
arrow in the equation for the creation of water from hydrogen and oxygen.
However, the conversion of water back to hydrogen and oxygen does require a

special condition— specifically, exposure to an electric current:

To indicate that a chemical reaction requires the continuous addition of heat in order to proceed, we
place an upper-case Greek delta, , above the arrow in the equation. For example, the conversion
of potassium chlorate (a fertilizer and food additive) to potassium chloride and oxygen requires
the continuous addition of heat:
Balancing Chemical Equations

In chemical reactions, atoms are neither created nor destroyed; they merely change partners.
Thus, the number of atoms of an element in the reaction’s products is equal to the number of
atoms of that element in the original reactants. The coefficients we often place in front of one or
more of the formulas in a chemical equation reflect this fact. They are used whenever necessary to
balance the number of atoms of a particular element on either side of the arrow.
For an example, let’s return to the reaction of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form liquid water.
The equation for the reaction between H2( g ) and O2( g ) to form H2O(l ) shows there are two
atoms of oxygen in the diatomic O2 molecule to the left of the arrow, so there should also be two
atoms of oxygen in the product to the right of the arrow. Because each water molecule, H2O,
contains only one oxygen atom, two water molecules must form for each oxygen molecule that
reacts. The coefficient 2 in front of the H2O(l ) makes this clear. But two water molecules contain
four hydrogen atoms, which means that two hydrogen molecules must be present on the reactant
side of the equation for the numbers of H atoms to balance (Figure 4.2 on the previous page).
2H2( g ) + O2( g ) → 2H2O(l )
Note that we do not change the subscripts in the formulas, because that would change the
identities of the substances. For example, changing the formula on the right of the arrow in the

equation above to H2O2 would balance the atoms without using coefficients, but the resulting
equation would be incorrect.
Water is H2O, whereas H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide, a very different substance from water. (You
add water to your hair to clean it; you add hydrogen peroxide to your hair to bleach it.)
The following sample study sheet shows a procedure that you can use to balance chemical
equations. It is an approach that chemists often call balancing equations “by inspection.” Examples
1 through 5, which follow the study sheet, will help to clarify the process.

You are asked to balance a chemical equation.

General StePS
Consider the first element listed in the first formula in the equation.
If this element is mentioned in two or more formulas on the same side of the arrow, skip it until
after the other elements are balanced. (See Example 2.)
If this element is mentioned in one formula on each side of the arrow, balance it by placing
coefficients in front of one or both of these formulas.
Moving from left to right, repeat the process for each element.
When you place a number in front of a formula that contains an element you tried to balance
previously, recheck that element and put its atoms back in balance. (See Examples 2 and 3.)
Continue this process until the number of atoms of each element is balanced.
The following strategies can be helpful for balancing certain equations.
StRategY 1 Often, an element can be balanced by using the subscript for this element on the left
side of the arrow as the coefficient in front of the formula containing this element on the right
side of the arrow, and vice versa (using the subscript of this element on the right side of the arrow
as the coefficient in front of the formula containing this element on the left side). (See Example
3.)
StRategY 2 It is sometimes easiest, as a temporary measure, to balance the pure nonmetallic

elements (H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, S8, Se8, and P4) with a fractional coefficient ( 1/ 2, 3 /2, 5/
2, etc.). If you do use a fraction during the balancing process, you can eliminate it later by
multiplying each coefficient in the equation by the fraction’s denominator (which is usually the
number 2). (See Example 4.
StRategY 3 If polyatomic ions do not change in the reaction, and therefore appear in the same
form on both sides of the chemical equation, they can be balanced as though they were single
atoms. (See Example 5.)
StRategY 4 If you find an element difficult to balance, leave it for later.

ExamPles See Examples 1 to 4

1. Balance the following equation so that it correctly describes the reaction for the formation of
dinitrogen oxide (commonly called nitrous oxide), an anesthetic used in dentistry and surgery.
NH3( g ) + O2( g ) → N2O( g ) + H2O(l )

Solution
The following table shows that the atoms are not balanced yet.

Element Left Right

N 1 2
H 3 2
O 2 2
Nitrogen is the first element in the first formula. It is found in one formula on each side of the
arrow, so we can try to balance it now. There are two nitrogen atoms on the right side of the
equation and only one on the left; we bring them into balance by placing a 2 in front of NH3.
2NH3( g ) + O2( g ) → N2O( g ) + H2O(l )
There are now six hydrogen atoms on the left side of the arrow (in the two NH3 molecules) and
only two H’s on the right, so we balance the hydrogen atoms by placing a 3 in front of the H2O.
This gives six atoms of hydrogen on each side.
2NH3( g ) + O2( g ) →N2O( g ) + 3H2O(l )
There are now two oxygen atoms on the left and four on the right (in one N2O and three H2O’s),
so we balance the oxygen atoms by placing a 2 in front of the O2.
2NH3( g ) + 2O2( g ) → N2O( g ) + 3H2O(l )
The following space-filling models show how you might visualize the relative number of particles
participating in this reaction. You can see that the atoms regroup but are neither created nor
destroyed.
The following table shows that the atoms are now balanced.

Element Left Right

N 2 2
H 6 6
O 4 4

2. Balance the following equation.

N2H4(l ) + N2O4(l ) →N2( g ) + H2O(l )

Solution

Nitrogen is the first element in the equation; however, because nitrogen is found in two formulas
on the left side of the arrow, we will leave the balancing of the nitrogen atoms until later.
Balance the hydrogen atoms by placing a 2 in front of H2O.
N2H4(l ) + N2O4(l ) →N2( g ) + 2H2O(l )
Balance the oxygen atoms by changing the 2 in front of H2O to a 4.

N2H4(l ) + N2O4(l ) →N2( g ) + 4H2O(l )

Because we unbalanced the hydrogen atoms in the process of balancing the oxygen atoms, we
need to go back and re-balance the hydrogen atoms by placing a 2 in front of the N2H4.
2N2H4(l ) + N2O4(l ) → N2( g ) + 4H2O(l )
Finally, we balance the nitrogen atoms by placing a 3 in front of N2.
2N2H4(l ) + N2O4(l ) → 3N2( g ) + 4H2O(l )
The following table shows that the atoms are now balanced.

Element Left Right

N 6 6
H 8 8
O 4 4

3. Balance the following equation so that it correctly describes the reaction for the formation
of tetraphosphorus trisulfide (used in the manufacture of matches).

P4(s) + S8(s) → P4S3(s)

Solution

The phosphorus atoms appear to be balanced at this stage.

We can balance the sulfur atoms by using the subscript for the sulfur on the right (3) as the
coefficient for S8 on the left and using the subscript for the sulfur on the left (8) as the coefficient
for the sulfur compound on the right. (Strategy 1)

Balance the following equation so that it correctly describes the reaction for the formation of
aluminum oxide (used to manufacture glass).
Al(s) + O2( g ) → Al2O3(s)
Solution
4. Balance the aluminum atoms by placing a 2 in front of the Al.
2Al(s) + O2( g ) → Al2O3(s)
There are three oxygen atoms on the right and two on the left. We can bring them into balance by

placing 3 2 in front of the O2. Alternatively, we could place a 3 in front of the O2 and a 2 in front
of the Al2O3, but that would un-balance the aluminum atoms. By inserting only one coefficient,
in front of the O2, to balance the oxygen atoms, the aluminum atoms remain balanced. We arrive

at 3 2 by asking what number times the subscript 2 of the O2 would give us three atoms of

oxygen on the left side: 3 2 times 2 is 3. (Strategy 2)

2Al(s) + 3 /2O2( g ) → Al2O3(s)

It is a good habit to eliminate the fraction by multiplying all the coefficients by the denominator
of the fraction, in this case 2. (Some instructors consider fractional coefficients to be incorrect, so
check with your instructor to find out if you will be allowed to leave them in your final answer.)
4Al(s) + 3O2( g ) → 2Al2O3(s)
Balance the following equation for the chemical reaction that forms zinc phosphate (used in
dental cements and for making galvanized nails).
Zn(NO3)2(aq) + Na3PO4(aq) → Zn3(PO4)2(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Solution
5. Balance the zinc atoms by placing a 3 in front of Zn(NO3)2.
3Zn(NO3)2(aq) + Na3PO4(aq) → Zn3(PO4)2(s) + NaNO3(aq)

The nitrate ions, NO3-, emerge unchanged from the reaction, so we can balance them as though

they were single atoms. There are six NO3- ions in three Zn(NO3)2. We therefore place a 6 in
front of the NaNO3 to balance the nitrates. (Strategy 3)
3Zn(NO3)2(aq) + Na3PO4(aq) → Zn3(PO4)2(s) + 6NaNO3(aq)
Balance the sodium atoms by placing a 2 in front of the Na3PO4.
3Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2Na3PO4(aq) → Zn3(PO4)2(s) + 6NaNO3(aq)

The phosphate ions, PO 3-, do not change

4 in the reaction, so we can balance them as though they
were single atoms. There are two on each side, so the phosphate ions are balanced. (Strategy 3)
3Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2Na3PO4(aq) → Zn3(PO4)2(s) + 6NaNO3(aq)

Balance the following chemical equations.

P4(s) + Cl2( g ) → PCl3(l ) Phosphorus trichloride, PCl3, is an intermediate for the production of
pesticides and gasoline additives.
PbO(s) + NH3( g ) → Pb(s) + N2( g ) + H2O(l ) Lead, Pb, is used in storage batteries and as radiation
shielding.
P4O10(s) + H2O(l ) → H3PO4(aq) Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is used to make fertilizers and detergents.
Mn(s) + CrCl3(aq) →MnCl2(aq) + Cr(s) Manganese (II) chloride, MnCl2, is used in pharmaceutical
preparations.
C2H2( g ) + O2( g ) → CO2( g ) + H2O(l ) Acetylene, C2H2, is used in welding torches.
Co(NO3)2(aq) + Na3PO4(aq) → Co3(PO4)2(s) + NaNO3(aq) Cobalt phosphate, Co3(PO4)2, is
used to color glass and as an additive to animal feed.
CH3NH2( g ) + O2( g ) + CO2( g ) → H2O(l ) + N2( g ) Methylamine, CH3NH2, is a fuel additive.
FeS(s) + O2( g ) + H2O(l ) → Fe2O3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3, is a
paint pigment..
THINGS TO CONSIDER IN BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
The subscript numbers written within the formulae should not be changed but coefficients in
front of the formulae can be changed
Common gases like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine are diatomic in their free states
Elements such as sodium, potassium, copper and iron in their free states are represented by their
atomic symbols.
In simple chemical reactions, radicals remain unchanged during the reaction.
CALCULATIONS FROM CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Calculate the mass of lead which would be obtained by heating 35.25g of trilead tetraoxide in a
stream of hydrogen and the mass of water formed at the same time. ( Pb=207, H=1, O=16)
Solution
Pb3O4(s) + 4H2(g) 3Pb(s) + 4H2O(g)
Reacting masses: 685g 621g 71g (i)
From the equation;
685g of Pb3O4 produced 621g of Pb
35.25g of Pb3O4 will produce 35.25 x 621 = 31.96g of Pb
685 (ii)
From the equation;
685g of Pb3O4 produced 72g of H2O
32.25g of Pb3O4 will produce 32.25 x 72 = 3.71g of H2O
685
If 23g of impure calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) reacts with excess acid liberating 4.2dm 3 of
carbon (IV) oxide at s.t.p. calculate the percentage purity of the impure salt. (Ca=40, C=12,
O=16, H=1)
Solution
CaCO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
100g 22.4dm3
22.4dm3 of CO2 was produced by 100g of CaCO3 at s.t.p

4.26 of CO2 will be produced by 4.26 x 100 = 19g of CaCO3

22.4
The mass of pure CaCO3 therefore is 19g
% purity = mass of pure CaCO3 x 100
Mass of impure CaCO3
= 82.61%
BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION (EXAMPLE)
To balance the equation for the combustion of ammonia in air Step 1: write the reactants and
products
NH3(g) + O2(g) NO(g) + H2O(g)
Step 2: balance the number of hydrogen atoms on both sides by placing 4 in front of NH3 and 6
in front of H2O
4NH3(g) + O2(g) NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Step 3: place 4 in front of NO to balance with the 4 atoms of nitrogen at the left-hand side
4NH3(g) + O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Step 4: place a 5 in front O2 to balance the number of oxygen atoms on both sides
4NH3(g)+ 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)