INTRODUCTION

Chemistry is the branch of science that describes matter and its composition,
structure, properties, and transformations.

Matter can be defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. A
substance need not be visible, even to the most powerful microscope, to be
considered matter as long as it meets the above two criteria.

Matter can be described in terms describing its state, and its physical and
chemical properties. Transformations between states and properties are also
possible.

States of Matter

Matter can exist in three different physical states: solid, liquid, or gas. Solids
have an ordered arrangement of particles close together, giving them a rigid
structure with a definite shape and volume. They have very little capability to
compress or expand. Liquids have a definite volume, but no specific shape. They will
flow and assume the shape of the container that holds them. Gases have no fixed
volume or shape because their particles are in constant motion. They assume the
shape and volume of their container. A gas consists mainly of empty space with the
particles of gas far apart from each other. Therefore, they are easily compressible to
occupy a smaller volume as well as expandable to fill a larger container.

The state of matter observed for a particular substance is dependent on the

temperature and pressure. At room temperature, most substances are solid;
however, some organics are liquids, and a few substances exist in the gaseous.
state.

For example, at standard room-temperature conditions:

Oxygen, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and methane are gases

Mercury and bromine are liquids

Iron and copper are solids

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Matter is classified according to different characteristics or properties. Since

these properties are distinct, they are used to identify and distinguish hetween
different substances. The properties of matter are classified as either chemical or
physical.

1. Chemical Properties
 Chemical properties describe the way in which a substance can undergo
change. They are those properties that matter exhibits as it undergoes a change in
its composition. The change usually results from a chemical reaction leading to the
formation of a new substance,

For example, iron will combine with oxygen to produce rust, a new substance.
Sulphur will combine with silver to produce tarnish. Magnesium reacts with oxygen to
produce magnesium oxide, a white powder.

2. Physical Properties

Physical properties are those characteristics used to describe a substance, or

those properties that can be observed without a change in the composition of the
matter. Physical properties include colour, hardness, density, boiling point, electrical
conductivity, and many others. Although the physical appearance of the substance
may change, the chemical composition is still the same.

For example, a block of ice is composed of a hydrogen and oxygen

compound in the solid state. When the ice melts into water, its physical state
changes to a liquid, but it is still chemically composed of the same hydrogen and
oxygen compound.

Physical properties can be further subdivided, as follows:

An intensive property is one that is not dependent on the amount of matter.

The boiling point of water is normally 100°C, whether boiling one litre or one
thousand litres. The colour of iodine remains. unchanged, independent of the
volume. All chemical properties are intensive.

An extensive property is one that is dependent on the amount of matter.

Volume and mass are both examples of extensive properties.

Since no two substances have identical physical and chemical properties

under the same conditions, this information is used to distinguish between them. For
instance, water is the only clear, colourless liquid that has a density of 1.00 g/mL and
boils at 100°C under standard pressure.

CHANGES IN MATTER

Changes in matter involve the transformation from one form to another. These
changes can be either chemical or physical, and both require a change in energy.

1. Chemical Change

Chemical change involves a change in the chemical composition of a

substance. The original substance or substances are used up and a new substance
or substances formed. Each new substance is different both chemically and
physically from the original.
 Substances display their chemical properties whenever they undergo a
chemical reaction. When fuel gases react with air in a combustion reaction, carbon
dioxide and water are formed as products. These products differ both chemically and
physically from the original reactants.

2. Physical Change

Physical changes occur when physical properties are altered without a

change in chemical composition. After the physical change, the original substances
remain; no new substance is formed. A change in physical state (for example,
changes in water from a liquid to a solid or gaseous state) is perhaps the most
common type of physical change.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Matter can be classified into two main categories mixtures and pure substances then
further divided into four distinct groups, as shown in Fig. 3.

MATTER

Mixtures
Pure Substances
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Compounds
Elements

Mixtures

Most natural substances in the world are mixtures; that is, they are combinations of
two or more pure substances that aren't chemically bound to each other. The
components of a mixture can therefore be separated by physical means. Although
the composition of a mixture can vary, thus leading to variation in properties, each
component of the mixture retains its individual composition and properties.

1. Homogeneous Mixtures

A homogeneous mixture, also called a solution, exhibits uniform composition

throughout and therefore has only one set of properties. Homogeneous mixtures are
possible only when all the components are in the same physical state.

Flue gas is an example of a homogeneous mixture of a number of different

gases: metal alloys are examples of homogeneous mixtures of solid elements.

2. Heterogeneous Mixtures

A heterogeneous mixture has a non-uniform composition as well as differing

properties. The substances may or may not be in the same physical state.
 An oil and water emulsion is a heterogeneous mixture of one physical state,
both liquids; a mixture of sand and water is a heterogeneous mixture of two different
physical states, solid and liquid.

Pure Substances

A pure substance can be defined as any type of matter that has a constant
composition and displays identical properties under identical conditions. There are
two types of pure substances: compounds and elements.

1. Compounds

A compound is a pure substance that consists of two or more elements,

chemically bound together, in fixed proportions by mass. All samples of a given
substance will contain the same elements in the same proportions. This is called the
Law of Constant Composition. The compounds can only be separated into their
constituent elements by chemical means in which the compound is destroyed.

There are millions of compounds known in the world today, but only a small
number of elements. Water, for example, is a compound composed of hydrogen and
oxygen in fixed proportions. It can be broken down into these two elements by
passing an electric current through it which breaks the chemical bonds.

The physical and chemical properties of a compound are distinctly different

from those of the elements from which it is composed. NaCl (table salt) is a white
granular solid composed of the elements soxlium (Na) and chlorine (Cl). Sodium is a
silvery metal that reacts violently with water, and chlorine is a green poisonous gas.

2. Elements

Elements are pure substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler forms
of matter. There are 109 known elements in existence today. They are the building
blocks of all other forms of matter. Eighty-eight of these elements occur naturally.
They are distributed very unevenly in the universe, with only a few predominating.
The remaining 21 elements are synthesized in the laboratory from natural elements.

THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

A few elements were known in ancient times. Over the centuries, as studies
gathered more data on the known elements and identified new ones, scientists felt it
necessary to organize the large amount of information that was being amassed.
They noticed that certain groups of elements possessed similar properties, and
grouped these elements together in a graphical format called a periodic. The system
was first developed by Jons Berzelius in 1814. The name of each element usually
represents its discoverer, and the symbols assigned to each are characteristic of the
element's name. The symbol may consist of one, two, or three letters, with the first
letter capitalized. For example, calcium is symbolized Ca and hydrogen is
symbolized H.

Some elements don't follow this pattern. For example, the symbol for tungsten
is W, because tungsten is derived from the German word wolfram. Other symbols
come from Latin words, such as Na (natrium) for sodium, Pb (plumbum) for lead and
Fe (ferrum) for iron.

The only elements that use three letters for their symbol are those of the
elements 104 through 109. These symbols have been derived from a Latin-Greek
naming system.

The periodic table provides a great deal of information about the elements,
such as their mass, ionic charge, and nuclear particles.