ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE A2 LEVEL
MATHEMATICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE PURE 3 SYLLABUS
Prepared for Vũ Ngọc for personal use only.
CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

n n (n − 1 ) 2 n (n − 1 ) (n − 2 ) 3
1+ x+ x + x +…
1 1×2 1×2×3
1. Algebra
​ ​ ​

Factor case: if constant is not 1, pull out a factor from

brackets to make it 1 & use general equation. Do not
1.1. The Modulus Function forget the indices.
Substitution case: if bracket contains more than one x
It gives the absolute value of a number.
term (e.g. ( 2 − x + x 2 )) then make the last part u ,
The modulus of a value gives the distance of the value
expand and then substitute back in.
from the origin.
Finding the limit of x **in expansion:
No line with a modulus ever goes under the x-axis. n
**E.g. (1 + ax ) , limit can be found by substituting ax
Any line that does go below the x-axis, when modulated is
reflected above it. between the modulus sign in ∣x ∣ < 1 and altering it to
have only x in the modulus
∣a × b∣ = ∣a∣ × ∣b∣

∣a∣ ∣a∣ {S15-P31} Question 3:

=
∣b∣ ∣b∣ Show that, for small values of x 2 ,
​ ​ ​ ​

2
∣x 2 ∣ = ∣x ∣2 = x 2 (1 − 2x 2 )
−2
− (1 + 6x 2 ) 3 ≈ kx 4 ,
∣ ∣
​

​ ​

∣x ∣ = ∣a∣ ⇔x 2 = a2 where the value of the constant k is to be determined.

Solution:
x 2 = ∣x ∣
​

Expand (1 − 2x 2 )
−2
until the x 4 term
Graph of y=| x∣ −2 ((−2 ) − 1 ) 2
(1 + x )−2 = 1 + (−2 ) x + x
1×2
​

= 1 − 2x + 3x 2
−2 2
(1 + 2x 2 ) = 1 − 2 (2x 2 ) + 3 (2x 2 ) = 1 − 4x 2 + 12x
2
Expand (1 + 6x 2 ) 3 until the x 4 term
​

2 (( 23 ) − 1 ) 2
2
(1 + x ) 3 = 1 + ( ) x +
2
3 ​ ​

x
3 1×2
​ ​

2 1
x − x2
=1+
3 9
​ ​

2 2 1 2
(1 + 6x 2 ) 3 = 1 + (6x 2 ) − (6x 2 ) = 1 + 4x 2 − 4x 4
​

3 9
​ ​

2
Subtract the terms of the expansion of (1 + 6x 2 ) 3 from
​

−2
1.2. Polynomials those of (1 − 2x 2 )

To find unknowns in a given identity, either (1 − 4x 2 + 12x 4 ) − ( 1 + 4x 2 − 4x 4 )

Substitute suitable values of x
Equalize given coefficients of like powers of x
= −8x 2 + 16x 4

The value of k is:

Factor theorem: If (x − t) is a factor of the function p (x )
then p (t) = 0 16
Remainder theorem: If the function f (x ) is divided by
(x − t) then the remainder: R = f (t) 1.4. Partial Fractions
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder ax + b A B
≡ +
(px + q)(rx + s) px + q rx + s
​ ​ ​

1.3. Binomial Series

Multiply (px + q), substitute x = − pq and find A ​

n
Expanding (1 + x ) where ∣x ∣ < 1

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Multiply (rx + s), substitute x = − rs and find B 5 15

​

B=5−
2 2
​ ​

ax 2 + bx + c A B C
2 ≡ + + 2 B = −1
px + q rx + s
​ ​ ​ ​

(px + q ) (rx + s) (rx + s)

Thus, the partial fraction is:
Multiply (px + q), substitute x = − pq and find A ​

2
Multiply (rx + s) , substitute x = − rs and find C −2 −1
​

2+ +
x+1 2x − 3
​ ​

Substitute any constant e.g. x = 0 and find B

ax 2 + bx + c Bx + C
2
(px + q)(rx + s)
≡
A
px + q
+
rx 2 + s
​ ​ ​ 2. Logarithmic & Exponential
Multiply (px + q), substitute x = − pq and find A ​
Functions
Take px+q
A to the other side, subtract and simplify.
​

Linear eqn. left at top is equal to Bx + C

Improper fraction case: if numerator has x to the degree
of power equivalent or greater than the denominator then
another constant is present. This can be found by dividing
denominator by numerator and using remainder

{S12-P33} Question 8:
Express the following in partial fractions:
2.2. Graphs of ln(x) and ex
4x 2 − 7x − 1
(x + 1 ) (2x − 3 )
​

Solution:
Expand the brackets

4x 2 − 7x − 1
2x 2 − x − 3
​

Greatest power of x same in numerator and denominator,

thus is an improper fraction case
Making into proper fraction:

This is written as:

5 − 5x
2+
(x + 1 ) (2x − 3 )
​

Now proceed with normal case for the fraction: 3. Trigonometry

A B 5 − 5x
+ = 3.1. Ratios
x+1 2x − 3 (x + 1 ) (2x − 3 )
​ ​ ​

A (2x − 3 ) + B (x + 1 ) = 5 − 5x sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ
​

When x = −1
1
sec θ =
−5A = 5 + 5 cos θ
​

1
A = −2 cosecθ =
sin θ
​

When x = 32 cos θ
cot θ =
​

sin θ
​

5 15

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

3.2. Identities
(cos θ )2 + (sin θ )2 ≡ 1
2 2
1 + (tan θ ) ≡ (sec θ )

(cot θ )2 + 1 ≡ (cosecθ )2

3.3. Graphs
y = sin2 2x cos x , for 0 ≤ x ≥
Diagram shows curve,
π
2,​

and M is maximum point. Find the x coordinate of M .

Solution:
Use product rule to differentiate:

u = sin2 2x v = cos x
′ ′
u = 4 sin 2x cos 2x v = − sin x
dy ′ ′
= u v + uv
dx
​

dy
= (4 sin 2x cos 2x ) (cos x ) + (sin2 2x ) (− sin x )
dx
​

dy
dx ​ = 4 sin 2x cos 2x cos x − sin2 2x sin x
Use following identities:

cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1
3.4. Double Angle Identities
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
sin 2A ≡ 2 sin A cos A
sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x
cos 2A ≡ (cos A)2 − (sin A)2
Equating to 0 :
2 2
≡ 2 (cos A) − 1 ≡ 1 − 2 (sin A) dy
=0
dx
​

2 tan A
tan 2A ≡
1 − (tan A)2 ∴ 4 sin 2x cos 2x cos x − sin2 2x sin x = 0
​

4 sin 2x cos 2x cos x = sin2 2x sin x

3.5. Addition Identities
Cancel sin 2x on both sides
sin (A ± B ) ≡ sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
4 cos 2x cos x = sin 2x sin x
cos (A ± B ) ≡ cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
Substitute identities
tan A ± tan B
tan (A ± B ) ≡
1 ∓ tan A tan B 4 (2 cos2 x − 1 ) cos x = (2 sin x cos x ) sin x
​

3.6. Changing Forms Cancel cos x and constant 2 from both sides

4 cos2 x − 2 = sin2 x
a sin x ± b cos x ⟺ R sin (x ± α )
a cos x ± b sin x ⟺ R cos (x ∓ α ) Use identity
Where R = a2 + b2 and
4 cos2 x − 2 = 1 − cos2 x
​

R cos α = a ∣ R sin α = b with 0 < α < 12 π ​

5 cos2 x = 3
{S13-P33} Question 9:

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

3 r sin 2θ
cos2 x = BA =
5 sin θ
​
​

cos x = 0.7746 2r sin θ cos θ

=
sin θ
​

x = cos−1 (0.7746 )
= 2r cos θ
x = 0.6847 ≈ 0.685
Substitute back into initial equation

1 2
{W13-P31} Question 6: ABC = (2θ ) (2r cos θ )
2
​

ABC = 4θr 2 cos2 θ

Now express area of kite ABOC

ABOC = 2 × Area of T riangle

1 2
ABOC = 2 × r sin (π − 2θ )
2
​

= r 2 sin (π − 2θ)

Finally, the expression of shaded region equated to half of

circle

1 2
4r 2 θ cos2 θ + r 2 (π − 2θ ) − r 2 sin (π − 2θ) = πr
2
​

Cancel our r 2 on both sides for all terms

1
4θ cos2 θ + π − 2θ − (sin π cos 2θ + sin 2θ cos π ) = π
2
​

A is a point on circumference of a circle center O , radius r . A Some things in the double angle cancel out
circular arc, center A meets circumference at B & C . Angle
1
OAB is θ radians. The area of the shaded region is equal to 4θ cos2 θ + π − 2θ − sin 2θ = π
2
​

half the area of the circle.

Show that: Use identity here

2 sin 2θ − r cos 2θ + 1 1
cos 2θ = 4θ ( ) + π − sin 2θ − 2θ = π
4θ 2 2
​ ​
​

Solution: 4θ cos 2θ + 4θ + 2π − 2 sin 2θ − 4θ = π

First express area of sector OBAC
Clean up
1 2
Sector Area = θr
2 4θ cos 2θ + 2π − 2 sin 2θ = π
​

1 4θ cos 2θ = 2 sin 2θ − π
OBAC = (2π − 4θ ) r 2 = (π − 2θ ) r 2
2
​

2 sin 2θ − π
Now express area of sector ABC cos 2θ =
4θ
​

1
ABC = (2θ ) (Length of BA)2
2 4. Differentiation
​

Express BA using sine rule

r sin (π − 2θ ) 4.1. Basic Derivatives

BA =
sin θ
​

xn nx n−1
Use double angle rules to simplify this expression
du u
eu e
dx
​

θ d

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

du 1
ln u dx ​

sin (ax + b) − cos (ax + b)

​

u
​

a
1
sin (ax) a cos (ax) cos (ax + b) sin (ax + b)
​

a
cos (ax) − a sin (ax) 1
sec 2 (ax + b) tan (ax + b) ​

2 a
tan (ax) a sec (ax)
n+1
a n (ax + b)
−1
tan (ax) (ax + b)
a(n + 1)
​

2
1 + (ax)
​

1 1 x
tan−1 ( )
4.2. Chain, Product and Quotient Rule x2 + a2
​ ​ ​

a a
Integration reverses a differentiation. It is the reverse of
Chain Rule:
differentiation.
dy dy du Use trigonometrical relationships to facilitate complex
= × trigonometric integrals.
dx du dx
​ ​ ​

Integrate by decomposing into partial fraction.

Product Rule:

d
(uv) = u
dv
+v
du 5.2. Integration by u-Substitution
dx dx dx
​ ​ ​

dx
Quotient Rule: ∫ f (x ) dx = ∫ f(x) du
du
​ ​ ​

d u v du − u dv
( ) = dx 2 dx Make x equal to something: when differentiated, multiply
​ ​

dx v
​ ​ ​

v the substituted form directly

Make u equal to something: when differentiated, multiply
4.3. Parametric Equations the substituted form with its reciprocal
With definite integrals, change limits in terms of u
dy dy dx
= ÷
dx dt dt
​ ​ ​

{W12-P33} Question 7:
In a parametric equation x and y are given in terms of t
The diagram shows part of curve y = sin3 2x cos3 2x . The
and you must use the above rule to find the derivative
shaded region shown is bounded by the curve and the x -axis
and its exact area is denoted by A.
4.4. Implicit Functions ‎

These represent circles or lines with circular curves, on a

Cartesian plane
Difficult to rearrange in form y = ∴ differentiate as is
Differentiate x terms as usual
For y terms, differentiate the same as you would x but
multiply with dy
dx ​

Then make dy
dx the subject of formula for derivative
​

5. Integration Use the substitution u = sin 2x in a suitable integral to find

‎

the value of A
5.1. Basic Integrals Solution:
To find the limit, you are trying to the find the points at which
x n+1 y=0
axn a +c
(n + 1) sin x = 0 at x = 0, π, 2π cos x = 0 at x = π2 , 3π
​

4 ​ ​

1 ax+b Choose the two closest to 0 because the shaded area has
eax+b ​
e gone through y = 0 only twice
a
1 1 π
ln ∣ax + b∣ ∴ 0 and
ax + b 2
​

a
​ ​

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Since it is sin 2x and cos 2x , divide both by 2 dv du

∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx dx
​ ​ ​ ​

π
∴ Limits are 0 and
4 For a definite integral:
​

Integrate by u substitution, let: b

dv b
du
∫ u dx = [uv]ba − ∫ v dx
du dx 1 dx dx
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

a a
u = sin 2x = 2 cos 2x =
dx du 2 cos 2x
​ ​ ​

What to make u :
3 3 3 2
sin 2x cos 2x ≡ (sin 2x ) (cos 2x ) cos 2x

≡ (sin3 2x × (1 − sin2 2x )) cos 2x

1
≡ (sin3 2x − sin5 2x ) cos 2x × {W13-P31} Question 3:
2 cos 2x
​

Find the exact value of

1 3
≡ (u − u 5 ) 4
2 ln x
​

∫ ​ dx ​

Now integrate: 1 x ​

1 1 u4 u6 Solution:
∫ (u 3 − u 5 ) = ( − ) Convert to index form:
2 2 4 6
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

ln x 1
The limits are x = 0 and x = π4 . In terms of u , = x 2 ln x ​

x
​
​

u = sin 2 (0 ) = 0 and u = sin 2 ( π4 ) = 1

​

Substitute limits Integrate by parts, let:

1 14 16 1 04 06 1 du 1 dv
( − )− ( − )=
1 1
u = ln x = = x− 2 ​

v = 2x 2 ​

2 4 6 2 4 6 24 dx x dx
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

∴ ln x2x 2 − ∫ 2x 2 × x −1 ≡ 2 x ln x − ∫ 2x − 2 ≡ 2
1 1 1
′
f (x)
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

5.3. Integrating f(x) ​

Substitute limits
′
f ( x)
∫ dx = ln ∣f(x)∣ + k = 4 ln 4 − 4
f ( x)
​ ​

5.5. Integrating Powers of Sine or

{S10-P32} Question 10:
By splitting into partial fractions, show that:
Cosine
2
2x 3 − 1 3 1 16 To integrate sin x or cos x with a power:
∫ 2
dx = + ln ( )
x (2x − 1 ) 2 2 27
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1 If power is odd, pull out a sin x or cos x and use

Solution: Pythagorean identities and double angle identities
Write as partial fractions If power is even, use the following identities

2 2 1 1
2x 3 − 1 2 1 3 sin2 x = − cos (2x)
∫ dx ≡ ∫ 1+ + 2 + dx 2 2
​ ​

2
x (2x − 1 ) 2x − 1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1 1 x x
1 1
−1 3 cos2 x = + cos (2x)
≡ x + 2 ln x − x − ln ∣2x − 1 ∣ 2 2
​ ​

2
​

Substitute the limits 5.6. Integrating cosm x sinn x

1 3 3
2 + 2 ln 2 − − ln 3 − 1 − 2 ln 1 + 1 + ln 1 If m or n are odd and even, then:
2 2 2
​ ​ ​

3 1 1 1 3 1 16 Factor out one power from odd trig function

+ ln 16 + ln 3 ≡ + ln Use Pythagorean identities to transform remaining even
2 2 2 3 2 2 27
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

trig function into the odd trig function

5.4. Integrating By Parts Let u equal to odd trig function and integrate

d d

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

If m and n are both even, then: 1

≡ (2π − 3)
32
​ ​

Replace all even powers using the double angle identities

and integrate
{W12-P32} Question 5:‎
dy
If m and n are both odd, then: i. By differentiating cos1 x , show that if y ​ = sec x then dx ​ =
sec x tan x
Choose one of the trig. functions & factor out one power 1
ii. Show that sec x−tan ≡ sec x + tan x
Use Pythagorean identity to transform remaining even x ​

iii. Deduce that:

power of chosen trig function into other trig. function
1
If either m or n or both = 1, then: 2 ​
≡ 2 sec 2 x − 1 + 2 sec x tan x
(secx − tan x)
Let u equal to the trig function whose power doesn’t equal
iv. Hence show that:
1 then integrate
If both are 1, then let u equal either 1
4π 1 1
∫ (8 2 − π )
​

2 dx =
(secx − tan x) 4
​ ​ ​ ​

0
{W09-P31} Question 5:
i) Prove the identity Solution:
Part (i)
cos 4θ − 4 cos 2θ + 3 ≡ 8 sin4 θ Change to index form:

ii) Using this result find, in simplified form, the exact value of 1
= cos−1 x
cos x
​

1
π
∫
3
​

​ sin4 θdθ Differentiate by chain rule:

1
6π
dy
​

Solution:
= −1 (cos x )−2 × (− sin x )
dx
​

Part (i)
sin x sin x 1
Use double angle identities −1 (cos x )−2 × (− sin x ) ≡ ≡ ×
cos2 x cos x cos x
​ ​ ​

cos 4θ − 4 cos 2θ + 3 sin x 1

× ≡ sec x tan x
cos x cos x
​ ​

2 2
≡ 1 − 2 sin 2θ − 4 (1 − 2 sin θ ) + 3
Part (ii)
Open everything and clean Multiply numerator and denominator by sec x + tan x
2 2
≡ 1 − 2 sin 2θ − 4 + 8 sin θ + 3 sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
≡
(secx − tan x) (sec x + tan x ) sec 2 x − tan2 x
​ ​

≡ 1 − 2(sin 2θ)2 − 4 + 8 sin2 θ + 3

sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
≡ 1 − 2(2 sin θ cos θ)2 − 4 + 8 sin2 θ + 3 2 2 ≡ ≡ sec x + tan x
sec x − tan x 1
​ ​

≡ 1 − 2 (4 sin2 θ cos2 θ ) − 4 + 8 sin2 θ + 3 Part (iii)

Substitute identity from (part ii)
≡ 1 − 2(4 sin2 θ(1 − sin2 θ)) − 4 + 8 sin2 θ + 3
1
2 4 2 ≡ (secx + tan x)2
≡ 1 − 8 sin θ + 8 sin θ − 4 + 8 sin θ + 3 (secx − tan x)2
​

≡ 8 sin4 θ Open out brackets

Part (ii) 2
(secx + tan x)
Use identity from (part i):
1
≡ sec 2 x + 2 sec x tan x + tan2 x
1 3π
∫
​

cos 4θ − 4 cos 2θ + 3 ≡ sec 2 x + 2 sec x tan x + sec 2 x − 1

8 16 π
​ ​

3π
1 ≡ 2sec 2 x + 2 sec x tan x − 1
1 1
≡ [ sin 4θ − 2 sin θ + 3θ ]
​

8 4 ≡ 2 sec 2 x − 1 + 2 sec x tan x

​ ​ ​

1
π 6
​

Substitute limits Part (iv)

1

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

1 Solution:
∫ 2 dx
(secx − tan x) Part (i)
​ ​

Show a sign change and state it:

≡ ∫ 2 sec 2 x − 1 + 2 sec x tan xdx
​
(1)5 − 3 (1 )3 + (1 )2 − 4 = −5
(2)5 − 3 (2 )3 + (2 )2 − 4 = 8
There is a sign change between the results obtained when
≡ 2 ∫ sec 2 x − ∫ 1 + 2 ∫ sec 2 x tan2 x
​ ​ ​

the values 1 and 2 are substituted into the equation,

therefore the root lies between the values 1 and 2.
Using differential from part i: Part (ii)
Rearrange the equation:
≡ 2 tan x − x + 2 sec x
4
Substitute boundaries: x= 3
(3x + − 1)
x2
​ ​

1
= (8 2 − π ) 4
4 x 3 = 3x +
​ ​

−1
x2
​

6. Numerical Solutions of x 5 = 3x 3 + 4 − x 2

Equations x 5 − 3x 3 + x 2 − 4 = 0
Part (iii)
6.1. Approximation Carry out the iteration using either one of the values that the
root lies in between as the starting point:
To find root of a graph, find point where graph passes
through x -axis ∴ look for a sign change 4
x n+1 = 3
(3x n + − 1)
Carry out decimal search xn 2
​ ​ ​ ​

Substitute values between where a sign change has

occurred x0 = 1
​

Closer to zero, greater accuracy

4
x1 = 3
(3x 0 + − 1 ) = 1.8171
6.2. Iteration x0 2
​ ​ ​ ​

To solve equation f (x ) = 0 , you can rearrange f(x) 4

x2 = 3
(3x 1 + − 1 ) = 1.7824
into a form x = … x1 2
​ ​
​ ​

This function represents a sequence that starts at x₀,

moving to x r 4
Substitute a value for x₀ and put back into function x3 = 3
(3x 2 + − 1 ) = 1.7765
x2 2
​ ​ ​ ​

getting x 1 and so on.

As you increase r, value becomes more accurate 4
Sometimes iteration don’t work, these functions are called x4 = 3
(3x 3 + − 1 ) = 1.7755
x3 2
​ ​ ​ ​

divergent, and you must rearrange the formula for x in

​

another way. The positive root = 1.78

For a successful iterative function, you need a convergent
sequence.
Ensure to use the full value and not the rounded off value 7. Vectors
when carrying out the iteration.

7.1. Vector Notation

{M16-P32} Question 3:
5 3 2
The equation x − 3x + x − 4 = 0 has one positive root. A vector can be represented as AB or a
(i) Verify by calculation that this root lies between 1 and 2. The column vector form:
(ii) Show that the equation can be rearranged in the form
x= 3
(3x + 4
− 1) ⎛x ⎞
AB =
⎝z ⎠
x2 ​
​

y ​ ​ ​

(iii) Use an iterative formula based on this rearrangement to

determine the positive root correct to 2 decimal places. Give
the result of each iteration to 4 decimal places. The linear vector form:

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

AB = xi + yj + zk 7.4. Finding the Equation of a Line

7.2. Calculations with vectors

Addition and Subtraction: Add or subtract each value of
the vector with is corresponding value (i value with i value
& j value with j value etc.)

(xi + yj + zk) + (ai + bj + ck) = (x + a)i + (y + b)j + (z + c)k

To find the equation of the line, given 2 points A and B:
Multiplication by a scalar: Multiply each value of the Find the direction vector using
vector by the given value.
AB = OB − OA
2 (xi + yj + zk) = 2xi + 2yj + 2zk
Substitute the values into the equation:
Magnitude of a vector: Length of the vector r = a + tb
∣ ∣ where a = point A
Magnitude of AB = AB = x 2 + y2 + z 2
∣ ∣
​

b = direction vector (vector AB)

Unit vector: a vector that has a magnitude of 1
t = some scalar
1
Unit Vector of AB = AB
∣AB∣
​

∣ ∣
​ ​

7.5. Parallel, Skew or Intersects

Displacement vector: Vector whose magnitude is the
shortest distance between the two points. It is a straight For the two lines:
line from one point to the other. OA = a + sc OB = b + td
Position vector: Position of a point relative to the origin. It
is a straight line from the origin to a point. The position Parallel:
vector of point A is represented as OA. For the lines to be parallel c must equal d or be in
Dot product: Dot product of vectors a and b is written as some ratio to it e.g. 1 : 2
a.b ,and it can be calculated in two ways. Intersects:
Make OA = OB
Method 1:
If simultaneous works then intersects
a.b = xc + yd + ze If unknowns cancel then no intersection
Skew:
a.b = ∣a∣ ∣b∣ cos θ First check whether line parallel or not
If not, then make OA = OB
Method 2: use the equation
Carry out simultaneous
a, b = ∣a∣∣b∣ cos θ When a pair does not produce same answers as
another, then lines are skew
where cosθ = the angle between the two vectors
∣a∣= magnitude of vector a 7.6. Angle between Two Lines
∣b∣= magnitude of vector b
Use dot product rule on the two direction vectors:
7.3. Equation of a Line a.b
= cos θ
∣a∣ ∣b∣
​

The equation of a straight line is expressed in the form:

r = a + tb Note: a and b must be moving away from the point at
For example: which they intersect
The column vector form:

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
r= 3 + t 1
⎝−2 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The linear vector form:

r = i + 3j − 2k + t (i + j + 3k)

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

OA = i + 2j + 3k and OB = 2i + j + 3k
The line l has vector equation

r = (1 − 2t) i + (5 + t) j + (2 − t) k
i) Show that l does not intersect the line passing through A
and B .
ii) The point P lies on l and is such that angle PAB is equal
to 60 ∘ . Given that the position vector of P is (1 − 2t) i +
(5 + t) j + (2 − t) k, show that 3t2 + 7t + 2 = 0 . Hence
find the only possible position vector of P
Solution:
Part (i)
Firstly, we must find the equation of line AB
7.7. ⊥ Distance from a Line to a Point
AB = OB − OA
AKA: shortest distance from a point to the line
Find vector for the point, B , on the line ⎛2 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 1 − 2 = −1
Vector equation of the line: ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
r= 3 + t 1 ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎝−2 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠ AB = 2 + s −1
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

⎛1+t⎞ and
∴ OB = 3+t
⎝ 3t − 2 ⎠
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛−2 ⎞
​ ​ ​

L= 5 +t 1
A is the point given ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝−1 ⎠
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

⎛2 ⎞ Equating the two lines

OA = 3
⎝4 ⎠
⎛ 1 + s ⎞ ⎛ 1 − 2t⎞
​ ​ ​

2−s = 5+t
⎛ 1 + t− 2 ⎞ ⎛ t− 1 ⎞ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝2−t⎠
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

∴ AB = 3 + t− 3 =
⎝3t − 2 − 4 ⎠ ⎝ 3t − 6 ⎠
​
t ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Equation 1: 1 + s = 1 − 2t so s = −2t
Equation 2: 2 − s = 5 + t
Use Dot product of AB and the direction vector
Substitute 1 into 2:

AB .d = cos 90 2 + 2t = 5 + t

⎛ t − 1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ∴ t = 3 and then s = −6
. 1 =0
⎝ 3t − 6 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
​ t ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Equation 3:

3=2−t
1 (t − 1 ) + 1 (t) + 3 (3t − 6 ) = 0
Substitute the value of t
11t − 19 = 0 3 = 2 − 3 so 3 = −1
This is incorrect therefore lines don’t intersect
19
t= Part (ii)
11
​

Angle PAB is formed by the intersection of the lines AP and

Substitute t into equation to get foot AB
Use Pythagoras’ Theorem to find distance
⎛ 1 − 2t⎞
P = 5+t
⎝2−t⎠
​ ​ ​

{S08-P3} Question:
The points A and B have position vectors, relative to the
origin O, given by AP = OP − OA

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

⎛ 1 − 2t⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ −2t ⎞ 9 + 2λ
=
11 + 14λ
AP = 5+t − 2 = 3+t
⎝ 2 − t ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ −1 − t⎠
3 9 + 4λ + 12λ 2 5 9 + 4λ + 12λ 2
​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
​ ​

Cancel out the denominator to give you

⎛ 1 ⎞ 9 + 2λ 11 + 14λ
AB = −1 =
⎝ 0 ⎠ 3 5
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

45 + 10λ = 33 + 42λ
Now use the dot product rule to form an eqn.
3
12 = 32λ and ∴ λ = 8
∣AP.AB ∣ −3t − 3
​

; = cos 60
∣AP∣ ∣AB ∣ 2
6t + 8t + 10 × 2
​

8. Complex Numbers
​ ​

1
−3t − 3 = 6t2 + 8t + 10 × 2
2
​ ​ ​

36t2 + 72t + 36 = 12t2 + 16t + 20

8.1. The Basics

24t2 + 56t + 16 = 0 i2 = −1
General form for all complex numbers:
t = − 13 or t = −2
​

a + bi
{W11-P31} Question:
With respect to the origin O, the position vectors of two points From this we say:
A and B are given by OA = i + 2j + 2k and Re (a + bi) = a & Im (a + bi) = b
Conjugates:
OB = 3i + 4j. The point P lies on the line through A and B The complex number z and its conjugate z ∗
, and AP = λAB
z = a + bi & z ∗ = a − bi
i) OP = (1 + 2λ ) i + (2 + 2λ ) j + (2 − 2λ ) k
ii) By equating expressions for cos AOP and cos BOP in Arithmetic:
terms of λ , find the value of λ for which OP bisects the angle Addition and Subtraction: add and subtract real and
AOB . imaginary parts with each other
Solution: Multiplication: carry out algebraic expansion, if i2
Part (i) present convert to −1
Division: rationalize denominator by multiplying
AP = λ AB = λ (OB − OA) conjugate pair
Equivalence: equate coefficients
⎛3 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
=λ 4 − 2 = 2
⎝0 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝−2 ⎠ 8.2. Quadratic
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

⎛ 2λ ⎞
Use the quadratic formula:

∴ AP = 2λ b2 − 4ac is a negative value

⎝−2λ ⎠ Pull out a negative and replace with i2
​ ​ ​

Simplify to general form

⎛ 2λ ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ 2λ ⎞ Use sum of 2 squares: consider the example
OP = OA + 2λ = 2 + 2λ
⎝−2λ ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝−2λ ⎠
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Example:
Part (ii) Solve: z 2 + 4z + 13 = 0
Interpreting the question gives the information that AOP is Solution:
equal to BOP ∴ cos AOP is equal to cos BOP. Now you Convert to completed square form:
can equate the two dot product equations
(z + 2 )2 + 9 = 0
OA.OP 9 + 2λ
cos AOP = = Utilize i2 as −1 to make it difference of 2 squares:
∣OA∣ ∣OP∣ 3 9 + 4λ + 12λ 2
​ ​

2
OB.OP 11 + 14λ (z + 2 ) − 9i2 = 0
cos BOP = =
∣OB ∣ ∣OP∣ 5 9 + 4λ + 12λ 2
​ ​

Proceed with general difference of 2 squares method:

λ λ

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

(z + 2 + 3i) (z + 2 − 3i) = 0

z = −2 + 3i and z = −2 − 3i

8.3. Square Roots

Example:
Find square roots of: 4 + 3i
Solution: ‎
We can say that:

4 + 3i = a + bi ​

Square both sides

a2 − b2 + 2abi = 4 + 3i

Equate real and imaginary parts

‎
a2 − b2 = 4 2ab = 3
The position of z ∗ is a reflection in the x -axis of z
Solve simultaneous equation:

3 2 2 8.5. Locus
a= b=
​ ​

2 2
​ ​

∣z − w∣ = r
3 2 2 3 2 2
∴ 4 + 3i = + − −
​ ​ ​ ​

i or i
2 2 2 2 The locus of a point z such that ∣z − w ∣ = r , is a circle with
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

its centre at w and with radius r .

8.4. Argand Diagram
For the complex number z = a + bi

∣z ∣ = a2 + b2 ​

b
arg z = tan−1 ​

a
Simply plot imaginary ( y -axis) against real ( x -axis): arg (z − w)= θ

The locus of a point z such that arg (z − w) = θ is a ray

from w , making an angle θ with the positive real axis.

∣z − w ∣ = ∣z − v ∣

The locus of a point z such that ∣z − w ∣ = ∣z − v ∣ is the

perpendicular bisector of the line joining w and v

Argument:
Always: −π <θ<π

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

{W11-P31} Question 10:

On a sketch of an Argand diagram, shade the region whose
points represent the complex numbers z which satisfy the
inequality∣z − 3i∣ ≤ 2 . Find the greatest value of arg z for
points in this region.
Solution:
The part shaded in blue is the answer.
To find the greatest value of arg z within this region we must
use the tangent at point on the circle which has the greatest
value of θ from the horizontal (red line)
Part (ii)
The greatest value for the real part of z would be the one
which is furthest right on the Re axis but within the limits of
the shaded area. Graphically:

The triangle magnified

Now using circle and Pythagoras theorems we can find the

value of x :

1
x = 2 × cos π
4
​

x= 2 ​

∴ greatest value of Re z = 2 + 2 ​

2
sin α =
3 8.6. Polar Form
​

α = 0.730
For a complex number z with magnitude R and argument
π π θ:
θ = α + = 0.730 + = 2.30
2 2
​ ​

z = R (cos θ + i sin θ ) = Reiθ

{W11-P31} Question 10: ∴ cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ
i. On a sketch of an Argand diagram, shade the region whose
points represent complex numbers satisfying the inequalities Polar Form to General Form:
∣z − 2 + 2i∣ ≤ 2, arg z ≤ − 14 π and Re z ≥ 1 ,
​ Example:
π
ii. Calculate the greatest possible value of Re z for points Convert from polar to general, z = 4e 4 i ​

lying in the shaded region. Solution:

Solution: π
Part (i) R=4 arg z =
4
​

Argand diagram:
π π
∴ z = 4 (cos + i sin )
4 4
​ ​

z = 4( i)
2 2
+
​ ​

2 2
​ ​

z = 2 2 + (2 2 ) i
​ ​

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

General Form to Polar Form: z n = Rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) = Rn einθ

Example:
Convert from general to polar, z = 2 2 + (2 2 ) i
Solution:
​ ​

9. Differential Equations
z = 2 2 + (2 2 ) i ​ ​
Form a differential equation using the information given
If something is proportional, add constant of
2 2 proportionality k
R= (2 2 ) + (2 2 ) = 4 ​ ​ ​

If rate is decreasing, add a negative sign

Separate variables, bring dx and dt on opposite sides
2 2 π Integrate both sides to form an equation
= θ = tan−1
​

2 2 4 Add arbitrary constant

​ ​

Use conditions given to find c and/or k

π π
∴ 4 (cos + i sin ) = 4e 4 i
π
​

4 4
​ ​

{W10-P33} Question 9:
8.7. Multiplication and Division in Polar A biologist is investigating the spread of a weed in a
Form particular region. At time t weeks, the area covered by the
2
weed is Am . The biologist claims that rate of increase of A
To find product of two complex numbers in polar form: is proportional to 2A − 5 . ​

Multiply their magnitudes

1. Write down a differential equation given info
Add their arguments
2. At start of investigation, area covered by weed was
z1 z2 = ∣z1 ∣ ∣z2 ∣ (arg z1 + arg z2 )
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
7m2 . 10 weeks later, area covered = 27m2 Find the
area covered 20 weeks after the start of the
Example: investigation.
Find z1 z2 in polar form given,
​ ​

Solution:
π π π π
z1 = 2 (cos + i sin ) z2 = 4 (cos + i sin ) Part (i)
4 4 8 8
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

dA
Solution: ∝ 2A − 5 = k 2A − 5
dt
​ ​ ​

π π π π
z1 z2 = (2 × 4 ) (cos ( + ) + i sin ( + )) Part (ii)
4 8 4 8
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Proceed to form an equation in A and t:

3π 3π
z1 z2 = 8 (cos + i sin ) dA
8 8
​ ​ ​ ​

= k 2A − 5
dt
​ ​

To find quotient of two complex numbers in polar form:

Divide their magnitudes
Separate variables
Subtract their arguments 1
dA = kdt
2A − 5
​

z1 ∣z1 ∣ ​

= (arg z1 − arg z2 )
​ ​

∣z2 ∣
​ ​ ​ ​

z2 ​ ​

Integrate both sides

Example: 1
kt + c = (2A − 5 ) 2
​

z
Find z12 in polar form given,
​

π π π π When t = 0 :
z1 = 2 (cos + i sin ) z2 = 4 (cos + i sin ) A = 7 ∴ c = 3
4 4 8 8
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1
Solution: kt + 3 = (2A − 5 ) 2
​

2
= ( ) (cos ( − ) + i sin ( − ))
z1 ​
π π π π When t = 10 :
4 4 8 4 8
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

z2 ​

1
10k + 3 = (2 (27 ) − 5 ) 2
​

z1 1 π π
= (cos + i sin )
​

2 8 8
​ ​ ​ ​

z2 ​

10k = 49 − 3
​

8.8. De Moivre’s Theorem k = 0.4

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Now substitute 20 as t and then find A: 1 80

t= ln ( )
80 − kV
​ ​

1 k
0.4 (20 ) + 3 = (2A − 5 ) 2
​

80
1 kt = ln ( )
11 = (2A − 5 ) 80 − kV
​

2 ​

121 = 2A − 5 80
ekt =
80 − kV
​

A = 63m2 80
80 − kV =
ekt
​

{S13-P31} Question 10: kV = 80 − 80e−kt

Liquid is flowing into a small tank which has a leak. Initially the
tank is empty and, t minutes later, the volume of liquid in the 1
V = (80 − 80e−kt )
tank is V cm3 . The liquid is flowing into the tank at a constant
​

k
3
rate of 80 cm per minute. Because of the leak, liquid is Part (ii)
being lost from the tank at a rate which, at any instant, is After carrying out the iterations, the following result will be
equal to kV cm3 per minute where k is a positive constant. obtained:
i. Write down a differential equation describing this situation
and solve it to show that: k = 0.14 (2d.p.)
1 Part (iii)
V = (80 − 80e−kt )
Simply substitute into the equation’s t:
​

k
4 − 4e−15k 1
k= V = (80 − 80e−0.14(20) ) = 537 cm3
25 0.14
​ ​

ii. Work out the volume of liquid at t = 20 and state what The volume of liquid in the tank after a long time approaches
happens to volume after a long time. the max volume:
Solution:
1
Part (i) V = (80 ) = 571 cm3
0.14
​

Represent the given information as a derivative:

{W13-P31} Question 10:
dV
= 80 − kV
dt
​

Proceed to solve the differential equation:

‎
dt 1
= A tank containing water is in the form of a cone with vertex C .
dV 80 − kV
​ ​

The axis is vertical and the semi-vertical angle is 60 ∘ , as

1 shown in the diagram. At time t = 0 , the tank is full and the
dt = dV
80 − kV depth of water is H . At this instant, a tap at C is opened and
​

water begins to flow out. The volume of water in the tank

1
∫ (1 ) dt = ∫ dV decreases at a rate proportional to h , where h is the depth
80 − kV
​ ​ ​

of water at time t. The tank becomes empty when t = 60 .

1
t+ c = − ln ∣80 − kV ∣ dh 3
= −Ah − 2
​

k ​

dt
​

Use the given information; when t = 0, V = 0 :

i. Solve differential equation given in part i and obtain an
1 expression for t in terms of h and H.
∴ c = − ln (80 )
Solution:
​

k
Part (i)
Substitute back into equation:
First represent info they give us as an equation:
1 1
t− ln (80 ) = − ln ∣80 − kV ∣ 1 2
V =
​ ​

k k πr h
3
​

1 1
t = ln (80 ) − ln ∣80 − kV ∣
​ ​

r = tan 60 × h = h 3
k k ​

( )

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CAIE A2 LEVEL MATHEMATICS

1 2
When t = 60 :
∴V = π (h 3 ) h = πh 3
3
​ ​

−A (60 ) + c = 0
dV
= 3πh 2
dh c = 60A
​

dV 1
1
∝ − h = −kh 2 ​

A=
5
H2
dt
​ ​ ​

150
​

Find the rate of change of h: Thus the initial equation becomes:

dh dV dV 1 2 5 2 5
= ÷ −
5
H2 t+ H2 = h2
dt dt dh
​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​

150 5 5
​ ​

1
dh −kh 2 k −3 2 2 5
H 2 (− + ) = h2
​

5 t
= =− h 2 ​
​ ​

dt 3πh 2 3π 150 5 5
​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​

Part (ii) 5
t 2 2h 2 ​

− + =
1 150 5 5H 2
5 ​ ​

dt = dh
​

3
−Ah − 2
​

5
t 2 2h 2 ​

1 = −
∫ Adt = ∫
5
150 5 5H 2
​ ​ ​

dh
​

3
−h − 2
​ ​

t = 150 ( 5 ) = 60 − 60h H
2 2h 2 5
− 52
​

2 5 − 2 ​ ​

At + c = − h 2 5 5H 2
​ ​

​
​

5
​

t = 60 ( 1 − ( ) )
Use given information to find unknowns; when t = 0 : h 2 ​

2 5 2 5 H
−A (0 ) + c = (H ) 2 ​

∴c= H2 ​

5 5
​ ​

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CAIE A2 LEVEL
Mathematics

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