BASICS OF CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING NOTES

BY- Manoj Kumar (Assistant Professor , MED)

MODULE 1

Stress is defined as the force per unit area that is observed by a material when an
external force is applied. These external forces are generally uneven heating,
permanent deformation, etc.

Mathematically, stress is given by,

σ=F/A
Where, σ = Applied Stress
F = Force Applied
A = Area of Force
Types of Stress

The two main types of stress are normal stress and shearing or tangential stress.
These are further divided into other types.

1.Normal Stress

Stress is called normal when the external force acts in normal (perpendicular) to
the body‟s cross-sectional area. This stress can be further divided into two types:

 Longitudinal stress
 Volumetric or bulk stress
 Longitudinal stress – In longitudinal stress, the external force acts along the length
of the body. Hence, the main change occurs in the length of the body and there is
only a slight change in the diameter of the material. It can be further divided into
two types:

Tensile stress – It results in the increase of the body‟s length.

Compressive stress – It is due to the decrease in the length of the body.

 Volumetric or bulk stress – When the deforming force acting on a body causes a
change in its volume, it is called volume or bulk stress.

 2. Tangential or Shearing Stress

When the external force acts on the body in parallel to the cross-sectional area,
then the stress is said to be tangential or shearing stress.

Strain is the measure of deformation caused to a body due to stress. We can also
say that it is a measure of the physical change that occurs in a body due to the
application of stress.

Strain is a unitless quantity as it is a ratio and the numerator and denominator in

the fraction have the same units. Hence, the units get cancelled. There are the
following three types of strain:

Normal Strain

Normal strain is also called longitudinal strain. It is the change in length of the
body to the original length. Normal strain can be calculated by finding the ratio of
change in length and the original length of the body.

Shearing Strain

Shearing strain is the angular deformation generated in a body. It is the ratio of the
displacement of the body‟s surface to the height of the body.

Bulk strain or volumetric strain

It is the ratio of the change in volume of the body and the original volume of the
body.

Formula of Strain

Strain (ε)= Δx/X

where, ε is strain Δx is a change in the dimensions X is the original dimension

What is Hooke’s Law?

Stress and strain take different forms in different situations. Generally, for small
deformations, the stress and strain are proportional to each other, and this is known
as Hooke‟s Law.
Hooke‟s law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied
stress within the elastic limit of that material.
When the elastic materials are stretched, the atoms and molecules deform until
stress is applied, and when the stress is removed, they return to their initial state.
Mathematically, Hooke‟s law is expressed as:
F = –kx
In the equation, F is the force, x is the extension in length, k is the constant of
proportionality known as the spring constant in N/m.

What are Elastic Constants?

Elastic constants are the constants which describe the mechanical response of an
elastic material when it is subjected to different kinds of loads. Based on the type
of stress and strain, Elastic constants can be classified into 4 types. These Elastic
constants are mentioned below.

1. Young‟s Modulus of elasticity (E)

2. Bulk Modulus (K)
3. Modulus of rigidity (G)
4. Poisson‟s ratio (μ)

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E)

Young‟s modulus of elasticity is an elastic constant that is defined as the ratio of

Longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. When an axial load P is applied along the
bar‟s longitudinal axis, the bar‟s length will be increased in the direction of the
applied load, and stress (σ) is induced in the bar.

σ= P/A
According to Hooke‟s law, longitudinal stress is directly proportional to
longitudinal strain.

Hence, σ∝ε

So, σ=Eε , E= σ/ε

Bulk Modulus (K)

The bulk modulus of elasticity is an elastic constant showing a material‟s

incompressibility. When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular
stresses of equal intensity (σ). Then the ratio of direct stress (σ) to the
corresponding volumetric strain (ϵv) is defined as the bulk modulus (K) for the
material of the body.

Which is generally denoted as „K‟. Thus,

K = Direct Stress/Volumetric Strain= σ/εv

Volumetric strain: Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of change in volume of

an elastic body to its initial volume. For an equally stressed body in all three
mutually perpendicular directions,

Volumetric strain = εv=ΔV/V=εx+εy+εz

Modulus of Rigidity (G)

Modulus of Rigidity is an elastic constant that measures a deformable body‟s

rigidity.

The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity expresses the relation between shear
stress and shear strain. Modulus of rigidity can be defined as the ratio of shear
stress to shear strain.

G=Τ/φ

Shear strain (φ): Shear strain is defined as the angular deformation of the body
when it is subjected to shear stress.
Poisson’s ratio (μ)

Poisson‟s ratio is an elastic constant which is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to
longitudinal strain. Poisson‟s ratio is a unitless quantity, and it is generally denoted
as μ or 1/m.

Poisson‟s ratio = -Lateral Strain/Longitudinal Strain

Poisson‟s Ratio values for different materials:

Material Poisson‟s ratio (μ)

Cork 0

Concrete 0.1 – 0.2

Metals 1/4 to 1/3

Rubber, Clay, Paraffin 0.5→ Behaves like a perfectly elastic material

Relation Between Different Elastic Constants

Among these four Elastic constants, three elastic constants can be related to each
other.

These relations can be expressed below.

 E=2G(1+μ)
 E=3K(1-2μ)
 E=9KG/(3K+G)

Some Important Facts about Elastic Constants

The value of any Elastic constants should be ≥ 0.

E, K, G > 0

µ ≥ 0 [because, µcork = 0]

So, for K to be positive, 1 – 2µ ≥ 0 ⇒µ ≤ 1/2

Hence for any engineered material, 0 ≤ µ ≤1/2

µ G K

Minimum Limit 0 E/2 E/3

Maximum Limit 1/2 E/3 ∞

Hence, we can say that

 E/2≤G≤E/3 and E/3≤K≤∞

 Asµ↓⇒G↓and K↑
 G≤E

What are Ductile Materials?

Ductile materials are a class of materials characterised by their ability to undergo

significant plastic deformation without fracturing. When subjected to external
forces or loads, ductile materials exhibit a noticeable elongation or deformation
before reaching the point of failure. This plastic deformation is usually
accompanied by a gradual reduction in cross-sectional area, a phenomenon known
as necking.

Stress-Strain Curve for Ductile Materials

Fig 1: Stress Strain Curve for Ductile

Proportional Limit: Indicated by point A on the graph, stress and strain remain
directly proportional up to this limit, adhering to Hooke's law. Beyond this, stress
no longer maintains a linear relationship with strain.

Elastic Limit: Point B signifies the elastic limit, where the material demonstrates
elasticity. The specimen fully regains its original form upon removing the external
load without any residual deformations. Beyond this juncture, plastic behaviour
emerges.

Yield Point: The yield point is a region delimited by the upper yield point 'C' and
the lower yield point 'D'. The stress-strain curve here is nearly horizontal,
signifying a significant strain increase for a minor stress rise. Yielding transpires
from 'C' to 'D'. Subsequent to 'D', due to strain hardening, the curve ascends as the
material carries the load, marking the transition to plastic deformation of a nearly
permanent nature.

Ultimate Tensile Stress: Represented by point 'E', this is the peak stress a material
withstands prior to failure. Notably, the specimen doesn't fail at this juncture, and
the curve commences descending thereafter.

Breaking Point: The point of specimen failure, post the ultimate stress, is the
breaking point. After the ultimate tensile stress, necking occurs, reducing the load-
bearing capacity and eventually causing failure. This critical point is denoted on
the curve by point 'F'.

What is Brittle Material?

When under stress, brittle material cracks while absorbing little to no energy. No
plastic distortion causes the material to fracture. Usually, when brittle material
breaks, there is a loud audible snap sound. A substance with limited ductility is
also referred to as being brittle.

Stress Strain Curve for Brittle Material

The stress-Strain curve is the curve that shows the variation of stress induced in a
material with the strain applied over it. Below the curve is the stress-strain curve
for brittle material, which shows the variation of stress to strain.
The factor of safety increases safety and reduces the risk of failure of a structure.
The safety factor is most important regarding safety equipment and fall protection.
If a structure fails, there is a risk of injury and death and a company‟s financial
loss.

The factor of safety is used by engineers while designing a structure. Practically

there is some uncertainty in applied forces, material properties, and model
assumptions. It is provided a design margin over a theoretical design capacity to
overcome uncertainty parameters (like a manufacturing process and material
strength). Let us discuss in detail factor of safety.

What is a Factor of Safety?

The factor of safety definition is considered by the following parameters:

 The factor of safety is a structure‟s absolute strength (structural capability)

ratio to the actual applied load. FoS measures the reliability of a particular
design.
 A constant required value is imposed by standard specification to which a
structure must exceed. This can be referred to as a design factor, design
factor of safety, or required factor of safety.
 When the factor of safety is equal to one, it means that the ultimate stress is
equal to the working stress; therefore, the body can only support load up to
the actual load and no more before failing.
Importance of Factor of Safety

Importance of Factor of Safety to assure the structural designing does not occur
any unexpected failure or presence of deformation or defect. The smaller the
Factor of Safety, the higher chances there were for the design to be a failure.
Resulting in an uneconomical and nonfunctional design.

Formula For Factor of Safety

The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress of the component
material to the working stress. Mathematically, the Factor of safety is the ratio of
material strength to allowable stress. The factor of the safety equation depends on
the type of material:

Factor of safety = Ultimate strength/Working stress -for brittle material

(concrete)

Factor of safety = Yield strength/Working stress -for ductile material (steel)

Example:

FoS for steel = Yield strength (fy)/Working stress (0.87 fy)= 1.15 (approximately)

FoS for concrete = Yield strength (fck)/Working stress (0.67 fck / 1.5)= 3
(approximately)

(∵ 2 times factor of safety is taken for concrete as it has least quality control while
preparing the concrete)

Classification of System of Forces

The positioning of forces on a body is highly significant. Even with the same set of
forces acting on a body, the resulting system of forces can vary, leading to
different behaviors exhibited by the body. The system of forces can be categorized
into two main types: Coplanar force system and Non-coplanar force system.

Coplanar System of Forces

When we use the term “coplanar,” it means that the quantities involved should be
within the same plane. A system of forces is called a coplanar system of forces if
the line of action of all the forces acting on the body is in the same plane. To
further illustrate these concepts, let‟s examine some practical examples.

Example:

 Forces acting on a beam: When a beam is subjected to loads such as point

loads or distributed loads, the forces acting on the beam form a coplanar
force system.
 Tension forces in a cable system: In a suspension bridge or a cable-stayed
structure, the tension forces in the cables create a coplanar force system.
 Forces acting on a pulley: The tension forces in the ropes or cables of a
pulley system form a coplanar force system.
 Forces in a truss structure: In a truss bridge or roof structure, the forces
acting on the individual members of the truss form a coplanar force system.
A coplanar system of forces can be further classified into the following types :

 Collinear Coplanar System of Forces: – All the forces of this force system
are coplanar and the line of action of all the forces are same. Example: Force
 system on the rope in a game of tug of war, Force system in the member of a

truss, etc.
 Concurrent Coplanar System of Forces: – All the forces of this force
system are coplanar and the line of action of all the forces intersect at a
point. Example: Forces system at the joint of the truss, Force system on

hanging picture on a wall, etc.

 Parallel Coplanar System of Forces: – All the forces of this force system
are coplanar and the line of action of all the forces are parallel to each other.
Example: Forces system on lifting a weight with a pulley system, system on

a balance d plank at a pivot, etc.

Parallel systems of force may be further classified into two types: “Like
parallel force system” and “Unlike parallel force system”. In a parallel force
 system, when all forces have the same direction, it is referred to as a like
parallel force system. On the other hand, if the forces have different
directions, it is termed as an unlike parallel force system.
 Non-Parallel Non-Concurrent Coplanar System of Forces: – All the
forces of this force system are coplanar and the line of action of all the
forces are neither parallel nor concurrent. Example: Forces system on a truss
structure, Force system on a balanced box on an inclined plane, Force
system Leaning ladder against a wall etc.

Non-Coplanar System of Forces

When we use the term “non-coplanar,” it means that the quantities involved should
not be in the same plane. A system of forces is called a non-coplanar system of
forces if the line of action of all the forces acting on the body does not lie in the
same plane. Non-coplanar systems of forces are not typically included in the
syllabus of competitive exams. Therefore, we won‟t be covering the analysis of
non-coplanar force systems in detail. Let‟s examine some practical examples.

Example: Forces in the members of transmission tower, Forces in the crane lifting
a load using multiple cables, etc.

 Concurrent Non- Coplanar System of Forces: – Concurrent non-coplanar

forces have lines of action intersecting at a single point but lie in different
planes. The resultant force can be found by adding the forces using vector
 addition. Examples include forces acting on a three-dimensional structure or

a hanging chain.
 Parallel Non- Coplanar System of Forces: – A parallel non-coplanar
system of forces refers to a situation where multiple forces are parallel to
each other but lie in different planes.

 Non-Parallel Non-Concurrent Non-Coplanar System of Forces: Non-

concurrent non-parallel non-coplanar forces have lines of action that neither
lie in the same plane nor intersect at a single point. The resultant force is
determined using vector addition. Examples include forces acting on a three-
dimensional truss or a suspended bridge.

Different Types of Beams

A beam is a horizontal structural member that runs horizontally to support vertical
loads emanating from the building frame. The load is distributed to the beam‟s
ends and transferred to columns, walls, and posts on both sides of the beam. It can
only bear lateral loads on the beam‟s axis. The following are the types of beams:

1. Cantilever beam
2. Simply Supported beam
3. Overhanging beam
4. Fixed beams
5. Continuous beam

Cantilever Beam

A cantilever beam is a member with one end protruding beyond the point of
support, allowing it to move vertically under the impact of vertical loads placed
between the free end and the support.

Simply Supported Beam

A simply supported beam is one that is supported by two points and can travel
horizontally. Bridges, beams in structures, and machine tool beds are examples of
typical practical applications of simply supported beams with point loadings. SSS,
or simply supported beam, important for the GATE exam, is shown below
Overhanging Beam

When the end of a beam extends beyond the support, it is referred to as an

overhanging beam. Overhanging can occur on one or both sides of the supports.

Fixed Beam

Two fixed ends hold up a fixed beam. It‟s also known as a fixed-end beam, built-in
beam, or constrained beam. It is classed as a statically indeterminate beam since
there are more than three unknowns and the static equilibrium equations alone are
insufficient to identify the support reactions. The Fixed beam is shown below:

Continuous Beam

Continuous steel beams are made up of two or more beams that are welded
together and reinforced by additional beams to form a strong but flexible
component for large-scale structures. Continuous beams, for example, are utilized
in bridges, multi-story buildings, complex roof structures, and other construction
projects.
Types of Beam Support

For stability, a structure relies less on the weight and stiffness of a material and
more on its shape. Whatever the condition, a certain degree of stiffness is required
for connection designs. The form of support connection influences the load-bearing
capability of each member that makes up a structural system. Each support
condition has an effect on the behaviour of the elements and, thus, the system.
Horizontal-span support systems and vertical building structure systems are two
types of structures.