MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF SOLIDS
 CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Elastic behavior of solids
• Stress & strain
• Hooke's law
• Stress- strain curve
• Elastic moduli
• Applications of elastic behavior of materials.
 Introduction
• A solid has definite shape and size. In order to
change (or deform) the shape or size of a body, a
force is required.
• Mechanical properties are also used to help classify
and identify material. The most common properties
considered are strength, ductility, hardness, impact
resistance, and fracture toughness. Most structural
materials are anisotropic, which means that their
material properties vary with orientation.
• Inter molecular Force
In a solid, atoms and molecules are arranged in such a
way that each molecule is acted upon by the forces
due to the neighbouring molecules. These forces are
known as inter molecular forces.
• Elasticity :- The property of the body to regain its
original configuration (length, volume or shape) when
the deforming forces are removed, is called elasticity.
• The change in the shape or size of a body when
external forces act on it is determined by the forces
between its atoms or molecules. These short range
atomic forces are called elastic forces.
• Perfectly elastic body:- A body which regains its
original configuration immediately and completely
after the removal of deforming force from it, is called
perfectly elastic body.
• Plasticity:- The inability of a body to return to its
original size and shape even on removal of the
deforming force is called plasticity and such a body is
called a plastic body.
Elastic behavior of solids:- When we stretch a
slingshot, the force we applied allowed it to stretch,
but when we removed the force, the deformation
reverted to its original shape. This property is known
as elasticity.
Ex-suspensions, steel, and rubber bands.
Solids have the smallest intermolecular gap between
molecules and the strongest intermolecular force of
attraction.
• Important Points on Elastic Behaviour of Solids
• An elastic body is one that regains its original shape
and size when deforming forces are removed
• A plastic body is one that succumbs to deforming
forces (however small) and cannot return to its
original shape and size
• Elasticity is the property of a body to regain its
original shape and size when deforming forces are
removed. It exhibits an opposition to change.
• The elasticity at the atomic level, solids are made of
atoms (or molecules). They are surrounded by other
such atoms, which are held in a state of equilibrium
by interatomic forces. When an external force is
applied, these particles are displaced, resulting in the
deformation of the solid. When the application of the
deforming force is stopped, interatomic forces drive
the atoms to regain their state of equilibrium.
• The concept of elasticity is an idealisation as no
material is perfectly elastic.
 Stress & strain
• Change in shape of material on application of load is referred to as
deformation. Stress and strain are the mechanical properties that
describe the loads that produce deformation in the material on which
they are acting. In this article, we will define stress and strain and
discuss different types of stress and strain.
• Stress: When a force is applied to an object, it tries to deform the object.
Internal resistance is generated in the object that resists this
deformation. This internal resistance is referred to as stress. Stress can
be defined as the resistance force per unit area. Stress is explained with
the help of axial force P acting at the end of a prismatic bar as shown
below.
It is generally denoted by σ and is expressed mathematically as - σ=F/A
• where, F = Force acting on the object
• A = Area of the cross-section of the object
• Unit = N/m2
• Strain: An object when subjected to a force, undergoes a
change in length. It will either elongate or shorten depending
on the nature of the force. The elongation or shortening per
unit length of the object is termed as strain. The change in
length due to the force is shown in the figure below
• It is generally denoted by ε and mathematically expressed as
• ε=Change in length/Original length=ΔL/L

Types of Stress:-
Normal Stress: When the
applied force is perpendicular
to the cross-section area of
the object, then the stress
generated is defined as normal
stress.
• Shear Stress: When a body is subjected to forces which are
coplanar to the cross-section, then the stresses produced is
defined as shear stress.
• Direct stress: Stress generated when an axial force is acting
at the center of gravity of the cross-section is termed direct
stress.
• Bending stress: This type of normal stress is indirectly
generated when a body is subjected to a bending moment. It
varies linearly across the cross-section with the highest
bending stress at the extreme fibre and zero bending stress
at the neutral axis.
• Types of Strain:-
• Longitudinal strain: Strain due to deformation of the body
along the direction of applied force is defined as longitudinal
strain. It is the ratio of change in longitudinal dimension to
original longitudinal dimension.
• Longitudinal Strain, ε = Change in longitudinal
dimension/Original longitudinal dimension =ΔL/L

• Lateral Strain: Strain due to deformation of the body in

directions perpendicular to the direction of applied force is
defined as lateral strain. It is the ratio of change of lateral
dimension to the original lateral dimension.
• Lateral strain, εL=Change in lateral dimension/Original lateral
dimension=ΔB/B.
. Volumetric Strain: Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of
change in the volume of a body to its original volume under the
application of stress. The volumetric strain can be expressed
mathematically as-
εv=Change in volume/Original volume=ΔV/V
• Shear Strain: Strain due to angular deformation caused by
shear forces is defined as shear strain. Φ denotes it. Shear
strain can be expressed mathematically as
Relation Between Stress and Strain
Hooke’s law provides a relation between stress and strain for
elastic materials for small deformation.
According to Hooke’s Law, within the elastic limit, strain in a
body is directly proportional to applied stress. Hooke’s law
holds true only for small deformation i.e., till the proportionality
limit of the material.
Stress (σ) ∝Strain (ε)
σ=E.ε Where, E- is the proportionality constant which is called
Modulus of Elasticity.
Stress and Strain Curve:-
The stress and strain curve
for mild steel under tension
is shown below.
• In the above graph, point A represents the proportionality limit,
B represents the elastic limit, C and C’ are the upper and
lower yield points, respectively, E is the point of ultimate
stress, and F is the failure point. Hooke’s law is valid only for
OA (till proportionality limit). C’D represents a perfectly plastic
region, DE represents strain hardening and EF represents the
necking region.
Stress and Strain Behaviour of Different Materials:-
Stress and strain behaviour for different types of materials are
given below -
Elastic Moduli :-
The modulus of elasticity is simply the ratio
between stress and strain. Elastic Moduli can be of
three types, Young’s modulus, Shear modulus, and
Bulk modulus.
Young’s Modulus
Many experiments show that for a given material, the
magnitude of strain produces is the same regardless of the
stress being tensile or compressive. Young’s modulus (Y) is
the ratio of the tensile/compressive stress (σ) to the
longitudinal strain (ε).
Y = σ/ε … (1)
We already know that, the magnitude of stress = F/A and
longitudinal strain = ΔL/L. Substituting these values, we get
Y = (F/A) (ΔL/L)
∴ Y = (F×L)(A×ΔL) … (2)
Now, Strain is a dimensionless quantity. Hence, the unit of
Young’s modulus is N/m2 or Pascal (Pa), the same as that
of stress.
• Young’s moduli for metals are large. This means that metals
require a large force to produce a small change in length.
Hence, the force required to increase the length of a thin wire
of steel is much larger than that required for aluminum or
copper. Therefore, steel is more elastic than the other metals.
•
Determination of Young’s Modulus of the
Material of a Wire:-
The figure below shows an experiment to
determine Young’s modulus of a material of
wire under tension.
Let r and L be the initial and final length of the
wire B, respectively. Therefore, the area of the
cross-section of the wire B is = πr^2
Now, let M be the mass that produces an
elongation of ΔL in wire B. Therefore, the
applied force is = Mg, where ‘g’ is the
acceleration due to gravity. Hence, using
equations, Young’s modulus of the material of
wire B is:
Y = σ/ε = (Mg/πr^2) .L/ΔL
⇒ Y = (Mg×L)/(πr^2×ΔL) … (3)
Y= L /πr^2 tan θ -----(4)
Where, tan θ = ΔL/ Mg ie. Slope of the load
extension line.
• Shear modulus :- ( G )
• The shear modulus of material gives us the ratio of shear
stress to shear strain in a body.
• Measured using the SI unit pascal or Pa.
• The dimensional formula of shear modulus is [ M1L-1T-2.]
A material resists transverse deformations but this is practical
for small deformations only, following which they are able to
return to the original state. This is because large shearing
forces lead to permanent deformations (no longer elastic body).
G= shearing stress/ shearing strain
G = (F/A) / ( Δx/ L)
= (F × L )/ (A × Δx)
Similarly, G = (F / A) /θ
G= F/ (A ×θ)
σ = G ×θ
• Bulk Modulus:-
• Bulk modulus is defined as the proportion of
volumetric stress related to the volumetric strain of
specified material while the material deformation is
within the elastic limit.
• It is given by the ratio of pressure applied to the
corresponding relative decrease in the volume of the
material.
• Mathematically, it is represented as follows:
• B = ΔP /(ΔV/V)
• Where: B: Bulk modulus
• ΔP: change of the pressure or force applied per unit
area on the material
• ΔV: change of the volume of the material due to the
compression
• V: Initial volume of the material in the units of in the
English system and N/m2 in the metric system
Bulk modulus formula is –
K =V×ΔP/ΔV
Application of elastic behavior
of material:-
In the construction of various structures like bridges, columns,
pillars, beams, etc. Knowledge of the strength of the materials
used in the construction is of prime importance.
For example: While constructing a bridge, a load of traffic that it
can withstand should be adequately measured beforehand.
Or while constructing a crane used to lift loads, it is kept in mind
that the extension of the rope does not exceed the elastic limit
of rope. To overcome the problem of bending under force the
elastic behaviour of the material used must be considered
primarily.
To study the elastic behaviour of materials let us consider a
beam of length l, breadth b and depth d supported at the ends
and loaded at the centre by load W
• Bending of beam:-
When a beam is subjected to a loading system or by a
force couple acting on a plane passing through the
axis, then the beam deforms. In simple terms, this
axial deformation is called as bending of a beam. Due
to the shear force and bending moment, the beam
undergoes deformation. These normal stress due to
bending are called flexure stresses.
END